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Direct Instruction
Mathematics
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Fifth Edition
Marcy Stein Diane Kinder Kristen Rolf

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Jerry Silbert ouglas W. Carnine
FIFTH EDITION
Direct
Instruction
Mathematics
Marcy Stein
University of Washington Tacoma
Diane Kinder
Kristen Rolf
Jerry Silbert
National Institute for Direct Instruction
Douglas W. Carnine
Professor Emeritus, University of Oregon
Pearson 330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
On file with the Library of Congress.
39 2022
Student Edition
ISBN 10: 0-13-471122-x
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-471122-5
@ Pearson Enhanced eText

ISBN 10: 013457673X
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-457673-2
To Wes Becker, a leader in showing how science can serve education.
To Zig Engelmann, the designer of Direct Instruction, whose impact in the
field of education continues to inspire us.
Preface
Mathematics instruction continues to be challenging for many teachers in American schools.

Although the goals of current approaches to mathematics instruction are reasonable, often
the methods for achieving those goals are lacking. The need for improvement in mathematics
instruction has been well documented by national, even international, evaluations. Moreover,
research also has suggested that many teachers are ill-prepared to meet the needs of a diverse
student population. We have received numerous requests from teachers who found their prepa
ration to teach mathematics to be inadequate. Teachers were particularly vocal about the lack of
specific guidance in how to support students who have difficulty learning mathematics. This text
provides teachers with the information needed to design supplemental mathematics instruction
and to evaluate and modify the commercially developed programs currently available to them.
Although we have found the procedures suggested in this book effective, we do not claim
they are panaceas. Implementing our suggestions requires hard work on the part of the teacher. It
is our hope that the systematic procedures and teaching strategies recommended here will stimu
late the development of even better instructional practices.
NEW TO THIS EDITION

This is the first edition of Direct Instruction Mathematics designed as an interactive eText. We
provide you with point-of-use videos and the opportunity to self-assess your learning as you
read each chapter. Look for the clickable icons in the margins to watch the videos. Look for
Apply What You Learned to find the checkmark icons and launch self-assessment questions at
the end of each chapter.
Our Pearson eText
* includes the following new features:
■ Learning Outcomes for each chapter
■ Sections on Conceptual Understanding for each topic
■ Apply What You Learned sections in each chapter with feedback links
■ More than 100 printable teaching formats
■ The alignment of teaching strategies with Common Core State Standards (CCSS)
■ Links to videos of teaching demonstrations for many teaching formats
■ Links to a supplemental math facts program including math facts worksheets and assessments
■ Topics appropriate for adult learners working on basic skills
■ New content in the following areas: probability, data analysis, statistics
ORGANIZATION OF THIS EDITION

• ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
Direct Instruction Mathematics provides teachers with evidence-based teaching strategies that can
be used to supplement mathematics instruction for students from preschool through grade 8. The
teaching strategies also are relevant for older students and adult learners who are struggling with
* Please note that eText enhancements such as video clips and Apply What You Learned quizzes are only available in
the Pearson eText and not other third-party eTexts such as CourseSmart or Kindle.
Preface v
basic skills. The text outlines procedures that can be used to evaluate and then modify the commer
cially developed math programs used in most schools. Most importantly, the text gives teachers
systematic procedures for addressing both conceptual understanding and procedural fluency for
critical topics in K-8 mathematics aligned with the Common Core State Standards (CCSS).
The new edition includes an updated chapter on research, video links to teaching demon
strations for many of the teaching formats, and new content related to probability and data anal
ysis. Finally, Direct Instruction Mathematics contains Instructional Sequence and Assessment
Charts that can serve as the basis for designing diagnostic tests as well as for constructing goals
and objectives for the design of Individualized Education Plans (IEPs).
The book is organized into three parts: Part I, Perspective; Part II, Basic Concepts
and Skills; and Part III, Extended Concepts and Skills. Part I is composed of three chapters.
Chapter 1 outlines the components of the Direct Instruction approach to mathematics instruc
tion—instructional design, instructional delivery, and instructional language. Chapter 2 provides
an updated brief review of relevant research on effective mathematics instruction. Chapter 3 pro
vides a framework for evaluating commercially developed mathematics instructional materials.
The Basic Concepts and Skills (Part II) and Extended Concepts and Skills (Part III) are
the heart of the book. Each chapter covers a specific topic: counting, symbol identification
and place value, basic facts, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, problem solving,
measurement, time, money, fractions, decimals, percent, ratio, probability, data analysis, geometry,
and pre-algebra. These chapters include suggestions for introducing critical concepts and proce
dures for teaching specific skills.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THIS EDITION

Each chapter in the fifth edition of Direct Instruction Mathematics includes the following
special features:
■ Learning Outcomes
■ Conceptual understanding sections
■ Printable teaching formats
■ Videos of teachers demonstrating teaching formats
* Diagnosis and remediation sections
■ Apply What You Learned
In addition to the features mentioned above, the fifth edition now includes links to worksheets
and tests for a math facts program and a glossary of terms used throughout the text.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Foremost among the many people to whom we are grateful are the Direct Instruction teachers
who prove every day that math failure is not inevitable. We also are grateful to Zig Engelmann,
whose melding of logical analysis and empiricism has resulted in the development of numer
ous highly effective mathematics programs. Many of the procedures described in this book
were derived from DISTAR Arithmetic, Connecting Math Concepts, Corrective Mathematics,
Essentials for Algebra, and Core Concepts in Mathematics authored by Engelmann and his col
leagues. Special thanks go to Bernadette Kelly whose suggestions and ideas contributed greatly
to this text. We also would like to acknowledge and thank the reviewers who inspired us in our
revision decisions: Bridget Kelley, Western Washington University; Mary Ann Nelson, Univer
sity of Florida; Jennifer Neyman, Gonzaga University; Cynthia T. Shamberger, Fayetteville State
University; and Sean Wachsmuth, Minnesota State University, Mankato.
In addition, we would like to thank everyone involved in producing the videos included
in this edition: Lori Agar, Tom Edwards, Paul Lovelady and his crew, Tristan Marcum, Tonya
Middling, Joe Query, Michaela Query, and Susan Templin. We also would like to thank the fol
lowing people for their contributions to the production of the text: Deena Beard, Donna Braboy,
Austin Campbell, Courtney Leininger, and Tatiana Wolfe. Finally, we would like to thank our
families and friends for their support.
Brief Contents
Part I Perspective
Chapter 1 Direct Instruction 1
Chapter 2 Research Support for Direct Instruction Mathematics 10
Chapter 3 Curriculum Evaluation and Modification 17
Part II Basic Concepts and Skills

Chapter 4 Counting 25
Chapter 5 Symbol Identification and Place Value 39
Chapter 6 Basic Facts 68
Chapter 7 Addition 88
Chapter8 Subtraction 115
Chapter 9 Multiplication 137
Chapter 10 Division 164
Chapter 11 Problem Solving 201
Chapter 12 Measurement, Time, and Money 245
Part III Extended Concepts and Skills

Chapter 13 Fractions 284
Chapter 14 Decimals 359
Chapter 15 Percent, Ratio, and Probability 391
Chapter 16 Data Analysis 418
Chapter 17 Geometry 443
Chapter 18 Pre-algebra 478
viι
viii Brief Contents
Appendix A: Direct Instruction Mathematics and Common Core State

Standards 513
Appendix B: Frequently Asked Questions about Direct Instruction
Mathematics 529
Glossary 532
References 534
Index 536
Contents
Formats for Teaching Major Skills ×iv
Part I Perspective

Mathematical Proficiency 1
Instructional Design 2
Sequence of Skills and Concepts, 2; Explicit Instructional Strategies, 3;
Preskills, 4; Example Selection, 4; Practice and Review, 4
Instructional Delivery 5
Progress Monitoring, 5; Presentation Techniques, 5; Error-Correction
Procedures, 7; Diagnosis and Remediation, 7
Instructional Language 8
Sequencing Guidelines Applied to Language Instruction, 9

The Need for Excellent Math Instruction 10
Current Performance of U.S. Math Students, 11
Research on Direct Instruction 12
Research Recommendations for Math Instruction 15
Chapter 3 Curriculum Evaluation and Modification 17

The Curriculum Adoption Process 17
Time Allocation and Committee Responsibilities, 18; Screening Process, 18
Topics for Curriculum Evaluation 19
General Program Design, 19; Specific Content Design, 21
Modifying Mathematics Curriculum 23
Part II Basic Concepts and Skills
Chapter 4 Counting 25
Skill Hierarchy 25
Conceptual Understanding 27
Instructional Procedures 27
Rote Counting by Ones to 30, 27; Rational Counting: One Group, 29;
Rational Counting: Two Groups, 29; Counting from Numbers Other
Than One, 30; Ordinal Counting, 31; Counting by Ones from 30 to 100, 31;
Counting Backward, 31; Counting Between 100 and 999, 32; Skip
Counting, 32
x Contents
Chapter 5 Symbol Identification and Place Value 39

Skill Hierarchy 39
Instructional Procedures: Symbol Identification 42
Numeral Identification, 42; Numeral Writing, 43; Symbol Identification
and Writing, 44; Equation Reading and Writing, 44; Numeral/Object
Correspondence, 45; Practice and Review, 46
Instructional Procedures: Place Value 47
Reading and Writing Teen Numerals, 47; Practice and Review, 48;
Reading and Writing Tens Numerals, 48; Reading and Writing Hundreds
Numerals, 49; Reading and Writing Thousands Numerals, 51;
Reading and Writing Millions Numerals, 52; Expanded Notation, 53;
Column Alignment, 53
Chapter 6 Basic Facts 68

Skill Hierarchy 69
Conceptual Understanding and Organization 73
Instructional Procedures: Relationship Activities 73
Plus-One Facts, 73; Series Saying, 74; Three-Number Fact Families, 75
Instructional Procedures: Coordinating Mastery and Relationship
Activities 75
Memorization Activities, 76; Performance Criteria, 76; Intensive Practice and
Systematic Review, 76; Record-Keeping Procedures, 76
Instructional Procedures: Two Fact Mastery Programs 77
Homogenous Group Program, 77; Heterogeneous Group Program, 78;
Parental Involvement, 80; Motivational Practice Activities, 81;
Commercial Programs, 81
Chapter 7 Addition 88
Skill Hierarchy 88
Instructional Procedures: Beginning Addition 91
Addition the Slow Way, 91; Missing Addend Strategy, 92; Addition the
Fast Way, 93; Diagnosis and Remediation, 94
Instructional Procedures: Multi-Digit Addition 95
Problems Not Requiring Renaming, 95; Problems Requiring Renaming, 96;
Three or More Addends, 98; Diagnosis and Remediation, 99
Chapter 8 Subtraction 115

Skill Hierarchy 115
Instructional Procedures: Beginning Subtraction 117
Cross-out Strategy, 117; Missing Subtrahend Strategy, 118; Diagnosis and
Remediation, 119; Fact Memorization, 119
Instructional Procedures: Multi-Digit Subtraction Problems 120
Column Subtraction—No Renaming, 120; Subtraction with Renaming, 120;
Complex Renaming Problems, 122; Diagnosis and Remediation, 125
Contents xi
Chapter 9 Multiplication 137

Skill Hierarchy 137
Instructional Procedures: Beginning Multiplication 140
Single-Digit Multiplication, 140; Missing-Factor Multiplication, 142;
Diagnosis and Remediation, 142
Instructional Procedures: Multi-Digit Multiplication 143
Single-Digit Factor and Multi-Digit Factor, 144; Two Multi-Digit Factors, 147;
Diagnosis and Remediation, 148
Chapter 10 Division 164

Skill Hierarchy 164
Instructional Procedures: Beginning Division 166
Problems Without Remainders, 166; Division Facts, 167; Problems with
Remainders, 167; Remainder Facts, 168; Diagnosis and Remediation, 169
Instructional Procedures: Multi-Digit Division 172
One-Digit Divisors, 172; Two-Digit Divisors, 175; Diagnosis and
Remediation, 179
Chapter 11 Problem Solving 201

Skill Hierarchy 201
Instructional Procedures: Addition and Subtraction Problems 204
Introducing the Concept, 204; A Number-Family Problem-Solving
Strategy, 205; Temporal Sequence Problems, 208; Comparison Problems, 210;
Classification Problems, 212; Distractors, 215; Multi-step Word Problems, 215
Instructional Procedures: Multiplication and Division Problems 216
Diagnosis and Remediation 218
Fact Errors, 218; Calculation Errors, 218; Decoding Errors, 219; Vocabulary
Errors, 219; Translation Errors, 219
Chapter 12 Measurement, Time, and Money 245

Skill Hierarchy 245
Measurement, 249; Time, 249; Money, 249
Measurement: Customary and Metric Units 249
Common Units and Equivalencies, 250; Measuring Tools, 252;
Conversion Problems, 255; Operations, 258; Word Problems, 259
Time 260
Minutes After the Hour, 260; Alternate Ways of Expressing Time, 262
Money 263
Determining the Value of a Group of Coins, 263; Consumer-Related Money
Skills, 265; Decimal Notation in Money, 266
xii Contents
Part III Extended Concepts and Skills

Chapter 13 Fractions 284
Skill Hierarchy 284
Part-Whole Discrimination, 293; Writing Numerical Fractions to Represent
Figures, 294; Drawing Figures to Represent Fractions, 295; Reading
Fractions, 295; Determining Whether a Fraction Equals, Exceeds, or Is Less
Than One Whole, 296; Reading and Writing Mixed Numerals, 297
Instructional Procedures: Rewriting Fractions 298
Completing Equivalent Fractions, 298; Reducing Fractions, 300;
Converting Mixed Numerals and Improper Fractions, 304
Instructional Procedures: Addition and Subtraction of Fractions 306
Fractions with Like Denominators, 307; Problems with Mixed Numbers, 308;
Fractions with Unlike Denominators, 308; Reducing and Rewriting Answers
as Mixed Numerals, 310; More Complex Problems with Mixed Numbers, 310;
Comparing Fractions, 310; Word Problems, 311
Instructional Procedures: Multiplication and Division of Fractions 311
Multiplying Fractions, 311; Multiplying Proper Fractions, 312; Multiplying
Fractions and Whole Numbers, 312; Multiplying Mixed Numbers, 313;
Dividing Fractions, 314; Word Problems—Multiplication and Division, 315
Diagnosis and Remediation of Common Fraction Errors 317
Errors in Reading and Writing Fractions and Mixed Numerals, 317
Errors in Adding and Subtracting Fractions, 317
Chapter 14 Decimals 359

Skill Hierarchy 359
Instructional Procedures: Reading and Writing Decimals 362
Reading and Writing Decimals and Mixed Decimals, 362
Instructional Procedures: Decimal Operations 365
Adding and Subtracting Decimals and Mixed Decimals, 365; Rounding Off
Decimals, 366; Multiplying Decimals, 367; Dividing Decimals, 368; Converting
Fractions and Decimals, 372
Chapter 15 Percent, Ratio, and Probability 391
Skill Hierarchy 391
Percentage Problems 393
Converting Percent to Decimal, 393; Simple Percentage Problems, 394;
Simple Percentage Word Problems, 394; Complex Percentage Problems, 395
Ratio Problems 395
Converting a Fraction to a Percent, 396; Simple Ratio Word Problems, 397;
Complex Ratio Word Problems, 397
Probability Problems 398
Single-Event Probability, 399; Compound Probability, 399; Probability Word
Problems, 400
Contents xiii
Chapter 16 Data Analysis 418

Skill Hierarchy 418
Graphs 421
Classifying, Representing, and Interpreting Data, 422; Picture Graphs, 423;
Bar Graphs, 424; Line Plots, Stem and Leaf Plots, 424
Descriptive Statistics 425
Measures of Central Tendency, 425; Measures of Variability, 427
Chapter 17 Geometry 443

Skill Hierarchy 443
Identifying and Defining Geometric Figures and Concepts 450
Calculating Perimeter, Area, and Volume 453
Perimeter and Area, 453; Volume, 455
Measuring and Constructing Figures Using Tools 456
Using Logic in Working with Angles and Lines 456
Chapter 18 Pre-algebra 478

Skill Hierarchy 479
Coordinate System and Functions (CSF) 482
Other Types of Numbers: Primes, Factors, Integers, and Exponents 483
Primes and Factors, 483; Integers, 484; Exponents, 485
Expressions and Equations 485
Solving for a Single Variable, 486; Substitutions, 486; Like Terms, 487;
Word Problems, 487
Ratios and Proportions (R∕P) 487
Using Ratio Tables to Solve Classification Problems, 489; Using Ratio Tables
with Fractions, 489; Using Ratio Tables to Solve Comparison Problems, 492;
Using Ratio Tables with Percent Problems, 493
Appendix A: Direct Instruction Mathematics and Common Core State Standards 513
Appendix B: Frequently Asked Questions About Direct Instruction Mathematics 529
Glossary 532
References 534
Index 536
Formats for Teaching Major Skills
Format Number Format Title Page Number
4.1 Introducing New Numbers 34

4.2 Rational Counting 35
4.3 Counting Two Groups of Lines 36
4.4 Counting from Numbers Other Than 1 37
4.5 Count-By 37
5.1 Introducing New Numerals 54
5.2 Equation Writing 55
5.3 Identifying a Symbol and Then Drawing Lines 55
5.4 Writing a Numeral for a Set of Objects 56
5.5 Reading Teen Numerals Using Place Value Concepts 57
5.6 Writing Teen Numerals Using Place Value Concepts 58
5.7 Reading Tens Numerals Using Place Value Concepts 59
5.8 Writing Tens Numerals Using Place value Concepts 61
5.9 Reading Hundreds Numerals Using Place Value 62
5.10 Writing Hundreds Numerals Using Place Value Concepts 64
5.11 Reading Thousands Numerals Using Place Value concepts 65
5.12 Expanded Notation 66
5.13 Column Alignment 67
6.1 Plus-One Facts 83
6.2 Series Saying 84
6.3 Three-Number Fact Families: Addition and Multiplication Facts 85
6.4 Three-Number Fact Families: Subtraction and Division Facts 86
7.1 Equality Introduction 104
7.2 Teaching Addition the Slow way 105
7.3 Solving Missing Addends 107
7.4 Teaching Addition the Fast Way 110
7.5 Adding Three Single-Digit Numbers 111
7.6 Adding Two Numerals with Renaming 112
7.7 Complex Addition Facts with a Total Less Than 20 114
8.1 Subtraction with Lines 129
8.2 Teaching Regrouping 131
8.3 Subtraction with Renaming 131
8.4 Tens Numbers Minus One 135
8.5 Renaming Numbers with Zeroes 135
9.1 Single Digit Multiplication 153
xiv
Formats for Teaching Major Skills xv
9.2 Missing-Factor Multiplication 156

9.3 One-Digit Factor Times Two-Digit Factor—Renaming 158
9.4 Two-Digit Factor Times Two-Digit Factor 160
10.1 Introducing Division 182
10.2 Introducing Division with Remainders 184
10.3 Introducing Remainder Facts 186
10.4 Remediation for Division with Remainders—Quotient Too Small 187
10.5 Remediation for Division with Remainders—Quotient Too Large 188
10.6 Division with Two-Digit Quotients 189
10.7 Rounding to Nearest Tens Unit 193
10.8 Correct Estimated Quotients with Two-Digit Divisors 194
10.9 Incorrect Estimated Quotients 199
11.1 Introducing Problem-Solving Concepts 220
11.2 Preskill: Fact Family—Finding the Missing Family Member 223
11.3 Temporal Sequence Word Problems 226
11.4 Comparison Problems 232
11.5 Classification Story Problems 234
11.6 Using Tables to Solve Problems 236
11.7 Introducing Multi-Step Word Problems 239
11.8 Introduction to Multiplication and Division Word Problems 241
11.9 Setting Up Multiplication and Division Word Problems 242
12.1 Metric Prefixes 270
12.2 Metric Conversions 272
12.3 Converting from Mixed Numbers 274
12.4 Renaming Customary Units 274
12.5 Subtraction with Renaming 275
12.6 Expressing Time as Minutes After the Hour (Units of 5 Minutes) 276
12.7 Expressing Time as Minutes Before the Hour 279
12.8 Coin Equivalencies 281
12.9 Verifying Change 281
12.10 Counting Coins to Reach an Exact Amount 282
12.11 Decimal Notation for Money 283
13.1 Introducing Fractions 321
13.2 Part-Whole Discrimination 324
13.3 Writing Numerical Fractions 325
13.4 Reading Fractions 327
13.5 Determining Whether a Fraction Equals, Exceeds, or is Less Than One Whole 328
13.6 Reading and Writing Mixed Numerals 329
13.7 Preskill: Constructing Fractions Equal to 1 332
13.8 Computing Equivalent Fractions 333
13.9 Preskill: Determining Factors 336
13.10 Determining the Greatest Common Factor (GCF) 339
13.11 Reducing Fractions 340
13.12 Converting Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers 343
continued
xvi Formats for Teaching Major Skills
13.13 Converting Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions 346

13.14 Adding and Subtracting Fractions with Like Denominators 348
13.15 Preskill: Finding the Least Common Multiple 351
13.16 Adding and Subtracting Fractions with Unlike Denominators 352
13.17 Multiplying Two Proper Fractions 355
13.18 Multiplying a Fraction and a Whole Number 356
14.1 Reading Decimals 376
14.2 Writing Decimals 378
14.3 Reading and Writing Mixed Decimals 379
14.4 Converting Decimals into Equivalent Decimals 380
14.5 Addition/Subtraction of Unlike Decimals 382
14.6 Rounding Off Decimals 383
14.7 Multiplying Decimals 384
14.8 Division with Decimals—Rounding Off 386
14.9 Preskill: Multiplying Decimals by Multiples of 10 388
14.10 Dividing by Decimals 389
15.1 Converting Percent to Decimal 402
15.2 Solving Simple Percentage Problems 403
15.3 Converting Decimals and Fractions to Percentages 405
15.4 Simple Ratio Word Problems 408
15.5 Complex Ratio Problems 409
15.6 Writing Probability Fractions 410
15.7 Probability for Different Numbers of Trials 412
15.8 Introducing Compound Probability 414
15.9 Probability Word Problems 416
16.1 Sorting 430
16.2 Creating Picture Graphs 432
16.3 Reading Bar Graphs 435
16.4 Creating Bar Graphs 437
16.5 Calculating the Mean 441
17.1 ldentification∕Definition—Triangle 459
17.2 Finding the Area of Rectangles 460
17.3 Finding the Area of Triangles 463
17.4 Calculating the Area of Complex Figures 468
17.5 Calculating the Area of Parallelograms 470
17.6 Calculating the Volume of Boxes 473
17.7 Finding the Value of Unknown Component Angles 475
17.8 Finding the Values of Unknown Angles in Complex Diagrams 476
18.1 Using and Plotting a Function 497
18.2 Combining Integers 499
18.3 Solving One-Step Problems with Variables—Addition and Subtraction 502
18.4 Solving One-Step Problems with Variables—Multiplication and Division 504
18.5 Ratio Tables Using Fractions for Classes 509
Chapter
Direct Instruction
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.1 Discuss the areas that comprise mathematical proficiency according to the
National Research Council.
1.2 Outline the features of instructional design that are essential to mathematics
instruction.
1.3 Discuss the four features of instructional delivery that are characteristic of Direct
Instruction.
1.4 Explain the importance of explicitly teaching students mathematics vocabulary
and concepts.
MATHEMATICAL PROFICIENCY
«•••••••
According to the National Research Council (2001), mathematical proficiency is represented by
competency in five areas: conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence,
adaptive reasoning, and productive disposition. Many mathematics textbooks used in teacher
preparation discuss the philosophy and theory of mathematics instruction and provide instruc
tional activities, but few outline with specificity the means by which teachers can translate these
areas into explicit instruction. Direct Instruction Mathematics provides teachers with a com
prehensive blueprint to organize and teach specific content for major mathematical topics that
appear in elementary and middle school. The textbook also provides teachers with strategies to
address the needs of struggling learners. Each chapter in this text provides specific recommen
dations to promote conceptual understanding (teaching language concepts and providing visual
representations) and procedural fluency (teaching explicit strategies). Embedded in the chapters
are recommendations to promote adaptive reasoning (asking students to explain their answers)
and to determine strategic competence (monitoring student performance).
Regarding a productive disposition, research has suggested that when students experience
success, they develop positive self-concepts (Stebbins, St. Pierre, Proper, Anderson, & Cerra,
1977). More specifically, research in the area of Direct Instruction (see Chapter 2) leads us
to conclude that well-designed instruction that promotes student mathematical proficiency, as
outlined in this text, will yield productive dispositions.
In this chapter, we provide a detailed discussion of three critical components—instructional
design, instructional delivery, and instructional language—that are essential to understanding
2 Part I Perspective
how Direct Instruction Mathematics addresses the five proficiency areas mentioned above.
Building mathematics instruction with these components as the foundation will ensure that
students acquire, retain, and generalize new learning in as humane, efficient, and effective a
manner as possible.
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
∙∙∙∙∙**∙
To effectively teach mathematics, teachers must construct the kinds of lessons and develop the
specific teaching procedures that best meet the needs of their students. Throughout the chapters in
this text, we emphasize five essential instructional design features to assist teachers in designing
mathematics instruction and in evaluating and modifying the commercial programs that have
been adopted for use in their school or district. The learning theory underlying these features
is elaborated in detail in Theory of Instruction (Engelmann & Carnine, 1991) and serves as the
foundation for Direct Instruction programs. The website for the National Institute for Direct
Instruction (NIFDI) provides detailed information about the commercially available Direct
Instruction programs. Throughout this text we discuss the following features that represent
instructional design elements essential to well-designed mathematics instruction:
1. Sequence of skills and concepts
2. Explicit instructional strategies
3. Preskills
4. Example selection
5, Practice and review
Before designing instruction or modifying it, teachers must clearly identify the objectives
they want to teach. Most commercial programs specify student objectives for each instructional
unit. However, not all objectives are written so that teachers can determine when they have
been met. The objectives should be stated as specific, observable behaviors and include both
accuracy and rate criteria, if possible. For example, a clear first-grade objective for single-digit
addition is: “Given 25 single-digit addition problems, students will correctly solve at least
22 in 1 minute with no more than one error.” Poorly stated objectives contain vague descriptions
of student behavior that are difficult to measure, such as “Students will understand the concept
of addition.”
Teachers can use the Instructional Sequence and Assessment Charts found at the begin
ning of most chapters in this book as a guide to selecting important grade-level objectives.
These charts, aligned with national Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (CCSSM)
(National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School
Officers, 2010), offer a sequence of instruction based on the difficulty level of the given prob
lem types. Teachers can use the charts to help prioritize objectives, deciding which problem
types to teach and in which sequence. Teachers of students who perform poorly should focus
their instruction on higher-priority skills, those that are used more frequently, or those that are
prerequisites for more advanced skills.
Once the teacher has determined the types of problems students should be able to work
when they have completed the unit, the teacher must decide on appropriate levels of mastery.
Both accuracy and fluency must be considered when specifying levels of mastery. Unfortu
nately, there is little research available on determining accuracy and fluency criteria. Generally,
teachers should provide supervised practice until students reach an 85% to 90% accuracy level
for worksheet assignments containing a review of previously introduced types of problems. A
fluency criterion usually depends on the relative complexity of the problem type. Most educa
tors agree that students who work problems with relative fluency are more likely to retain strate
gies over a longer period of time. We present more detail about fluency criteria in the section on
progress monitoring later in this chapter.
Sequence of Skills and Concepts

The order in which information and skills are introduced affects the difficulty students have
in learning them. Sequencing involves determining the optimum order for introducing new
information and strategies. Following are three general guidelines for sequencing the introduction
of new skills:
1. Teach preskills for a strategy before teaching the strategy.
2. Teach easy skills before more difficult ones.
3. Separate the introduction of information or strategies that students are likely to confuse.
Generally, the more steps in a strategy and the greater the similarity of the new strategy to
previously taught strategies, the more likely students will have difficulty. For example, in column
subtraction, problems that require a regrouping strategy are more difficult than problems that
do not. But not all problems that require regrouping are of equal difficulty. A problem such as
3,002 — 89 is significantly more difficult than a problem such as 364 — 128, largely due to the
presence of zeros.
One of the preskills we recommend teaching for regrouping with zeros in problems like
the one above is hundreds-minus-one problems (300 — 1 = 299). That preskill should be
taught prior to introducing problems such as 3,002 — 89, which requires renaming 300 tens as
299 tens. This example of identifying and teaching the appropriate preskills illustrates the first
sequencing guideline.
299
30012
- 89
The instruction of easier skills before more difficult ones is the second sequencing guideline.
For example, before teaching students to add fractions with unlike denominators, we recom
mend teaching students the easier skill of adding fractions with like denominators. Although
this guideline may seem obvious, many commercially available programs disregard its
importance.
The third sequencing guideline is to separate the introduction of information and strate
gies that are likely to be confused. The more similar two skills are, the more likely students
are to confuse them. For example, because young students are likely to confuse identification
of the numerals 6 and 9, those numerals should not be introduced consecutively. Likewise,
the skip-counting series for 6s and 4s are quite similar in that they both contain 12, 24, and
36 (6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 and 4, 8,12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36). Introducing these series consecu
tively is likely to cause confusion for some students.
Explicit Instructional Strategies

Research suggests that teaching students explicit instructional strategies increases their per
formance in mathematics. (See Chapter 2 for this research.) According to Archer and Hughes,
explicit instruction is “instruction that is systematic, direct, engaging, and success-oriented”
(2011, p. vii). In addition to being explicit, well-designed instructional strategies must be gener
alizable. That is, a well-designed instructional strategy will apply to a range of different types of
problems. For example, many programs introduce fractions to students using a single representa
tion, such as a cookie, divided into thirds or fourths (1/3 or 2/4). When students are introduced
to improper fractions (5/4), they often are unable to generalize the fraction concept. Students
cannot conceptualize 5/4(1 ¼) if prior visual representations have been limited to one whole. A
well-designed strategy for teaching students fraction concepts is one that applies to both proper
and improper fractions. (See Chapter 13.)
Some commercially developed mathematics programs suggest that students generate a num
ber of alternative strategies for the same problem. Rather than developing a conceptual founda
tion that highlights mathematical relationships, the introduction of alternative strategies often
confuses instructionally naive students. Teachers should select the most generalizable, useful,
and explicit strategies to teach their students—strategies that draw attention to the relationships
among the mathematical skills and concepts being taught.
As mentioned previously, this text provides teachers with explicit instructional strategies to
teach content expected to be taught in elementary and middle school classrooms. The strategies
are translated into teaching procedures using teaching formats or scripts that provide specific
teacher wording, examples, and often error-correction procedures. Formats are designed so that
teacher explanations are clear and unambiguous so teachers do not have to worry if the explana
tion they provide one day is consistent with explanations they’ve given previously.
The teaching formats represent a carefully designed instructional sequence reflecting the
gradual release of responsibility from teacher to student. Most of the formats consist of four parts:
a structured board presentation, a structured worksheet presentation, a less structured worksheet
presentation, and supervised practice. A characteristic of the formats is the use of frequent ques
tioning that allows teachers to continuously check for student understanding and increases student
engagement. This text provides links to teaching formats for the instructional strategies discussed
in each chapter. In addition, some of the formats are accompanied by video demonstrations.
Preskills
As mentioned previously, instruction should be sequenced so that the requisite component skills of
a strategy are taught before the entire strategy is introduced. The component skills, therefore, can
be called preskills. For example, to solve a percent problem (What is 23% of 67?), the student must
be able to (a) convert percent to a decimal (23% = .23), (b) solve multiplication problems with
multi-digit factors (.23 × 67), and (c) place the decimal point correctly in the product (15.41).
67
× .23
201
134
15.41
The necessary preskills for many strategies may have been taught earlier or in previous
grades. Nonetheless, to ensure that students have mastered the preskills before introducing a
new instructional strategy, teachers should test students on those preskills. Each chapter in this
text identifies critical preskills for the strategies presented so that teachers can design tests to
determine whether the preskills have been mastered or must be taught.
Example Selection
Selecting examples involves constructing or choosing appropriate problems to be used during
teaching demonstrations and student practice. Two guidelines are particularly helpful in assist
ing teachers in selecting appropriate examples. The first example selection guideline is simply to
include only problems that students can solve by using a strategy that has been explicitly taught.
For example, if students have been taught a regrouping strategy for solving subtraction problems
without zeros, but they have not yet been taught to solve problems with zeros, the teacher should
not give them a problem such as 3,004 — 87. As mentioned previously, teaching students to
rename in problems containing zeros requires additional instruction in specific preskills.
The second guideline is ultimately to include not only examples of the currently introduced
type (introductory examples) but also examples of previously introduced problem types that are
similar (discrimination examples). The purpose of including previously introduced problem types
is to provide students with practice in determining when to apply the new strategy and when to
apply previously taught strategies. For example, after students learn how to regroup from ones to
tens in column addition, their practice examples should include problems that require regrouping
and problems that do not. Working a set of discrimination problems encourages students to exam
ine the problems more carefully to determine when to apply the regrouping strategy instead of
reverting to the rote behavior of just “putting one on top of the tens column.” The importance of
including discrimination examples cannot be overemphasized. Unless previously taught problem
types are included, students will likely forget or misapply earlier taught strategies.
Practice and Review

Providing sufficient practice for initial mastery and adequate review for retention is an essential
aspect of instructional design. Two guidelines are fundamental in helping teachers provide
practice and review. First, teachers must provide massed practice (Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh,
Nathan, & Willingham, 2013) on an individual skill until mastery is reached. Students demon
strate mastery on a particular skill when they can work problems accurately, fluently, and inde
pendently. Following this guideline requires that teachers monitor their students carefully and
frequently to determine if and when mastery has been achieved. If students have not mastered a
skill in the time originally allotted, teachers will need to provide additional practice opportunities.
Second, teachers must provide systematic review of previously introduced skills. Once
students have reached a specified level of mastery on a given skill, the teacher can gradually
decrease the amount of practice on that skill. But practice should never entirely disappear. The
skill should be reviewed systematically over time to ensure retention. Reviewing a skill system
atically over time is called distributed practice. Distributed practice is a hallmark of all Direct
Instruction programs.
The review of previously introduced skills requires deliberate planning, because many com
mercial programs do not provide an opportunity for that review. Often, review is naturally pro
vided because the newly taught skill serves as a component skill for a more advanced problem
type. For example, as subtraction problems with regrouping are mastered, those problems are
integrated into word problems, thereby providing practice on the component skill.
In Chapter 3 we illustrate how the instructional design features discussed in this chapter
contribute to a framework for evaluating published mathematics programs.
INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY
Once teachers have planned their mathematics instruction using the five essential instructional
design features discussed above, they need to integrate instructional delivery features into their
teaching plans. While the instructional design focuses on what to teach, instructional delivery
addresses issues of implementation, that is, how best to teach. Four features are included in this
section on instructional delivery:
1. Progress monitoring
2. Presentation techniques
3. Error-correction procedures
4. Diagnosis and remediation
Progress Monitoring
A major goal of progress monitoring is to determine whether students have mastered the mate
rial. A second goal of progress monitoring is to determine whether students are progressing at an
optimal rate. One research-based approach to monitoring student progress that assists teachers
in determining an optimal rate is curriculum-based measurement, or CBM (Fuchs, Fuchs, &
Hamlett, 2015). CBM offers an alternative both to informal observations, which tend to lack
consistency, and to achievement tests, which are administered too infrequently to help teachers
make instructional decisions.
Shinn and Walker (2010) explain that CBM has two distinctive features that separate it
from other curriculum-based assessments: First, the recommended CBM procedures are as reli
able and valid as most standardized achievement tests; second, the procedures are designed to be
administered frequently enough to provide teachers with ongoing performance data.
One of the strongest advantages of using CBM is that by monitoring progress frequently,
teachers can identify and remedy problems by making instructional changes before students fall
too far behind their peers. Likewise, teachers can use CBM data to accelerate instruction. The
National Center for Intensive Intervention (NCII) offers educators online tools and resources to
assist them in implementing progress monitoring.
Presentation Techniques
A major aspect of Direct Instruction involves attention to a group of teaching or presentation
techniques. How skillfully a teacher presents instruction significantly affects both the student’s
rate of learning and the student’s self-concept. The relationship between success and self-concept,
a primary tenet in the Direct Instruction approach to teaching, was articulated by Engelmann as
long ago as 1969:
The sphere of self-confidence that can be programmed in the classroom has to do with the
child’s ability to stick to his guns, to have confidence in what he has learned, and to approach
school tasks with the understanding that he is smart and will succeed. For a child to maintain
such an impression of himself, he must receive demonstrations that these descriptions of
himself are valid. If he finds himself failing in school, displeasing the teacher, feeling unsure
about what he has learned, he must reevaluate himself and perhaps conclude that he is not a
complete success, (p. 68)
The presentation techniques addressed here capture those skills needed for effective
teacher-directed group instruction. Several factors contribute to a successful teacher-directed
lesson. For example, the length of a teacher’s explanation or demonstration affects the likeli
hood that students will be attentive. Teachers should make explanations brief and concise. The
more time the teacher spends talking, the fewer opportunities for student involvement. Teachers
working with primary-grade and lower-performing students in the upper grades should structure
their presentations so that students are required to answer frequent questions.
Because teachers cannot call on every individual student to answer each question, unison
responses should be incorporated into the teacher-directed lessons. Unison responses ensure that
all of the students in the classroom actively participate in the lesson. Two very specific presen
tation skills promote effective use of unison responses: appropriate use of signals and pacing.
Signals A signal is a cue given by the teacher that tells students when to respond in unison.
The effective use of signals allows participation by all students, not just the highest-performing
students who, if allowed, tend to dominate the activity.
To signal a unison response, the teacher (a) gives directions, (b) provides a thinking pause,
and (c) cues the response. For example, when presenting an addition fact task, the teacher might
say, “Listen. Get ready to tell me the answer to this problem: 4 + 6.” After the directions comes
the thinking pause. The duration of the thinking pause is determined by the length of time the
lowest-performing student needs to figure out the answer. (If one student takes significantly
longer to answer than the other students in the group, the teacher should consider providing
extra individual practice for that student.) For easier questions (simple tasks involving review of
previously taught skills), the thinking pause may be just a split second, while for more complex
questions the thinking pause may last longer. Carefully controlling the duration of the thinking
pause is a very important factor in maintaining student attention.
The final step in the signaling procedure is the actual cue to respond. A cue or signal
to respond may be a clap, finger snap, hand drop, touch on the board, or any similar type of
action. This procedure can be modified for use with most tasks. On tasks calling for a long
thinking pause, the teacher would say, “Get ready” an instant before signaling. The purpose
of the get-ready prompt is to let the students know when to expect the cue to respond. Since
the length of thinking pauses varies with the difficulty of the question, a prompt is needed;
students may not know when to respond following a pause. Therefore, to elicit a group
response in which each student has an equal opportunity to respond, the cue “Get ready” is
given. An auditory signal (snap, clap, etc.) is necessary for teacher-directed worksheet tasks,
since students are looking at their worksheets and cannot see a silent hand signal from the
teacher.
The essential feature of a good signal is its clarity. The signal must be given so that students
know exactly when they are expected to respond. If a signal is not clear, students cannot respond
in unison. The teacher can use the student responses to evaluate the clarity of her signals. A
repeated failure to respond together usually indicates that the signals are unclear or that the
teacher has not provided adequate thinking time.
Giving individual turns (also called individual tests) is an essential part of any instructional
activity in which students are asked to respond in unison. Using only unison responses, a teacher
can never be absolutely certain whether each student has produced a correct response indepen
dent from the responses of nearby students. Giving individual turns helps teachers verify that all
students are participating appropriately in the activity.
Chapter ! Direct Instruction 7
The teacher should give individual tests only after all the students in the group appear to
be answering correctly during unison practice. Calling on a student who has not had enough
practice to master the task may needlessly embarrass the student in front of his peers. Since indi
vidual tests are time-consuming, they should not be given to every student after every task. As a
general rule, turns should be given to all lower-performing students each time a new or difficult
task is presented. Higher-performing students, on the other hand, can be tested less often.
Pacing Anyone who has observed young children watching TV shows or playing video games
can attest to the role that pacing plays in maintaining attention. Teachers should be familiar
enough with their material to present it in a lively, animated manner and without hesitation.
Teachers who are well practiced with their instructional materials not only can teach at a livelier
pace but also can focus their attention more fully on student performance.
g‰ Format 5.12: Throughout this text, we have included videos of teaching demonstrations to illustrate
Expanded Notation instructional delivery skills. For each video, we have identified a “watch-for” that highlights the
Watch for Tristan's use of clear
implementation of a specific presentation technique. For example, for the following video, note
signals and lively pacing.
that the watch-for calls attention to Tristan’s use of signals and pacing.
Error-Correction Procedures
The first step in correcting errors made by students during group instruction is to determine the
cause of the error. Teachers must decide if the error resulted from inattentiveness or from a lack
of knowledge. Teachers can determine whether student errors were caused by inattentiveness by
checking where the students were looking or what the students were doing when the question
was asked.
Teachers should correct students who respond late or don’t respond at all during tasks
requiring unison responding. For these errors teachers should inform the students that because
not all students responded (or because some students failed to respond on signal), they have to
repeat the task. Teachers should not direct any attention to the students who made the errors but
should praise students who performed well and attended to the task.
Most error corrections follow a three-step procedure of model, test, and delayed test. If
an error occurs when the teacher is presenting a strategy, the teacher would model the correct
response or ask leading questions from the strategy so that students can generate the correct
response. Next, the teacher would test the students by presenting the same task again—this
time providing no assistance. The teacher then would return to the beginning of the original
task and present the entire task again, the delayed test. The function of a delayed test is to
check whether the student remembers the correct responses when starting from the beginning
of the task.
Specific recommendations are outlined in each chapter for corrections of errors students
are likely to make for a given topic. Specific teacher wording often can be found in the teaching
formats provided within each chapter along with additional recommendations to ensure that the
corrections are effective.
Diagnosis and Remediation

Diagnosis is determining the cause of a pattern of errors; remediation is the process of reteaching
the skill. Diagnosis and remediation, as used in this text, are not the same as a simple error
correction. An error correction immediately follows the mistake a student makes during teacher-
directed instruction and requires minimal diagnosis because the teacher knows exactly what
question the student missed.
A diagnosis, on the other hand, consists primarily of an analysis of the errors students make
on independent work. The first decision to make in diagnosing errors is determining whether the
errors are “can’t-do” or “won’t-do” problems. Won’t-do problems occur when students have
the necessary skills but are careless, do not complete their work, or are inattentive. A diagnosis
of won’t-do errors requires a remediation that focuses on increasing student motivation. A diag
nosis of can’t-do problems requires a remediation that focuses on the student’s confusion or
skill deficit.
The teacher diagnoses can’t-do errors by examining the missed problems on worksheets
and/or by interviewing the students about how they worked the problems they missed. The
following basic steps apply to diagnosing and remedying errors on most types of problems:
1. Diagnosis: Analyze worksheet errors and hypothesize what the cause of the errors might be.
2. Confirmation: Interview the student to determine the cause of the errors if it is not obvious.
3, Remediation: Provide re teaching through board and/or worksheet presentations.
4. Assess: Test the student on a set of problems similar to the ones on which the original errors
were made.
An error usually is of three basic types: a fact error, a component-skill error, or a strategy
error. Students often miss problems only because they don’t know their basic math facts.
Basic facts are the addition and multiplication facts formed by adding or multiplying any two
single-digit numbers and their subtraction and division corollaries.
Component skills are previously taught skills that are integrated as steps in a lengthier
problem-solving strategy. Below is an example of an addition problem with renaming that a
student missed due to a component-skill error:
2
67
+25
1
Note that in the incorrectly solved problem, the student knew to rename but did not know
the component skill related to place value for renaming appropriately (12 equals 1 ten and
2 ones). To remedy this component-skill error, the teacher would present instruction only on
the component skill of expanded notation. Once the student mastered the component skill, the
teacher would give students addition problems similar to the one originally missed.
A strategy error occurs when the student demonstrates that she does not know the sequence
of steps required to solve the particular type of problem. In the following example, the stu
dent subtracts the denominator from the numerator when instructed to convert an improper frac
tion to a mixed number, indicating that the student does not have a viable strategy for reducing
improper fractions. To remedy this problem, the teacher must teach the entire strategy of rewrit
ing fractions to the student.
The diagnosis and remediation procedures recommended here are designed to increase
instructional efficiency by helping teachers determine exactly how much additional teaching
is necessary to bring students to mastery. If a teacher determines that student errors are due to
deficient math fact knowledge, it is unnecessary to reteach lengthy problem-solving strategies.
Similarly, if an error pattern reflected in a student’s independent work is related to a single
component skill, then the teacher would reteach only that skill and not the entire instructional
strategy. These diagnosis and remediation procedures can save teachers valuable instructional
time by focusing on only those skills that require remediation.
INSTRUCTIONAL LANGUAGE
Attention to the need for instruction in discipline-based language has recently been extended to
the area of mathematics as evidenced by the CCSSM. Mathematical language practices required
by the CCSSM include engaging students in mathematical reasoning, developing viable argu
ments, and critiquing the reasoning of others—high expectations for math students and their
teachers. These higher-level language skills require that students understand basic mathematics
concepts and are able to use appropriate mathematics vocabulary.
Attention to language has always been fundamental to Direct Instruction teaching (Engelmann,
Carnine, & Steely, 1991). For example, in a first-grade mathematics class asking students if
“3 is fewer than 5” may be problematic if students were taught the concept of “less than” and
not the term “fewer.” Consistency in language contributes to clarity of instruction, and that clar
ity of instruction is especially important for English language learners and students with math
disabilities.
Sequencing Guidelines Applied to Language Instruction

The three sequencing guidelines discussed earlier (see Sequence of Skills and Concepts) are
particularly relevant to a discussion of mathematics language. Below are three examples of the
application of these guidelines to the math language instruction.
Teach Preskills of a Strategy Before the Strategy Teachers should consider what
vocabulary is necessary to teach prior to teaching a concept and what vocabulary can be taught
after the concept is introduced. Vocabulary terms that appear in the teaching formats should be
taught prior to the introduction of the format. For example, in teaching the equality rule—“we
must end with the same number on this side and the other side of the equal”—the terms “end
with,” “side,” “equal,” “ same,” and “other” are used. Therefore, the meaning of these terms
should be taught prior to the introduction of the equality rule.
Teach Easy Skills Before More Difficult Ones Although precise terminology is critical
to mathematics, it is not necessary to teach precise, mathematically correct definitions initially;
rather it is important to provide students with the language that will permit them to take part
in math instruction. For example, the following definition for the area of a rectangle, although
correct, contains difficult vocabulary concepts and initially is not very useful to students: “To
find the area of a rectangle, multiply the length times the width resulting in an answer of square
units.” In contrast, applying the guideline of “easy before more difficult,” we recommend intro
ducing the area of a rectangle as “the number of squares it takes to cover the rectangle.” Using
student-friendly math vocabulary, appropriate to students’ age and skill level, results in clear
communication and promotes understanding.
Separate the Introduction of Information or Strategies That Are Likely to Be

Confused The third sequencing guideline emphasizes separating confusing content. Teaching
the concept first and later attaching more precise terminology to the concept reduces possible con
fusion. For example, teaching students the concepts of fractions using the more student-friendly
terms “top numeral” and “bottom numeral” (rather than “numerator” and “denominator”) allows
students to focus on the concept rather than on the new terminology. The application of this
guideline prevents most students from confusing the two parts of a fraction.
While teaching students mathematics language concepts is critical to mathematics profi
ciency, it is beyond the scope of this book to provide detailed instructional recommendations
for all math-related vocabulary. Teachers can find more information on how to teach specific
vocabulary in Direct Instruction Reading (Carnine, Silbert, Kame’enui, Slocum, & Travers,
2017). In this text, we address mathematics language by including an online glossary for teach
ers, presenting specific instructional procedures for teaching critical concepts, and ensuring that
all teaching formats adhere to the instructional design guidelines outlined above.
APPLY WHAT YOU LEARNED

Click on the V to answer the questions online.
1. What are the areas that comprise mathematical proficiency according to the National Research
Council?
2. Outline the essential features of instructional design.
3. Describe the four features of instructional delivery characteristic of Direct Instruction.
4. Describe how the Direct Instruction sequencing guidelines are applied to mathematical language.
Chapter
Research Support for Direct

Instruction Mathematics
By Kaitlyn Bundock and Timothy Slocum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
2.1 Discuss the rationale for improving U.S. math instruction.
2.2 Compare the differences between di and DI and the research support for each.
2.3 Outline three research-based recommendations for improving math instruction.
THE NEED FOR EXCELLENT MATH INSTRUCTION

Mathematical competence is important for living successfully in modern American society.
It is a gateway to higher education as well as to success in many other career paths (Child
Trends Databank, 2015). For example, studies have found that students who take higher-
level math courses in high school are more likely to graduate from college (Adelman, 1999;
Attewell & Domina, 2008). Our increasingly technological workplace raises the stakes for
math proficiency—those with strong math skills can access numerous exciting career options
in the new economy, while those who have weak math skills can be limited to fewer and
less desirable career options. A great deal of evidence points to the conclusion that math
competence is related to level and quality of employment (Finnie & Meng, 2006; Murnane,
Willett, Braatz, & Duhaldeborde, 2001; Tyler, 2004). Further, the relationship between high
school students’ math skills and their later earnings has grown stronger since 1976 (Murnane,
Willett, & Levy, 1995; Reyna & Brainerd, 2007). During the 1990s, growth in employment
in the math-intensive sectors of science and engineering tripled that in other areas of the
economy (National Science Board, 2008). And the personal implications of mathematical
proficiency are not limited to employment; math skills are required in everyday life for
selecting purchases, managing finances, and understanding interest rates (Kirsch, Jungeblut,
Jenkins, & Kolstad, 2002). Math skills are related to patients’ health behaviors and outcomes,
their understanding of medical issues, and their implementation of treatments (Reyna &
Brainerd, 2007).
In addition to its impact on individual outcomes, mathematic competence is increasingly

recognized as being important for the economic success of the nation (Reyna & Brainerd, 2007).
As the National Mathematics Advisory Panel (NMAP) stated in 2008:
The eminence, safety, and well-being of nations have been entwined for centuries
with the ability of their people to deal with sophisticated quantitative ideas. Leading
societies have commanded mathematical skills that have brought them advantages in
medicine and health, in technology and commerce, in navigation and exploration, in
defense and finance, and in the ability to understand past failures and to forecast future
developments, (p. 29)
Many states have responded to the importance of math proficiency by increasing demands
for the number and level of mathematics courses required for high school graduation (National
Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008; Rasmussen et al., 2011). As a result, poor math skills can be
a considerable barrier to receiving a high school diploma (Rasmussen et al., 2011).
Current Performance of U.S. Math Students

Despite an increased focus on enhancing the rigor of K-12 mathematics instruction in recent
years, the math performance of students in the United States continues to be substandard. The
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) measures the performance of American
students in a variety of content areas (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2015).
Students in grades 4 and 8 are assessed in mathematics every 2 years. The 2015 NAEP results
revealed that 49% of fourth graders and 57% of eighth graders failed to meet proficiency stan
dards. This represents a worse performance than was seen only 2 years earlier. The situation is
dire for underrepresented groups. For example, 87% of Black and 81% of Hispanic eighth grad
ers were not proficient in math in the 2015 assessment (NCES, 2015). The National Mathemat
ics Advisory Panel commented in 2008:
There are large, persistent disparities in mathematics achievement related to race and
income—disparities that are not only devastating for individuals and families but also proj
ect poorly for the nation’s future, given the youthfulness and high growth rates of the largest
minority populations, (p. xii)
Similarly, students with disabilities experience very poor math outcomes. From 5% to 8%
of U.S. students are identified as having learning disabilities in math (Bryant, 2005; Fuchs et al.,
2008; Jitendra & Star, 2011; Judge & Watson, 2011). Results on the NAEP indicate that 84% of
fourth-grade students with disabilities and 92% of eighth-grade students with disabilities were
not proficient in mathematics (NCES, 2015). These results are consistent with research showing
that 95% of students with disabilities rank in the lowest 25th percentile on standardized math
assessments throughout all grade levels (Gersten et al., 2012; Judge & Watson, 2011).
International comparisons consistently show that American students lag behind other
industrialized countries in math proficiency. The Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) administers the PISA test every 3 years in 65 countries to evalu
ate 15-year-olds’ performance in reading, mathematics, and science (OECD, 2014a). The 2012
PISA math results indicate that the United States ranked 27th among the 34 OECD member
nations assessed (OECD, 2014b). Additionally, U.S. math scores were below the average of
math scores calculated from all 65 countries assessed, and 25% of students in the United States
tested below the basic proficiency level established by the PISA. The 2015 PISA focused pri
marily on science, although data related to mathematics were obtained. The overall mathematics
results indicate that students in the United States continued to perform below average compared
to the other industrialized nations (OECD, 2016). The results of the PISA indicate that U.S.
students struggle with real-world math problems, mathematical modeling, geometry, and math
ematical literacy.
When the math results of all U.S. students are considered together, they reveal a nationwide
need for instruction that improves the performance of students from all demographic groups.
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) published an “Agenda for Action”
12 PartI Perspective
in 1980, calling for a shift in mathematics education toward an emphasis on problem solving,
cooperative learning, the use of manipulatives, and alternative ways of assessing students;
these recommendations, however, were not based on research (NCTM, 1980). The NCTM later
released “Principles and Standards for School Mathematics” in 2000 (NCTM, 2000). This guide
presents a vision of mathematics education, as well as guidelines for educators, and includes
principles (foundational precepts for quality mathematics instruction) and content and process
standards.
By far the most important policy development in response to poor math outcomes is the
Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (CCSSM). Produced by the National Gover
nors Association and the Council of Chief State School Officers in 2009, these standards were
intended to raise educational achievement by creating a coherent and consistent sequence of
standards that build to high-level achievement (Dingman, Teuscher, Newton & Kasmer, 2013;
National Governors Association & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2012).
The majority of states have adopted the CCSSM, which are consistent with the NCTM
principles and standards. The CCSSM represent four main shifts in math education: changes to
the grade level in which certain math content is taught; adjustments made to the number of grade
levels certain math topics span; shifts in emphasis on certain math topics; and development of
the Standards for Mathematical Practice, which focus on problem-solving across the standards
(Dingman et al., 2013; National Governors Association & Council of Chief State School Offi
cers, 2012). The CCSSM are more rigorous than the previous standards that were in place in the
majority of states, in part because one of the goals reflected in the CCSSM is that students mas
ter higher-level algebra by the end of high school (Dingman et al., 2013; Schmidt & Houang,
2012). As such, math concepts that are foundations for algebra are introduced at earlier grades,
and they tend to be emphasized across a larger number of grade levels to provide more in-depth
coverage (Schmidt & Houang, 2012). The changes in content associated with the CCSSM, in
particular the increases in rigor, require educators to pay greater attention to effective teaching
practices in mathematics. When mathematics instruction is highly effective, many students will
meet the CCSSM standards and realize the benefits of high-level math competence. But if math
ematics instruction is not effective, the higher standards represented by CCSSM will simply
impose a barrier to school success and graduation. Therefore, these high standards increase the
consequences of the quality of instruction. Now more than ever, it is imperative that mathemat
ics instruction enable a wide range of students—including those at risk for failure in math—to
achieve high levels of proficiency.
RESEARCH ON DIRECT INSTRUCTION

• ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
Direct instruction is a research-based approach to instruction that has been shown to be highly
effective across many academic domains, including mathematics. This book is, of course, con
cerned with using this method to teach mathematics. The specific meaning of the term “direct
instruction” is somewhat complicated, however. When stated in lowercase letters, direct instruc
tion is an instructional strategy that includes:
1. Content presented in small steps.
2. Explicit teacher modeling or explanation.
3. Guided student practice with gradually faded support.
4. Use of feedback including explicit corrections of errors.
5. Independent practice including cumulative review.
These strategies also have been termed “explicit instruction,” “effective instruction,” and
“systematic teaching” (Archer & Hughes, 2011; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986).
When the term is written as a proper noun with capital letters (“Direct Instruction”), it pri
marily refers to instructional programs that include all the features of direct instruction (note
the lowercase) and also have additional instructional design features, as described in Chapter 1,
that make them even more effective for teachers and students. Commercially developed Direct
Instruction (capital letters) programs organize the content around generalizable strategies that
students can use to solve a wide variety of problems, and they implement detailed principles of
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experimental and hypothetical method with which he is already
familiar in the physical sciences.
In this version of the work of the three leading pragmatists it is
assumed, of course, that the pragmatist philosophy is the only
philosophy that can show to the average man that philosophy can
really do something useful—can “bake bread,” if you will, can give to
a man the food of a man. It is assumed, too, that it is the only
philosophy which proceeds scientifically, that is to say, by means of
observation and of hypotheses that “work,” and by subsequent
deduction and by “verification.” And again, that it is the only
philosophy that gives to man the realities upon which he can base
his aspirations or his faith in distinction, that is to say, from the mere
abstractions of Rationalism in any form.
By way of a few quotations illustrative of the fundamental
contentions of the pragmatists, we may select the following: “Ideas
become true just in so far as they help us to get into satisfactory
relation with other parts of our experience, to summarise them and
get about among them by conceptional short-cuts instead of
following the interminable succession of particular phenomena. Any
idea upon which we can ride, so to speak; any idea that will carry us
prosperously from any one part of our experience to any other part,
linking things satisfactorily, working securely, simplifying, saving
labour—is true for just so much, true in so far forth, true
29
instrumentally.” “The true is the name of whatever proves itself to
be good in the way of belief, and good for definite and assignable
30
reasons.” From Professor Dewey: “Thinking is a kind of activity
which we perform at specific need, just as at other times we engage
in other sorts of activity, as converse with a friend, draw a plan for a
house, take a walk, eat a dinner, purchase a suit of clothes, etc. etc.
The measure of its success, the standard of its validity is precisely
the degree in which thinking disposes of the difficulty and allows us
to proceed with the more direct modes of experiencing, that are
31
henceforth possessed of more assured and deepened value.”
From Dr. Schiller’s book, Studies in Humanism: “Pragmatism is the
doctrine that when an assertion claims truth, its consequences are
always used to test its claims; that (2) the truth of an assertion
depends on its application; that (3) the meaning of a rule lies in its
application; that (4) all meaning depends on purpose; that (5) all
mental life is purposive. It [Pragmatism] must constitute itself into (6)
a systematic protest against all ignoring of the purposiveness of
actual knowing, alike whether it is abstracted from for the sake of the
imaginary, pure, or absolute reason of the rationalists, or eliminated
for the sake of an equally imaginary or pure mechanism of the
naturalists. So conceived, we may describe it as (7) a conscious
application to logic of a teleological psychology which implies
ultimately a voluntaristic metaphysics.”
From these citations, and from the descriptive remarks of the
preceding two paragraphs, we may perhaps be enabled to infer that
our Anglo-American Pragmatism has progressed from the stage of
(1) a mere method of discussing truth and thinking in relation to the
problem of philosophy as a whole, (2) that of a more or less definite
and detailed criticism of the rationalism that overlooks the practical,
or purposive, character of most of our knowledge, to that of (3) a
humanistic or “voluntaristic” or “personalistic” philosophy, with its
32
many different associations and affiliations. One of the last
developments, for example, of this pragmatist humanism is Dr.
Schiller’s association of philosophy with the metaphysics of
evolution, with the attempt to find the goal of the world-process and
of human history in a changeless society of perfected individuals.
We shall immediately see, however, that this summary
description of the growth of Pragmatism has to be supplemented by
a recognition of (1) some of the different phases Pragmatism has
assumed on the continent of Europe, (2) the different phases that
may be detected in the reception or criticism accorded to it in
different countries, and (3) some of the results of the pragmatist
movement upon contemporary philosophy. All these things have to
do with the making of the complex thing that we think of as
Pragmatism and the pragmatist movement.
A NOTE ON THE MEANING OF
“PRAGMATISM”
(1) “The opinion that metaphysics is to be largely cleared up by the application of
the following maxim for obtaining clearness of apprehension: ‘Consider what
effects that might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of
our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our
conception of the object’” (Baldwin’s Philosophical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 321). [We
can see from this citation that the application of its formulæ about “consequences”
to metaphysics, or philosophy generally, must be considered as a part, or aspect,
of the pragmatist philosophy.]
(2) “The doctrine that the whole meaning of a conception expresses itself in
practical consequences; consequences either in the shape of conduct to be
recommended, or in that of experiences to be expected, if the conception be true;
which consequences would be different, if it were untrue, and must be different
from the consequences by which the meaning of other conceptions is in turn
expressed. If a second conception should not appear to have other consequence,
then it must be really only the first conception under a different name. In
methodology, it is certain that to trace and compare their respective consequences
is an admirable way of establishing the different meanings of different conceptions”
(ibid., from Professor James).
(3) “A widely current opinion during the last quarter of a century has been that
‘reasonableness’ is not a good in itself, but only for the sake of something.
Whether it be so or not seems to be a synthetical question [i.e. a question that is
not merely a verbal question, a question of words], not to be settled by an appeal
to the Principle of Contradiction [the principle hitherto relied upon by Rationalism
or Intellectualism].... Almost everybody will now agree that the ultimate good lies in
the evolutionary process in some way. If so, it is not in individual reactions in their
segregation, but in something general or continuous. Synechism is founded on the
notion that the coalescence, the becoming continuous, the becoming governed by
laws, the becoming instinct with general ideas, are but phases of one and the
same process of the growth of reasonableness” (ibid. p. 322. From Dr. Peirce, the
bracket clauses being the author’s).
(4) “It is the belief that ideas invariably strive after practical expression, and
that our whole life is teleological. Putting the matter logically, logic formulates
theoretically what is of regulative importance for life—for our ‘experience’ in view of
practical ends. Its philosophical meaning is the conviction that all facts of nature,
physically and spiritually, find their expressions in ‘will’; will and energy are
identical. This tendency is in agreement with the practical tendencies of American
thought and American life in so far as they both set a definite end before Idealism”
(Ueberweg-Heinze, Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. iv., written and contributed by
Professor Matoon Monroe Curtis, Professor of Philosophy in Western Reserve
University, Cleveland, U.S.A.).
(5) See also an article in Mind for October 1900, vol. ix. N.S., upon
“Pragmatism” by the author of this book on Pragmatism and Idealism, referred to
as one of the early sources in Baldwin’s Philosophical Dictionary (New York and
London) and in Ueberweg-Heinze’s Geschichte, Vierter Teil (Berlin, 1906).
The conclusion that I am inclined to draw from the foregoing official statements
(and also, say, from another official article like that of M. Lalande in the Revue
Philosophique, 1906, on “Pragmatisme et Pragmaticisme”) is that the term
“Pragmatism” is not of itself a matter of great importance, and that there is no
separate, intelligible, independent, self-consistent system of philosophy that may
be called Pragmatism. It is a general name for the Practicalism or Voluntarism or
Humanism or the Philosophy of the Practical Reason, or the Activism, or the
Instrumentalism, or the Philosophy of Hypotheses, or the Dynamic Philosophy of
life and things that is discussed in different ways in this book upon Pragmatism
and Idealism. And it is not and cannot be independent of the traditional body of
philosophical truth in relation to which it can alone be defined.
CHAPTER II
PRAGMATISM AND THE PRAGMATIST
MOVEMENT
In considering some of the results of pragmatist and voluntarist

doctrines in the case of European writers, to whom the American-
English triumvirate used to look somewhat sympathetically, we may
begin with Italy, which boasted, according to Dr. Schiller (writing in
1907), of a youthful band of avowed pragmatists with a militant
33
organ, the Leonardo. “Fundamentally,” declares Papini, the leader
of this movement, “Pragmatism means an unstiffening of all our
theories and beliefs, by attending to their instrumental value. It
incorporates and harmonizes various ancient tendencies, such as
Nominalism, with its protest against the use of general terms,
Utilitarianism, with its emphasis upon particular aspects and
problems, Positivism, with its disdain of verbal and useless
questions, Kantism, with its doctrine of the primacy of practical
reason, Voluntarism, with its treatment of the intellect as the tool of
the will, and Freedom, and a positive attitude towards religious
questions. It is the tendency of taking all these, and other theories,
for what they are worth, being chiefly a corridor-theory, with doors
and avenues into various theories, and a central rallying-ground for
them all.” These words are valuable as one of the many confessions
of the affiliations of Pragmatism to several other more or less
experiential, or practical, views of philosophy. It is perfectly obvious
from them that Pragmatism stands, in the main, for the apprehension
of all truth as subservient to practice, as but a device for the
“economy” of thought, for the grasping of the multiplicity and the
complexity of phenomena. It looks upon man as made, in the main,
for action, and not for speculation—a doctrine which even Mr. Peirce,
by the way, now speaks of as “a stoical maxim which to me, at the
age of sixty, does not recommend itself so forcibly as it did at
34
thirty.”
“The various ideal worlds are here,” continues Papini, according
35
to the version of James, “because the real world fails to satisfy us.
All our ideal instruments are certainly imperfect. But philosophy can
be regenerated ... it can become pragmatic in the general sense of
the word, a general theory of human action ... so that philosophic
thought will resolve itself into a comparative discussion of all the
possible programmes for man’s life, when man is once for all
regarded as a creative being.... As such, man becomes a kind of
god, and where are we to draw the limits?” In an article called “From
Man to God,” Papini, in the Leonardo, lets his imagination work in
stretching the limits of this way of thinking.
These prophetic, or Promethean, utterances—and we must
never forget that even to the Greeks philosophy was always
something of a religion or a life—may be paralleled by some of the
more enthusiastic and unguarded, early utterances of Dr. Schiller
about “voluntarism” or “metaphysical personalism” as the one
“courageous,” and the only potent, philosophy; or about the
“storming of the Jericho of rationalism” by the “jeers” and the
“trumpetings” of the confident humanists and their pragmatic
confrères. The underlying element of truth in them, and, for that part
of it, in many of the similar utterances of many of our modern
humanists, from Rabelais to Voltaire and from Shelley to Marx and
Nietzsche, is, as we may see, that a true metaphysic must serve, not
36
only as a rational system for the intellect, but as a “dynamic” or
motive for action and achievement, for the conscious activity of
rational, self-conscious beings.
37
As for the matter of any further developments of the free,
creative religion hinted by Papini, we had, in 1903, the solemn
declaration of Professor James that “the programme of the man-god
is one of the great type programmes of philosophy,” and that he
himself had been “slow” in coming to a perception of the full
inwardness of the idea. Then it led evidently in Italy itself to a new
doctrine which was trumpeted there a year or two ago in the public
38
press as “Futurism,” in which “courage, audacity and rebellion”
were the essential elements, and which could not “abide” the mere
mention of such things as “priests” and “ideals” and “professors” and
“moralism.” The extravagances of Prezzolini, who thinks of man as a
“sentimental gorilla,” were apparently the latest outcome of this
anarchical individualism and practicalism. Pragmatism was
converted by him into a sophisticated opportunism and a modern
Machiavellism, a method of attaining contentment in one’s life and of
dominating one’s fellow-creatures by playing upon their fancies and
prejudices as does the religious charlatan or the quack doctor or the
rhetorician.
The reader who may care to contemplate all this radical,
pragmatist enthusiasm for the New Reformation in a more
accessible, and a less exaggerated, form had better perhaps consult
the recent work of Mr. Sturt of Oxford on the Idea of a Free Church.
In this work the principles of Pragmatism are applied, first, critically
and in the main negatively, to the moral dogmas of traditional
Christianity, and then positively to the new conception of religion he
would substitute for all this—the development of personality in
accordance with the claims of family and of national life. A fair-
minded criticism of this book would, I think, lead to the conclusion
that the changes contemplated by Mr. Sturt are already part and
parcel of the programme of liberal Christianity, whether we study this
in the form of the many more or less philosophical presentations of
the same in modern German theology, or in the form of the free,
moral and social efforts of the voluntary religion of America and
England. In America many of the younger thinkers in theology and
philosophy are already writing in a more or less popular manner
upon Pragmatism as a philosophy that bids fair to harmonize
“traditional” and “radical” conceptions of religion. One of these
39
writers, for example, in a recent important commemorative volume,
tries to show how this may be done by interpreting the
“supernatural,” not as the “trans-experimental,” but as the “ethical” in
experience, and by turning “dogmatic” into “historical theology.” And
it would not be difficult to find many books and addresses in which
the same idea is expressed. The more practical wing of this same
party endeavours to connect Pragmatism with the whole philosophy
and psychology of religious conversion, as this has been worked
40 41
over by recent investigators like Stanley Hall, Starbuck, and
others, and, above all, by James in his striking volume The Varieties
42
of Religious Experience.
The fact, of course—and I shall immediately refer to it—that
Pragmatism has been hailed in France as a salutary doctrine, not
merely by Liberals and Evangelicals, but by devout Catholics and
Anti-modernists, is perhaps enough to give us some pause in the
matter of its application in the sphere of theoretical and practical
religion. It is useful, it would seem, sometimes to “liberate” the spirit
of man, and useful, too, at other times to connect the strivings of the
individual with the more or less organized experiences of past ages.
Turning, then, to France, it is, judging from the claims of the
pragmatists, and from some of the literature bearing upon this entire
43
subject, fairly evident that there has been a kind of association or
relationship between Pragmatism and the following tendencies in
recent French philosophy: (1) the “freedom” and “indeterminism”
44
philosophy of Renouvier and other members of the Neo-Critical
school, and of Boutroux and Bergson, who, “although differing from
each other in many important respects,” all “belong to the same
movement of thought, the reaction against Hegelianism and the cult
of science which has dominated France since the decline of the
45
metaphysics of the school of Cousin”; (2) the philosophy of
science and scientific hypotheses represented by writers like
46 47 48
Poincaré, Brunschvicg, Le Roy, Milhaud, Abel Rey, and
others; (3) the religious philosophy and the fideism of the followers of
the spiritualistic metaphysic of Bergson, many of whom go further
than he does, and “make every effort to bring him to the confessional
49
faith”; and (4) the French philosophy of to-day that definitely bears
50
the name of Pragmatism, that of M. Blondel, who in 1893 wrote a
suggestive work entitled L’Action, and who claims to have coined the
word Pragmatism, after much careful consideration and
discrimination, as early as 1888—many years before the California
pamphlet of James.
The first of these points of correspondence or relationship we
can pass over with the remark that we shall have a good deal to say
about the advantage enjoyed by Pragmatism over Rationalism in the
treatment of “freedom” and the “volitional” side of human nature, and
also about the general pragmatist reaction against Rationalism.
And as for the philosophy of science, it has been shown that our
English-speaking pragmatists cannot exactly pride themselves in the
somewhat indiscriminate manner of James and Schiller upon the
supposed support for their “hypothetical” conception of science and
philosophy to be found in the work of their French associates upon
the logic of science. “The men of great learning who were named as
sponsors of this new philosophy have more and more testified what
reservations they make, and how greatly their conclusions differ from
51
those which are currently attributed to them.” Both Brunschvicg
and Poincaré, in fact, take the greatest pains in their books to
dissociate themselves from anything like the appearance of an
acceptance of the doctrine of the relativity of knowledge, from the
signs of any lack of faith in the idea that science, as far as it goes,
gives us a true revelation of the nature of reality.
Then in regard to (3) the French pragmatist philosophy or
religion we have only to read the reports and the quotations of M.
Lalande to see in this philosophy the operation of an uncritical
dogmatism or a blind “fideism” to which very few other philosophers,
either in France or in any other country, would care to subscribe. “La
Revue de Philosophie, which is directed by ecclesiastics, recently
extolled pragmatism as a means of proving orthodox beliefs.” ...
“This system solves a great many difficulties in philosophy; it
explains the necessity of principles marvellously.” ... “The existence
of God, Providence and Immortality are demonstrated by their happy
effects upon our terrestrial life.” ... “If we can consider the matter
carefully, it will be seen that the Good is the useful; for not to be
good in anything is synonymous with being bad, and everywhere the
52
true is the useful. It is in this assertion that Pragmatism consists.”
And as to the fourth tendency, there is, at its outset, according to
M. Lalande, a more rational or ethical basis for the fideism of M.
Blondel’s book upon action, which starts off with a criticism of
philosophic dilettantism quite analogous with that which Mr. Peirce
follows in How to Make Our Ideas Clear. But M. Blondel “does not
continue in the same manner, and his conclusion is very different.
Rejecting all philosophical formalism, he puts his trust in moral
experience, and consults it directly. He thinks that moral experience
shows that action is not wholly self-contained, but that it
presupposes a reality which transcends the world in which we
53
participate.”
Finally, maintains M. Blondel, “we are unable, as Pascal already
said, either to live, or to understand ourselves, by ourselves alone.
So that, unless we mutilate our nature by renouncing all earnestness
of life, we are necessarily led to recognize in ourselves the presence
of God. Our problem, therefore, can only be solved by an act of
absolute faith in a positive religion [Catholicism in his case]. This
completes the series of acts of faith, without which no action, not
even our daily acts, could be accomplished, and without which we
should fall into absolute barrenness, both practical and
54
intellectual.”
Now again these words about our being unable to understand
ourselves “by ourselves alone” contain an element of truth which we
may associate with the pragmatist tendency to believe in a socialized
55
(as distinguished from an individualistic) interpretation of our
common moral life, to believe, that is to say, in a society of persons
as the truth (or the reality) of the universe, rather than in an
interpretation of the universe as the thinking experience of a single
absolute intelligence. This, however, is also a point which we are
56
obliged to defer until we take up the general subject of the
relations between Pragmatism and Rationalism. The other words of
the paragraph, in respect of our absolute need of faith in some
positive religion, are, of course, expressive again of the uncritical
fideism to which reference has already been made. As an offset or
alternative to the “free” religion of Papini and James and to the
experimental or practical religion of different Protestant bodies, it is
57
enough of itself to give us pause in estimating the real drift of
Pragmatism in regard to religious faith and the philosophy of
58
religion.
59
We shall meantime take leave of French Pragmatism with the
reflection that it is thus obviously as complex and as confusing and
confused a thing as is the Pragmatism of other countries. It is now
almost a generation since we began to hear of a renascence of
60
spiritualism and idealism in France in connexion not merely with
61
the work of philosophers like Renouvier and Lachelier and Fouillée
and Boutroux, but with men of letters like De Vogué, Lavisse,
62
Faguet, Desjardins and the rest, and some of the French
Pragmatism of to-day is but one of the more specialized phases of
the broader movement.
And as for the special question of the influence of James and his
philosophy upon Bergson, and of that of the possible return influence
63
of Bergson upon James, the evidence produced by Lalande from
Bergson himself is certainly all to the effect that both men have
worked very largely independently of each other, although perfectly
cognisant now and then of each other’s publications. Both men,
along with their followers (and this is all that needs interest us), have
obviously been under the influence of ideas that have long been in
64
the air about the need of a philosophy that is “more truly empirical”
than the traditional philosophy, and more truly inclined to “discover
what is involved in our actions in the ultimate recess, when,
unconsciously and in spite of ourselves, we support existence and
65
cling to it whether we completely understand it or not.”
As for Pragmatism and pragmatist achievements in Germany,
there is, as might well be supposed, little need of saying much. The
genius of the country is against both; and if there is any Pragmatism
in Germany, it must have contrived somehow to have been “born
66
again” of the “spirit” before obtaining official recognition. So much
even might be inferred from the otherwise generous recognition
accorded to the work of James by scholars and thinkers like Eucken
67
and Stein and the rest. Those men cannot see Pragmatism save in
the broad light of the “humanism” that has always characterised
philosophy, when properly appreciated, and understood in the light of
its true genesis. Pragmatism has in fact been long known in
Germany under the older names of “Voluntarism” and “Humanism,”
although it may doubtless be associated there with some of the more
pronounced tendencies of the hour, such as the recent insistence of
the “Göttingen Fries School” upon the importance of the “genetic”
and the “descriptive” point of view in regard even to the matter of the
supposed first principles of knowledge, the hypothetical and
methodological conception of philosophy taken by philosophical
68
scientists like Mach and Ostwald and their followers, the
69
“empiricism” and “realism” of thinkers like the late Dr. Avenarius of
Zurich.
Then the so-called “teleological,” or “practical,” character of our
human thinking has also been recognized in modern German
thought long before the days of Peirce and Dewey, even by such
strictly academic thinkers as Lotze and Sigwart. The work of the
latter thinker upon Logic, by the way, was translated into English
under distinctly Neo-Hegelian influences. In the second portion of
this work the universal presuppositions of knowledge are considered,
not merely as a priori truths, but as akin in some important respects
“to the ethical principles by which we are wont to determine and
70
guide our free conscious activity.” But even apart from this matter
of the natural association of Pragmatism with the Voluntarism that
71
has long existed in German philosophy, we may undoubtedly pass
to the following things in contemporary and recent German thought
as sympathetic, in the main, to the pragmatist tendencies of James
and Dewey and Schiller: (1) the practical conception of science and
philosophy, as both of them a kind of “economy of the attention,” a
72
sort of “conceptual shorthand” (for the purposes of the
“description” of our environment) that we have referred to in the case
of Mach and Ostwald; (2) the close association between the
73
“metaphysical” and the “cultural” in books like those of Jerusalem
74
and Eleutheropulos; (3) the sharp criticism of the Rationalism of
the Critical Idealism by the two last-mentioned thinkers, and by some
75
of the members of the new Fichte School like Schellwien; and last
76
but not least, (4) the tendency to take a psychological and a
77
sociological (instead of a merely logical) view of the functions of
thought and philosophy, that is just as accentuated in Germany at
the present time as it is elsewhere.
James and Schiller have both been fond of referring to the work
of many of these last-mentioned men as favourable to a conception
of philosophy less as a “theory of knowledge” (or a “theory of being”)
in the old sense than as a Weltanschauungslehre (a view of the
world as whole), a “discussion of the various possible programmes
for man’s life” to which reference has already been made in the case
of Papini and others. And we might associate with their predilections
and persuasions in this regard the apparent Pragmatism also of a
78
great scholar like Harnack in reference to the subordination of
religious dogma to the realities of the religious life, or the
79
Pragmatism of Ritschl himself, in regard to the subordinate place
in living religion of mere intellectual theory, or even some of the
tendencies of the celebrated value-philosophy of Rickert and
80 81
Windelband and Münsterberg and the rest. But again the main
trouble about all this quasi-German support for the pragmatists is
that most of these contemporary thinkers have taken pains to trace
the roots of their teaching back into the great systems of the past.
The pragmatists, on the other hand, have been notoriously careless
about the matter of the various affiliations of their “corridor-like” and
eclectic theory.
There are many reasons, however, against regarding even the
philosophical expression of many of the practical and scientific
tendencies of Germany as at all favourable to the acceptance of
Pragmatism as a satisfactory philosophy from the German point of
view. Among these reasons are: (1) The fact that it is naturally
impossible to find any real support in past or present German
philosophy for the impossible breach that exists in Pragmatism
between the “theoretical” and the “practical,” and (2) the fact that
Germany has only recently passed through a period of sharp conflict
between the psychological (or the “genetic”) and the logical point of
view regarding knowledge, resulting in a confessed victory for the
latter. And then again (3) even if there is a partial correspondence
between Pragmatism and the quasi economic (or “practical”)
conception taken of philosophy by some of the younger men in
Germany who have not altogether outlived their reaction against
Rationalism, there are other tendencies there that are far more
characteristic of the spirit and of the traditions of the country. Among
these are the New Idealism generally, the strong Neo-Kantian
82
movement of the Marburg school and their followers in different
83
places, the revived interest in Hegel and in Schelling, the Neo-
Romanticism of Jena, with its booklets upon such topics as The
84
Culture of the Soul, Life with Nature, German Idealism, and so on.
And then (4) there are just as many difficulties in the way of
regarding the psychological and sociological philosophy of men like
Jerusalem and Eleutheropulos as anything like a final philosophy of
knowledge, as there is in attempting to do the same thing with the
merely preliminary and tentative philosophy of James and his
associates.
Returning now to America and England, although Pragmatism is
85
eminently an American doctrine, it would, of course, be absurd to
imagine that Pragmatism has carried the entire thought of the United
86
States with it. It encountered there, even at the outset, at least
something of the contempt and the incredulity and the hostility that it
met with elsewhere, and also much of the American shrewd
indifference to a much-advertised new article. The message of
James as a philosopher, too, was doubtless discounted (at least by
the well-informed) in the light of his previous brilliant work as a
descriptive psychologist, and also, perhaps, in the light of his
87
wonderfully suggestive personality.
What actually happened in America in respect of the pragmatist
movement was, first of all, the sudden emergence of a magazine
88
literature in connexion with the Will-to-Believe philosophy of James
and the California address, and in connexion (according to the
generous testimony of James) with Deweyism or “Instrumentalism.”
Much of this tiresome and hair-splitting magazine discussion of
“ideas as instruments of thought,” and of the “consequences”
(“theoretical” or “practical” or what not) by which ideas were to be
“tested,” was pronounced by James, in 1906, to be largely crude and
superficial. It had the indirect merit, however, of yielding one or two
valuable estimates of the many inconsistencies in Pragmatism, and
of the many different kinds of Pragmatism or instrumentalism that
there seemed to be, and of the value of Pragmatism as a “theory of
knowledge,” and as a “philosophical generalization.” The upshot of
the whole preliminary discussion was (1) the discovery that,
Pragmatism having arisen (as Dewey himself put it) out of a
multitude of conflicting tendencies in regard to what we might call the
“approach” to philosophy, would probably soon “dissolve itself” back
89
again into some of the streams out of which it had arisen, and (2)
the discovery that all that this early “methodological” pragmatism
amounted to was the harmless doctrine that the meaning of any
conception expressed itself in the past or future conduct or
experience of actual, or possible, sentient creatures.
90
We shall again take occasion to refer to this comparative
failure of Pragmatism to give any systematic or unified account of the
consequences by which it would seek to test the truth of
propositions. Its failure, however, in this connexion is a matter of
91
secondary importance in comparison with the great lesson to be
drawn from its idea that there can be for man no objective truth
92
about the universe, apart from the idea of its meaning or
significance to his experience and to his conscious activity.
What is now taking place in America in this second decade [i.e.
in the years after 1908] of the pragmatist movement is apparently (1)
the sharpest kind of official rationalist condemnation of Pragmatism
as an imperfectly proved and a merely “subjective” and a highly
unsystematic philosophy; (2) the appearance of a number of
93
instructive booklets upon Pragmatism and the pragmatist
movement, some of them expository and critical, some of them in the
main sympathetic, some of them condemnatory and even
contemptuous, and some of them attempts at further constructive
work along pragmatist lines; (3) indications here and there of the
acceptance and the promulgation of older and newer doctrines
antithetic and hostile to Pragmatism—some of them possibly as
typically American as Pragmatism itself.
As a single illustration of the partly constructive work that is
being attempted in the name and the spirit of pragmatism, we may
94
instance the line of reflection entered upon by Professor Moore in
consequence of his claim that to Pragmatism the fundamental thing
in any judgment or proposition is not so much its consequences, but
its “value.” This claim may, no doubt, be supported by the many
declarations of James and Schiller that the “true,” like the “good” and
the “beautiful,” is simply a “valuation,” and not the fetish that the
rationalists make it out to be. It is doubtful, however, as we may try to
indicate, whether this “value” interpretation of Pragmatism can be
carried out independently of the more systematic attempts at a
general philosophy of value that are being made to-day in Germany
and America and elsewhere. And then it would be a matter of no
ordinary difficulty to clear up the inconsistency that doubtless exists
between Pragmatism as a value philosophy and Pragmatism as a
mere philosophy of “consequences.” It is “immediate,” and
“verifiable,” and “definitely appreciated” consequences, rather than
the higher values of our experience that (up to the present time)
seem to have bulked largely in the argumentations of the
pragmatists.
And as an illustration of a doctrine that is both American and
95
hostile to pragmatism, we may instance the New Realism that was
recently launched in a collective manifesto in The Journal of
Philosophy and Scientific Methods. This realism is, to be sure,
hostile to every form of “subjectivism” or personalism, and may in a
certain sense be regarded as the emergence into full daylight of the
96
realism or dualism that we found to be lurking in James’s “radical
empiricism.” It is, therefore, as it were, one of the signs that
Pragmatism is perhaps breaking up in America into some of the
more elemental tendencies out of which it developed—in this case
the American desire for operative (or effective) realism and for a
97
“direct” contact with reality instead of the indirect contact of so
many metaphysical systems.
It is only necessary to add here that it is to the credit of American
rationalism of the Neo-Hegelian type that it has shown itself, notably
98
in the writings of Professor Royce, capable, not only of criticising
Pragmatism, but of seeking to incorporate, in a constructive
philosophy of the present, some of the features of the pragmatist
emphasis upon “will” and “achievement” and “purpose.” It is,
therefore, in this respect at least in line with some of the best
tendencies in contemporary European philosophy.
Lastly, there are certain tendencies of recent English philosophy
with which Pragmatism has special affinities. Among these may be
99
mentioned: (1) the various general and specific criticisms that have
been made there for at least two generations on the more or less
formal and abstract character of the metaphysic of our Neo-Kantians
and our Neo-Hegelians; (2) the concessions that have recently been
made by prominent rationalists to the undoubtedly purposive, or
“teleological,” character of our human thinking, and to the connexion
of our mental life with our entire practical and spiritual activity. Many
of these concessions are now regarded as the merest
commonplaces of speculation, and we shall probably refer to them in
our next chapter. Then there is (3) the well-known insistence of some
100
of our foremost psychologists, like Ward and Stout, upon the
reality of activity and “purpose” in mental process, and upon the part
played by them in the evolution of our intellectual life, and of our
adjustment to the world in which we find ourselves. And (4) the
ethical and social idealism of such well-known members of our Neo-
Hegelian school as Professors Jones, Mackenzie, and Muirhead.
These scholars and thinkers are just as insistent as the pragmatists
upon the idea that philosophy and thought are, and should be, a
practical social “dynamic”—that is to say, “forces” and “motives”
making for the perfection of the common life. (5) A great deal of the
philosophy of science and of the philosophy of axioms and
postulates to be found in British writers, from Mill and Jevons to Karl
101
Pearson and Mr. A. Sidgwick and many others.
Apart from all this, however, or rather, in addition to it, it may be
truly said that one of the striking things about recent British
102
philosophical literature is the stir and the activity that have been
excited in the rationalist camp by the writings of the pragmatists and
the “personal idealists,” and by the critics of these newer modes of
thought. All this has led to many such re-statements of the problems
of philosophy as are to be found in the books of men like
103 104 105 106
Joachim, Henry Jones, A. E. Taylor, Boyce-Gibson,
107 108 109
Henry H. Sturt, S. H. Mellone, J. H. B. Joseph, and others,
and even, say, in such a representative book as that of Professor
Stewart upon the classical theme of Plato’s Theory of Ideas. In this
work an attempt is made to interpret Plato’s “Ideas” in the light of
pragmatist considerations as but “categories” or “points of view”
which we find it convenient to use in dealing with our sense
experience.
CHAPTER III
SOME FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
We shall now attempt a somewhat detailed treatment of a few of the

more characteristic tendencies of Pragmatism. The following have
already been mentioned in our general sketch of its development
and of the appearance of the pragmatist philosophy in Europe and
America: (1) the attempted modification by Pragmatism of the
extremes of Rationalism, and its dissatisfaction with the rationalism
of both science and philosophy; (2) its progress from the stage of a
mere practical and experimental theory of truth to a broad humanism
in which philosophy itself becomes (like art, say) merely an important
“dynamic” element in human culture; (3) its preference in the matter
of first principles for “faith” and “experience” and a trust in our
instinctive “beliefs”; (4) its readiness to affiliate itself with the various
liberal and humanistic tendencies in human thought, such as the
philosophy of “freedom,” and the “hypothetical method” of science,
modern ethical and social idealism, the religious reaction of recent
years, the voluntaristic trend in German post-Kantian philosophy,
and so on. Our subject in this chapter, however, is rather that of the
three or four more or less characteristic assumptions and
contentions upon which all these and the many other pragmatist
tendencies may be said to rest.
The first and foremost of these assumptions is the position that
all truth is “made” truth, “human” truth, truth related to human
attitudes and purposes, and that there is no “objective” or
“independent” truth, no truth “in whose establishment the function of
giving human satisfaction, in marrying previous parts of experience
with newer parts, has played no rôle.” Truths were “nothing,” as it
were, before they were “discovered,” and the most ancient truths
were once “plastic,” or merely susceptible of proof or disproof. Truth
is “made” just like “health,” or “wealth,” or “value,” and so on.
Insistence, we might say, upon this one note, along with the entire
line of reflection that it awakens in him, is really, as Dewey reminds
us, the main burden of James’s book upon Pragmatism. Equally
characteristic is it too of Dewey himself who is for ever reverting to
his doctrine of the factitious character of truth. There is no “fixed
distinction,” he tells us, “between the empirical values of the
unreflective life and the most abstract process of rational thought.”
And to Schiller, again, this same thought is the beginning of
everything in philosophy, for with an outspoken acceptance of this
doctrine of the “formation” of all truth, Pragmatism, he thinks, can do
at least two things that Rationalism is for ever debarred from doing:
(1) distinguish adequately “truth” from “fact,” and (2) distinguish
adequately truth from error. Whether these two things be, or be not,
110
the consequences of the doctrine in question [and we shall return
to the point] we may perhaps accept it as, on the whole, harmonious
with the teaching of psychology about the nature of our ideas as
mental habits, or about thinking as a restrained, or a guided, activity.
It is in harmony, too, with the palpable truism that all “truth” must be
truth that some beings or other who have once “sought” truth (for
some reasons or other) have at last come to regard as satisfying
their search and their purposes. And this truism, it would seem, must
remain such in spite of, or even along with, any meaning that there
may be in the idea of what we call “God’s truth.” By this expression
men understand, it would seem, merely God’s knowledge of truths or
facts of which we as men may happen to be ignorant. But then there
can have been no time in which God can be imagined to have been
ignorant of these or any other matters. It is therefore not for Him truth
as opposed to falsehood.
And then, again, this pragmatist position about all truth being
111
“made” truth would seem to be valid in view of the difficulty (Plato
spoke of it) of reconciling God’s supposed absolute knowledge of
112
reality with our finite and limited apprehension of the same.

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Mathematics instruction continues to be challenging for many teachers in American schools.

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Part II Basic Concepts and Skills

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Chapter 1 Direct Instruction 1

Chapter 2 Research Support for Direct Instruction Mathematics 10

Chapter 3 Curriculum Evaluation and Modification 17

Part II Basic Concepts and Skills

Chapter 5 Symbol Identification and Place Value 39

Chapter 6 Basic Facts 68

Chapter 8 Subtraction 115

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Chapter 10 Division 164

Chapter 11 Problem Solving 201

Chapter 12 Measurement, Time, and Money 245

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Chapter 14 Decimals 359

Chapter 16 Data Analysis 418

Chapter 17 Geometry 443

Chapter 18 Pre-algebra 478

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4.1 Introducing New Numbers 34

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9.2 Missing-Factor Multiplication 156

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13.13 Converting Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions 346

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In considering some of the results of pragmatist and voluntarist

We shall now attempt a somewhat detailed treatment of a few of the

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