PDF Educational Leadership Pearson New International Edition A Bridge To Improved Practice Paula Cordeiro Ebook Full Chapter

Educational Leadership Pearson New
International Edition A Bridge to

Improved Practice Paula Cordeiro
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/educational-leadership-pearson-new-international-edi
tion-a-bridge-to-improved-practice-paula-cordeiro/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Study Guide and Student s Solutions Manual for Organic

Chemistry Pearson New International Edition Paula Y.
Bruice
https://textbookfull.com/product/study-guide-and-student-s-
solutions-manual-for-organic-chemistry-pearson-new-international-
edition-paula-y-bruice/
Introduction to Biotechnology: Pearson New

International Edition William J Thieman
https://textbookfull.com/product/introduction-to-biotechnology-
pearson-new-international-edition-william-j-thieman/
Body school a new guide to improved movement in daily

life 1st Edition Knox
https://textbookfull.com/product/body-school-a-new-guide-to-
improved-movement-in-daily-life-1st-edition-knox/
Biostatistical Analysis: Pearson New International

Edition Jerrold H Zar
https://textbookfull.com/product/biostatistical-analysis-pearson-
new-international-edition-jerrold-h-zar/
The Wiley International Handbook of Educational
Leadership 1st Edition Duncan Waite
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-wiley-international-
handbook-of-educational-leadership-1st-edition-duncan-waite/
Diversity in families Ninth Edition, Pearson New

International Edition Zinn
https://textbookfull.com/product/diversity-in-families-ninth-
edition-pearson-new-international-edition-zinn/
Analysis with an introduction to proof. Fifth Edition,

Pearson New International Edition Steven R. Lay
https://textbookfull.com/product/analysis-with-an-introduction-
to-proof-fifth-edition-pearson-new-international-edition-steven-
r-lay/
Research in education Tenth Edition, Pearson New

International Edition. Edition Kahn
https://textbookfull.com/product/research-in-education-tenth-
edition-pearson-new-international-edition-edition-kahn/
Child Development and Education Pearson New

International Edition Teresa M. Mcdevitt
https://textbookfull.com/product/child-development-and-education-
pearson-new-international-edition-teresa-m-mcdevitt/
Educational Leadership: A Bridge
to Improved Practice
Paula Cordeiro William Cunningham
Fifth Edition
Pearson New International Edition
&EVDBUJPOBM-FBEFSTIJQ"#SJEHF
UP*NQSPWFE1SBDUJDF
1BVMB$PSEFJSP8JMMJBN$VOOJOHIBN
'JGUI&EJUJPO
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the World Wide Web at:www.pearsoned.co.uk
© Pearson Education Limited 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the
prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark
in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such
trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any afﬁliation with or endorsement of this
book by such owners.
,6%1
,6%1
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Printed in the United States of America

P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y
Table of Contents
-FBEFSTIJQ4UBOEBSET 7BMVFTBOE1SBDUJDF
Paula A. Cordeiro/William G. Cunningham 1
$POUFYUBOE1FSTQFDUJWFGPS&EVDBUJPOBM-FBEFST
-FBEFSTIJQ5IFPSZBOE1SBDUJDF
1#-.BSWFMJOHBUUIF3FTVMUT1PXFS 3PMFT 3FMBUJPOTIJQT BOE4PDJBM3FGPSN
-FBEJOH-FBSOJOHJO4DIPPMT
5FDIOPMPHZBOE-FBSOJOH
%JWFSTJUZBOE-BOHVBHF-FBSOJOH
$VSSJDVMVN%FWFMPQNFOUBOE"TTFTTNFOU
4UVEFOU4VQQPSU4FSWJDFT
-BXBOE1PMJDZ
3FTPVSDF"MMPDBUJPOBOE.BOBHFNFOU
"QQFOEJY1SPCMFN#BTFE-FBSOJOH
"QQFOEJY'BDJMJUBUJOH(SPVQT
,
"QQFOEJY"EEJUJPOBM1#-1SPKFDU
3FGFSFODFTBOE#JCMJPHSBQIZ
*OEFY 409
,,
LEADERSHIP STANDARDS,
VALUES, AND PRACTICE
From Chapter 1 of Educational Leadership: A Bridge to Improved Practice, Fifth Edition. Paula A. Cordeiro
and William G. Cunningham. Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LEADERSHIP STANDARDS,
VALUES, AND PRACTICE
Visit the site for Educational Leadership: A Bridge to Im-

proved Practice, Fifth Edition to enhance your understanding of chapter
concepts. You’ll have the opportunity to practice your skills through video-
and case-based Assignments and Activities as well as Building Leadership
Skills units, and to prepare for your certification exam with Practice for
Certification quizzes.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
The 20-year period beginning the 21st century provides one of the great
opportunities to obtain educational administration positions. According to the
U.S. Department of Labor, over 52% of the nation’s 92,330 principals and 20%
of vice and assistant principals will retire over the next 12 years. For example,
48% of elementary school principals are age 50 or older. Moreover, an addi-
tional 1.5 million elementary and middle school students are expected in
public schools by 2015. In some regions of the nation, this translates into a
shortage of qualified applicants for at least the next 10 years. However, some
researchers note that the problem is not in the quantity of candidates, but in the
quality. Additionally, many candidates avoid certain schools and districts, such
as those with low salaries or high-poverty and/or high-minority populations
making the school leadership “shortage” more acute in certain regions. Thus,
as some scholars note, the perceived shortage problem is one of distribution
and poor leadership preparation, rather than inadequate supply. According
to the Department of Labor’s Occupational Outlook Handbook 2010–11, job
opportunities in most regions of the nation should be excellent because of a
large number of expected retirements and fewer qualified applications for
some positions.

LEADERSHIP STANDARDS, VALUES, AND PRACTICE
Fink and Brayman (2006) found that turnover and shortages of principals
resulted “from the aging of the baby boom generation, principals’ mobility, and
the pressures of the standardization agenda which have created additional diffi-
culties . . . and undermine the capacity of incoming and outgoing principals to lead
their schools” (p. 83).
At the same time, the number of qualified candidates willing to assume
positions of school leadership is growing smaller (Young, Petersen, & Short, 2002).
According to the National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP),
half of all surveyed districts, including 45% of those classified as suburban,
reported shortages of qualified candidates for principalships at all levels. School
districts across the country are studying ways to increase the number of candi-
dates for administrative positions, including the superintendency.
School districts are identifying future leaders who can think thoroughly and
quickly about complex issues, collaborate with diverse groups, show good judg-
ment, stay on the cutting edge of school improvement, and lead needed school
reforms. These leaders will be risk takers and coalition builders who can obtain
broad support.
In all states, educational leaders will have to meet established educational
administrative licensure requirements. Over 40 states now require a master’s
degree with some administrative courses for an administrative and supervision
license. These state requirements were developed to ensure the quality of the prep-
aration of our future practicing school leaders. They exist to protect the health,
safety, and welfare of the public and to ensure knowledge and skills important for
competent practice. In addition, many states and local districts now offer leader-
ship academies to complement the training received in universities and to provide
in-service development for practicing administrators.
A growing number of states, particularly southern states, have established
cutoff scores on various forms of assessment as a prerequisite to receiving licen-
sure. A licensure test is designed to determine if individuals possess occupation-
relevant knowledge and skills at the time of entry into their profession. The belief
is that school administrators should be held accountable to the same high stan-
dards as teachers. The Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC)
standards (see Box 1) guide and shape the 6-hour Educational Testing Service
(ETS) School Leadership Licensure Assessment (SLLA) and the scoring of the
exercises. Currently more than 40 states have adopted the ISLLC standards into
their administrative certification program requirements.
At least 13 states now use the SLLA as part of the administrative licensure
process. A number of states have developed other formal assessments, for exam-
ple, the Connecticut Administrative Test (CAT). The CAT assesses the candidate’s
ability in the areas of instructional supervision, school improvement, data-driven
decision making, and student learning. Other states have developed two- and
three-tier licensing systems, to encourage continuous development of educational
leaders. The idea is to support involvement of local educational agencies (LEA) in
the training of administrators and to formalize the mentoring for new administra-
tors over a certain period of time. State-funded principal leadership academies in

BOX 1
ISLLC STANDARDS FOR SCHOOL LEADERS
STANDARD 1 STANDARD 4
A school administrator is an educational leader A school administrator is an educational
who promotes the success of all students by leader who promotes the success of all stu-
facilitating the development, articulation, im- dents by collaborating with families and
plementation, and stewardship of a vision of community members, responding to diverse
learning that is shared and supported by the community interests and needs, and mobiliz-
school community. ing resources.
STANDARD 2 STANDARD 5
A school administrator is an educational leader A school administrator is an educational leader
who promotes the success of all students by ad- who promotes the success of all students by
vocating, nurturing, and sustaining a school cul- acting with integrity, with fairness, and in an
ture and an instructional program conducive to ethical manner.
student learning and staff professional growth.
STANDARD 6
STANDARD 3 A school administrator is an educational leader
A school administrator is an educational leader who promotes the success of all students by
who promotes the success of all students by understanding, responding to, and influencing
ensuring management of the organization, op- the larger political, social, economic, legal, and
erations, and resources for a safe, efficient, and cultural context.
effective learning environment.
The Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) Standards were developed by the Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO) and member states. Copies may be downloaded from the council’s website at
www.ccsso.org.
Council of Chief State School Officers. (1996). Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) standards for
school leaders. Washington, DC: Author.
some states offer professional development programs, as well. These

states establish and continuously fund such statewide academic pro-
grams to ensure a stable source of learning opportunities for principals
and other school leaders. North Carolina has had a leadership academy
located at UNC-Chapel Hill for more than 20 years.
Practitioner-oriented professional associations also provide input
on the identification, preparation, and practice of educational leaders.
They have local, state, and national meetings; academies; and confer-
ences for the purpose of providing professional development while
shaping the latest thinking in educational leadership. They publish
newsletters, journals, and books that help administrative students and
practitioners to keep current in their field. They have a long-standing
commitment to the improvement of education and have championed
the cause for innovation and experimentation.

Those preparing to be administrators as well as practicing administrators

should associate with a professional association that best meets their needs. Some
of the older and most well-known professional associations include the following:
EXAMPLE OF A MAJOR
PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION PRACTITIONER AUDIENCE
Council of Chief State School State superintendents
Officers (CCSSO)
National School Boards School board members
Association (NSBA)
American Association of School Superintendents
Administrators (AASA)
Association for Supervision and Central office personnel and
Curriculum Development (ASCD) supervisors
National Association of Secondary High school principals
School Principals (NASSP)
Middle School Principal Middle school principals
Association (MSPA)
National Association of Elementary Elementary school principals
School Principals (NAESP)
National Education Association (NEA) Teachers
American Federation of Teachers (AFT) Teachers
Phi Delta Kappa (PDK) Educators in general
One example of the profound influence that professional associations might have
on the preparation of future school administrators can be found in the work of the
CCSSO, which, in conjunction with the National Policy Board for Educational Admin-
istration (NPBEA)—a joint board representing a number of educational professional
associations—created ISLLC to develop standards for the preparation and assessment
of school leaders. These six standards have been adopted by a majority of the states
and have influenced state administrative licensure requirements, the design of the ETS
Administrative Assessment, and the development of educational administrative pro-
grams across the United States (for more information see npbea.org).
Many educational leadership programs have met the Council for the Accred-
itation of Educator Preparation (CAEP, formerly called NCATE) standards. CAEP
has authorized the Educational Leadership Constituent Council (ELCC), an affili-
ation of four administration groups, to review preparation programs for educa-
tional leaders and provide recognition for those programs that meet the standards.
Schools, school divisions, state departments of education, the U.S. Office of
Education, professional associations, and universities form a rich network of or-
ganizations focused on improving the teaching/learning process as well as other

aspects of education by enhancing organizational and individual effectiveness.

Administrators benefit from a knowledge base, skills, ethical principles, and con-
textual understanding that provide the intellectual grounding needed for effec-
tive leadership. They build on a core of knowledge and skills in which theory and
practice are integrated to improve performance.
Effective administrators are prepared to respond to the larger political, so-
cial, economic, legal, and cultural context of schools. Administrators are expected
to apply a variety of policies, laws, regulations, and procedures in creative ways.
They are expected to operate and maintain safe and clean buildings, equipment, and
grounds while keeping attention focused on instruction. When you assume the role
of an educational administrator, you will influence the direction of schooling so that
each student leaves school having the capacity to engage in self-governance and
self-development and to contribute to the economic benefits of our society.
Thomas Jefferson noted that schooling is necessary for democracy to sur-
vive. Each administrator is expected to be a catalyst in the process by which mul-
tiple voices, conflicting values, and diverse expectations are molded into a vision
for education. The vision must meet the tests of justice, fairness, and equity.
Thus, schooling is a profoundly human enterprise, an institution that nourishes
liberty and democracy and provides access to economic benefits. It is also a tech-
nological enterprise that integrates the latest advances into the curriculum and
instructional process.
Communicating, facilitating, team building, coaching, managing conflict, in-
volving others in decision making, and acting politically are a few of the major
skills to be developed in the context of technological advancement, assessment
and accountability, diversity, new knowledge, and limited resources, among
many other elements. Effective administration requires cooperation among
departments, government agencies, staff members, professional groups, political
office holders, school board members, media, universities, publishers, and
many others.
Research, Theory, and Practice

Although there is no sense of total agreement on what educational administrators
need to know and be able to do, conceptually there is widely accepted consen-
sus that there are some foundational factors central to the practice of educational
administration. Certainly the mission includes commitment to effective opera-
tion and continuous improvement of our schools, but it is far more than that. The
desirable aspects of effective leadership are influenced by beliefs related to caring,
pedagogy, moral stewardship, renewal, accountability, passion, charisma, civility,
economic utility, reform, democratic character, social justice, and competence. The
need is to provide a comprehensive account of educational leadership without
oversimplifying its complex, dynamic, and interactive nature.
Educational leadership preparation programs throughout the United States
are under intense scrutiny and criticism. Certainly there has been no greater scath-
ing nor controversial attack than that by Arthur Levine (2005) who stated, “Some

observers have expressed serious reservations about whether these institutions are
capable of re-engineering their leadership preparation programs to effectively educate
aspiring principals and superintendents to lead high performing schools. . . . The
typical course of study for the principalship has little to do with the job of being a
principal” (p. 27). Joseph Murphy (1990) talks about “the bankruptcy of the tradi-
tional ways of doing things” (p. 2). I am reminded of the quip, “If your horse dies,
it is best to get off.” Others have called these programs “bridges to nowhere.” This
criticism is not new and has been debated since the mid-1980s with the critical
attack by the National Commission of Excellence in Educational Administration.
In 2003, the Broad Foundation and Fordham Institute called for an opening up and
deregulating of the field. This is occurring in a number of states where adminis-
tration and supervision licensure is being opened up to “career switchers” and
“alternative providers,” such as the Broad Academy, Southern Regional Educa-
tion Board (SREB) Modules, and district-run programs. Elmore (2006) has raised
questions regarding principal preparation related to “how it is being taught, what
is being taught, and the connections of theory with practice.” He feared that exist-
ing programs were “disassociated from current practice” (p. 3).
There are a number of efforts under way to reform educational adminis-
tration preparation programs, including collaborative partnerships, experiential
learning, reflective practice, structured dialogue, technological models, problem-
based learning, and engagement in authentic practice. A majority of universities
have revamped their programs and are continuing to do so, with support from
the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP, formerly called
NCATE) and/or their state departments of education. Unfortunately, these reform
agendas and innovations seem to have gone largely unnoticed by the critics, a
point made quite strongly by Creighton and Young in “Taking Back our Profes-
sion: Revisited” (2005), a response to Arthur Levine’s scathing attack on school
leadership preparation. Fenwick English (2006), a UCEA president, has expressed
concern that the assault on educational leadership programs, and education in
general, is part of a well-organized extreme radical right conspiracy to implement
their agenda for reform, including the corporatizing and privatizing of educa-
tional leadership preparation and public schools in the United States.
HUMAN CAPITAL AND THE ACCUMULATED

KNOWLEDGE BASE
There exists a diverse variety of sometimes conflicting perspectives on how one

might better understand educational administration. These views tend to rise
and fall in importance in relation to the social and political events of the times.
However, Willower and Forsyth (1999) find a number of unifying elements in
the scholarship in educational administration from which are derived a variety
of frameworks for addressing educational problems. The decision as to what will
best serve the practitioner will most likely come down to its utility when it is being
employed and the benefits of its results.

Certainly, educational administration practice is a blending of knowledge,

practice, politics, ethics, traditions, and new visions. No one perspective or ap-
proach will provide a complete and universal explanation for practitioners; how-
ever, having an understanding of these diverse perspectives provides great
benefit. The challenge then becomes finding ways to integrate the different per-
spectives, values, and approaches to improve the outcomes of education and the
functioning of educational organizations (Donmoyer, 1999a).
Current Conditions and Expectations

From 2008–2009 through 2020–2021, public elementary and secondary school
enrollment is projected to increase from 49.3 to 52.7 million students, but with dif-
ferences across states. The number of students enrolled in public charter schools
more than tripled from 340,000 students in 1999–2000 to 1.6 million in 2010–2011
with slightly more than 5% of all public schools being charter schools. Public
charters have spread nationwide since the first one started in Minnesota in 1992.
Today, there are more than 5,000 charter schools. There are wide variations in re-
gions of the country with regard to the number of charter schools. California is
home to 912 charters, more than any other state. Also, by 2010 some 10% of all ele-
mentary and secondary school students were enrolled in private schools. Between
1989 and 2009, the percentage of public school students who were White de-
creased from 68% to 55%, and the percentage of those who were Hispanic doubled
from 11% to 22%. In 2009, some 21% of children ages 5–17 (or 11.2 million) spoke
a language other than English at home, and 5% (or 2.7 million) spoke English with
difficulty. Seventy-three percent of those who spoke English with difficulty spoke
Spanish as a first language. The number of children and youth ages 3–21 receiving
special education services was 6.5 million in 2008–2009, corresponding to about
13% of all public school enrollment. In 2009, some 19% of 5–17-year-old children
were in families living in poverty, compared with 15% in 2000 and 17% in 1990
(NCES, 2010).
By 2010, federal, state, and local spending on public education exceeded $900
billion. Yet, only about 75% of U.S. students graduate from high school, which
ranks the United States 16th among the 30 member countries of the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). These dropout problems
are far more severe in urban districts, where by age 9 students are on average
three grade levels behind in reading and math. Sousa (2005) reports that although
decoding problems are only seen in 10% to 15% of students in middle schools,
comprehension problems are seen in 85% of the cases. These comprehension skills
are higher-level thinking skills needed for educational success in middle schools.
Today, a major concern is U.S. students’ performance on international tests.
In 2004, U.S. 15-year-old children performed well below the mean for the 30 OECD
countries. They ranked 21st in math and 23rd in problem solving. The United
States is also losing ground to European nations in the percentage of citizens with
college degrees. Marc Tucker (1990), vice-chairman of the New Commission on
the Skills of the American Workforce concluded, “The fact that other nations are

outperforming the United States in education is both a threat and an opportunity.

The threat is the real possibility of a significant decline in our standard of living.
The opportunity is the chance to learn from them by studying the world’s most
effective educational systems, gleaning the lessons we need to exceed their per-
formance.” As a result, communities are placing increasing demands on admin-
istrators and teachers to provide more effective schools. This has placed greater
emphasis on the importance of administrators, whose abilities are seen as abso-
lutely crucial to the effectiveness of the nation’s schools. The “principal’s abilities
are central to the task of building schools that promote powerful teaching and
learning for all students” (Davis, Johnson-Reid, Saunders, Williams, & Williams,
2005, p. 8).
The job, however, has evolved into an almost overwhelming set of responsi-
bilities. Anne Grosso De León (2006) states:
Alas, the critical role of instructional leader is only one of a dizzying array of roles
the school principal is required to play in today’s educational environment. Accord-
ing to a recent study on school leadership published by the Stanford Educational
Leadership Institute with support from the Wallace Foundation, . . . [t]he role of
principal has swelled to include a staggering array of professional tasks and compe-
tencies. Principals are expected to be educational visionaries, instructional and cur-
riculum leaders, assessment experts, disciplinarians, community builders, public
relations and communications experts, budget analysts, facility managers, special
programs administrators, as well as guardians of various legal, contractual, and
policy mandates and initiatives. In addition, principals are expected to serve the
often conflicting needs and interests of many stakeholders, including students, par-
ents, teachers, district office officials, unions, and state and federal agencies. (p. 2)
See also the School Leadership Study (srnleads.org/resources/publications

.html).
The expectations for both our schools and our administrators have dramati-
cally increased. The responsibilities of both have expanded to include instruc-
tional leadership and student achievement. The traditional focus on management
(organization, staffing, and resources) and a safe, clean, well-managed, disciplined
school today is only half the story; the demand now is for a new kind of leader
focused on instructional leadership, school improvement, and student achieve-
ment with an emphasis on high academic standards and expectations. Research
has shown that the most pervasive challenges and issues that educational admin-
istrators face are related to the expanding expectations of their role as instruc-
tional leaders (DiPaulo & Tschannen-Moran, 2003). Cantano and Stronge (2006)
state, “The stress today is on instructional leadership and student performance.
Principals are being asked to incorporate practices that are responsive to the most
crucial needs of their schools with regard to raising student achievement—the
most essential instructional leadership task” (p. 223).
Principals have to varying degrees always been responsible for instructional
leadership; however, that role has reached a new level of demand and complexity.
It is only recently that researchers have been able to identify specific instructional

leadership behaviors that are related to student achievement (Blase & Blase,
1998; Leithwood, Day, Sammons, Hopkins, & Harris, 2006; Fuller, Young, Barnett,
Hirsch, & Byrd, 2007). Research has provided evidence that school leaders
strongly influence student learning (Henderson et al., 2005; Leithwood, Seashore-
Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004; Marks & Printy, 2003; O’Donnell & White,
2005; Waters, Marzano, & McNulty, 2003). Leithwood and Jantzi (2006) found
that school leader behavior (setting directions, developing people, redesigning
the organization, managing instructional programs) and school conditions made
the largest contributions to standardized total effects on student achievement.
Certainly this increasing pressure for instructional leadership comes from the
principals’ obligation to ensure that their schools meet state academic standards
monitored through high-stakes testing systems—the standards and accountability
movement. “The political pressure of high-stakes accountability requires princi-
pals to improve instruction and student achievement while balancing the need to
maintain facilities, supervise student conduct, and manage budgets. The concern
regarding expanding roles is that it will result in a significant amount of conflict
and overload and affect principal effectiveness” (Cantano & Stronge, 2006, p. 231).
Add to this daunting list the glaring, seemingly intractable issue of “equity” and
any administrator will have his or her hands full. Certainly educational leaders
must be well prepared to handle this complex set of expectations.
An important set of knowledge, skills, and dispositions is needed to effectively
lead schools and improve student achievement in an increasingly complex and di-
verse context. Today’s principals need to have a wide repertoire of leadership and
management skills; a deep understanding of curriculum, instruction, assessment,
and adaptations to unique contexts; and knowledge of the various components and
operational systems that are required to support effective schools. An example of
some of the practices required for successful school leadership includes facilitating
student learning, building professional learning communities, fostering teacher pro-
fessional development, providing instructional feedback, improving teacher prac-
tices, resolving challenges using data to monitor progress, identifying problems, and
working with staff in proposing and implementing improvements. Even though
leaders are expected to devote the bulk of their efforts to instructional leadership,
they also have responsibility for the routine management and operational tasks of
running a school (LaPointe & Davis, 2006; Goldstein, Halverson, & Murphy, 2007).
Leithwood and Jantzi (2006) showed that critical leadership practices include
setting direction, helping individual teachers, fostering collaboration, and provid-
ing management and support. These expectations require administrators to have
a coherent and clear set of values focused on supporting student achievement. All
of this places a huge responsibility on those who wish to take on administrative
responsibility in education and become highly qualified administrators, commit-
ted to the improvement of student achievement. Future educational leaders must
be well equipped to meet the ever-increasing demands placed on their leadership
and the schools they lead. There is a great deal to be learned and it is the responsi-
bility of each person who aspires to become a future leader to develop the essential

knowledge, skills, and dispositions. In recent years, research has converged on the
importance of three aspects of the principal’s job:
1. Developing a deep understanding of how to support teachers

2. Managing the curriculum in ways that promote student learning
3. Developing the ability to transform schools into more effective organizations
that foster powerful teaching and learning for all students (Davis, Darling-
Hammond, LaPointe, & Myerson, 2005)
There is a set of shared values, beliefs, knowledge, skills, and dispositions about
effective administrative practice that is widely accepted and provides a founda-
tion and scaffolding on which to build effective practice.
Administrative Succession
Leadership succession has often been described as a career ladder that narrows
at the top. The educational administrative career path starts with being a new
teacher. Usually the path begins after finishing college and becoming certified as a
teacher. According to the Department of Labor, kindergarten, elementary school,
middle school, and secondary school teachers held about 3.5 million jobs in 2008.
Of the teachers in those jobs, about 180,000 were kindergarten teachers, 1.5 mil-
lion were elementary school teachers, 660,500 were middle school teachers, and
1.1 million were secondary school teachers (Occupational Outlook Handbook,
2010–2011 Edition). According to Orfield and Lee (2006) the number of teachers
grows along with an accelerating growth of nonwhite public school students and
the racial diversity of the teaching force remains low. Teachers of color are a much
smaller percentage of the teaching force than students of color are in comparison
to the entire student enrollment. Researchers report that new teachers are more
diverse than their veteran colleagues; however, the entire teaching force still re-
mains overwhelmingly white (Shen, Cooley, & Wengenke, 2004; Kirby, Berends, &
Naftel, 1999).
Analysis of teacher data from 1994–2000 (Guarino, Sanlibarney, & Daley, 2006)
suggest that hires in education were 73% female and 39% minority. The teaching
force is 1.2% Asian American, 4.7% Hispanic, 9.6% African American, 80% Cau-
casian, and 5.5% other. Among new teachers, 96% felt the job involved work they
loved to do and 97% felt that it contributed to society. Qualifications and attributes
sought in hiring teachers are prior successful teaching experience, class manage-
ment skills, good character, and ability to work with diverse learners, interpersonal
skills, and a variety of teaching strategies. Public school teachers in high-poverty
schools were more likely than their counterparts to leave teaching (10% versus 9%)
but less likely to change schools (13% versus 19%). However, some studies have
suggested that fewer than 40% of teachers remained in the profession over 5 years
(Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2002). Teachers who experienced induction and men-
toring support in their first year of teaching were less likely to leave. Of teachers
who left, 22% believed that they had not received adequate support or resources to

perform their jobs. Teachers were concerned about safety (89%), being underpaid
(78%), working conditions (76%), scapegoat status (76%), limited opportunities for
advancement (69%), and teacher autonomy and discretion (42%).
As the administrative candidate becomes more comfortable and effective, he
or she should take on some extracurricular activities, such as tutoring, club spon-
sor (e.g., debate, sports, drama), PTA, testing, and so on. It is also advisable to
make one’s intention known to the department head, assistant principal, and prin-
cipal. Moreover, the candidate should solicit or volunteer for opportunities to gain
experience in school operations, academic instruction, assessment and evaluation,
special education, safety, fund raising, community services, school improvement,
summer school administration, and other services that exemplify talents, skills,
motivation, and intentions. This is also a good time to become more active in pro-
fessional associations and staff development. The candidate should dress the part,
to walk and talk the part, and gain needed political support.
The candidate might also apply for a department chair/head position or to
serve as a grade-level team leader if that position exists in the elementary school.
These positions challenge problem-solving and people skills, curriculum and in-
structional knowledge, leadership, communication (oral and written), and cre-
ative talents. Candidates, when observed, should show leadership abilities and
the potential for upward mobility. Motivation, knowledge, experience, and per-
formance will determine the number of years it will take to obtain an administra-
tive position; a fast-track approach can accomplish this in 3 to 5 years.
Some school districts have such administrative positions as dean of students,
peer coaches, and cluster leaders. Time at the school, evaluations, professional
behavior, instructional proficiency, ethics, school involvement, relationships (stu-
dent to teacher, teacher to teacher, teacher to parent, and teacher to administrator),
and positive interactions are factors considered for applicants for administrative
positions. The following provides an example of the requirements needed by ap-
plicants for assistant principal or principal positions.
1. Hold the postgraduate professional license with an elementary, middle, high

school principalship endorsement or administration/supervision pre-K–12
endorsement
2. Have 3 years or more of successful experience as a teacher, administrator, or
supervisor, with preferably 2 years at the level applied for
3. Have demonstrated leadership and personal characteristics necessary for
working with students, teachers, and parents
At each education level—whether elementary, middle, or high school—the candi-

date will need experience at that particular level due to differences in the popula-
tion, curriculum, and agenda. Some states also require satisfactory performance
on a leadership test like the Administrative PRAXIS or the ETS School Leader-
ship Licensure Assessment (SLLA). Almost all principals have advanced degrees
and engage in professional development programs. Almost half have presented
at a workshop, meeting, or training activity. Nearly all individuals who were

promoted had participated in workshops or conferences during the previous year

and had attended association meetings and visited other schools. According to the
U.S. Department of Education (USDOE) National Center for Education Statistics
(NCES), the average principal had served 14 years as a teacher and 9 years as a
principal (nces.ed.gov).
Most educational leaders begin their administrative careers as assistant prin-
cipals. This position immediately presents a dilemma for those who aspire to the
principalship—meet the job expectations that usually focus on a series of narrow
technical tasks or develop the broader leadership skills that are expected of princi-
pals—in other words, be a managerial specialist or an instructional leader (Daresh,
2002). The principal will gradually release greater authority and control to those
whom they are grooming to become educational leaders. They will take on the role
of mentors and coaches as these people take on greater responsibility. After 3 to 7
years, many motivated assistant principals are promoted to principal positions.
Hart (1993) describes a period of “organizational socialization” of the new
principal into existing school culture. She introduced the idea of four stages in lead-
ership transition—looking ahead, enchantment, disenchantment, and equilibrium.
While going through the process of enculturation into a school, principals are typi-
cally left on their own to fend for themselves (Fink & Brayman, 2006). Over time,
new experiences and new challenges help develop the needed understanding of
the significant responsibility placed on the principal, as principals refine their view
of what the job requires. Some districts have recognized the need to better support
principals in this process and have developed leadership academies or other such
programs to better introduce principals to the realities of the job. During this period,
individuals tend to acquire a new mindset, different from that of being an assistant
principal or teacher, which some describe as “reality shock” or “street smarts.” Per-
haps the best and most immediate help can be gained from a mentor who can give
advice and perspective. Also, a principal who continues to hone his or her skills and
achieve greater success might look toward promotion to a position that has an op-
portunity for even greater impact—an influence over the entire school district.
Those seeking promotion to a director, coordinator, or assistant/associate su-
perintendent position would have had successful terms as principals and assistant
principals in middle schools or high schools. They must have accomplishments
that will set them apart from the rest—for example, holding an important office
in a distinguished professional organization. Their schools would have passed
all state required standards or made notable progress toward meeting that goal.
Their schools or personnel might have created or contributed to implementing
new learning strategies or instructional programs. Most states require a master’s
degree and certification in pre-K–12 administration and supervision; however, a
doctorate is often preferable.
Many superintendents are hired from other states and are interviewed by the
local school boards. Superintendents need to have impeccable records and have
served at various levels in the education system. They will have a long list of pro-
grams and innovations that have contributed to education, technology, student
achievement, the community, and the school district as a whole. They often will

have written articles or reviews on specific educational topics. Examples of some

qualities school boards will be looking for include:
■ Leadership experience as a superintendent or assistant superintendent of a

school system, as well as successful experience as a teacher and principal
■ High standards of ethical and moral conduct; a role model who holds high
expectations for students and for personnel
■ Outstanding experience, understanding, and abilities relating to budgets
and to the budgeting process
■ Educational leadership, with special knowledge and expertise in curriculum
and instruction and a proven record in improving student achievement
■ Commitment to fostering cooperative relationships with personnel, the
school board, and the community
■ Excellent communications and interpersonal skills, and successful work
experience in a multicultural community
CORE EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP VALUES
Educational leaders should reflect on the values that have been put forth as im-
portant (for example, see the ISLLC standards in Box 1). The educational leader
should determine how these values are or are not being practiced within schools.
These value statements can help individuals to experience and reflect on the moral
aspects of leadership in a more systemic way. Hopefully, this process will sensitize
administrators to the moral and ethical issues that will confront them as leaders.
Appendix A at the end of this chapter provides a list of some of the gener-
ally held dispositions or beliefs that typically guide the work of educators (based
on ISLLC and the SLLA). This is not a comprehensive list; however, it does bring
out some of the core beliefs about education. These values will assist you to know
what to do and how to assess your work regarding successful outcomes. It is
recommended that you check your own assumptions against this list and the as-
sumptions that seem to exist within your educational site. Which do you disagree
with? Which do you feel would disagree with what exists at your site? Discuss
disagreements with your instructor, classmates, and administrative mentor.
Give some thought to how what you agree or disagree with might influence
your behavior as an educational leader. You might want to discuss this with your
instructor, administrator, and/or fellow students. You might have others com-
plete this instrument and then provide feedback to one another.
The greater the agreement between your assumptions and those of the pro-
fession and organization, the greater the probability of success as an educational
leader. You might ask value-oriented questions regarding:
1. What leadership strategy will you use and how will you know if it is successful?
2. How will you incorporate your knowledge of research and best practice in
what you do?

GROUNDING MORAL EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE

INTRINSICALLY MORAL ENTERPRISE OF LEARNING
ROBERT J. STARRATT
Boston College
The moral demands of educational leadership that “Lincoln freed the slaves,” or a depiction
go well beyond considerations of specific acts of a moneylender like Shylock in The Merchant
of moral choice (when to tell or withhold the truth of Venice. That learning conveys a multitude of
about what one knows about a student; whether meanings, some of which should be honored
to compromise with pressure groups who want (slavery is immoral), some of which should be
to impose a point of view in certain areas of questioned (since most of the mass of an ice-
the curriculum or lose one’s job over the issue; berg is below water, how can it be said to float
whether to retain a mediocre teacher with po- on water? Where does money come from and
litical connections, and so on). The much more how is it accumulated?), and some of which
essential work of moral educational leadership is should be repudiated or denounced (Hitler’s
to create a schoolwide learning environment that assertion of the superiority of the Aryan race).
promotes the moral integrity of learning as the The obligation to come to terms with
pursuit of the truth about oneself and one’s world, what one knows, to explore its use and its
however complex and difficult that task may be. misuse, to avoid its distortion or manipulation
Schooling implicates learners in the en- is both a moral and an intellectual obligation
terprise of appropriating the way by which their (if for scholars, why not for younger learn-
society interprets and understands itself and ers as well?). Learning is a moral search as
the world. This knowledge helps or hinders well as an intellectual search for truth—truth
learners to identify who they are (as citizens, about ourselves, about our community, about
as workers, as gendered and racial beings, or our history, about our cultural and physical
simply as human beings), what they are worth, world. The truth, of course, will never be final
what they are responsible for, how they exist in or complete; rather, it will be tentative, incom-
nature and society, and how they might con- plete, fallible, partial, and generative. But the
duct themselves in their personal and public truth will ultimately involve human beings with
lives. Since this knowledge is received or pre- choices about themselves and about the kinds
sented as heuristic as well as an expressive of communities they want to create.
cultural production of that society (McCarthy, This is what schools are supposed to be
1997a), schools ought to assist the learner in about. Hence, those who would lead schools
exploring how this knowledge was generated toward this approach to teaching and learn-
and on what assumptions that generation rests. ing are inescapably involved in a moral enter-
Learning involves an encounter with an prise. This understanding of moral educational
aspect of reality, albeit an interpreted and cul- leadership implies a different conversation
turally grounded reality. The learner cannot between educational leaders and other teach-
intentionally deny its existence or arbitrarily ers and parents about curriculum, about as-
make it into its opposite without disfiguring the sessment of student performances, and about
integrity of that reality and violating the intrin- teacher assessment. It also implies a different
sic moral obligation to acknowledge on its own kind of academic preparation of administra-
terms the reality one encounters. Learning re- tors, one in which the moral dimensions of their
quires a coming to terms with what a person own learning are continuously explored and
is learning, whether it is a scientific fact such the ongoing creation and reconstruction of
as “ice floats on water,” a historical assertion their own self-identity is pursued.

3. How will you confront conflicts that develop and how will you know if that
approach is successful?
4. What are your beliefs concerning bringing about needed change?
5. How will you establish relationships and communicate to other professionals
and clerical helpers on the staff?
6. How do you want to be seen by others? Is that a realistic expectation?
7. How do you want to be perceived as an administrator?
ETHICAL MODELS
Starratt created a model (1994) that is depicted as a triangle with each side labeled
with one of three ethics: the ethic of care, the ethic of justice, and the ethic of cri-
tique. Each of these overlapping ethics raised different questions that school lead-
ers need to consider.
The Ethic of Caring

The notion of an ethic of caring has been promoted by Carol Gilligan (1982) and
Nel Noddings (1992). According to Noddings (1992), “Caring is a way of being
in relation, not a set of specific behaviors” (p. 17). Caring includes modeling, dia-
logue, practice, and confirmation. Modeling for educators means demonstrating
that we care, rather than simply saying it. Dialogue must be in the sense that
Paolo Freire (1973) espouses: open ended and sincere. This dialogue allows teach-
ers and administrators to show they care by listening fully. Noddings’s fourth
component of caring—confirmation—involves affirming and encouraging the
best in others. Noddings believes that “when we confirm someone, we spot a
better self and encourage its development” (p. 25). An important question to ask
about a school environment from the perspective of an ethic of care is—What do
our relationships ask of us?
The Ethic of Justice

Justice involves equity and fairness in relation to individual and community
choice. How a school is governed is a crucial part of the ethic of justice, which
demands that administrators serve as advocates for students, including advocat-
ing for optimal learning conditions. Justice addresses issues of educational equity,
opportunity of resources, emotional and physical security, and health and social
environment. An example of a question to ask from the perspective of an ethic of
justice is—How shall we govern ourselves?
Justice involves individuals acting impartially and a community that gov-
erns its actions fairly. As Starratt (1996) maintains, “To promote a just social order
in the school, the school community must carry out an ongoing critique of those

structural features of the school that work against human beings” (p. 194). One
habit of the heart that schools must embrace is the habit of questioning and self-
criticism. If the questions raised come from the ethics of caring and justice, they are
closely related to the ethic of critique.
The Ethic of Critique

The ethic of critique is based on critical theory. According to Foster (1986), critical
theory “questions the framework of the way we organize our lives or the way our
lives are organized for us” (p. 72). Foster argues that the school administrator must
be a critical theoretician. Through dialogue, she or he must ask and help others to
ask questions that challenge the status quo. The ethic of critique promotes ques-
tions such as: Who benefits from this? Who holds power? Whose voice has not
been heard? Who is privileged?
The ethic of critique facilitates conversation and dialogue between people in
organizations. The ethic of critique obliges the moral agent to question unjust and
uncaring social arrangements and work to change such injustice. The recent focus
on “social justice” is rooted in this ethic of critique. There is a rejection of oppres-
sion in any form and a call for new frameworks of action. It is crucial to the ethic of
critique to address conflict with civility.
FOUNDATIONS OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR:

STANDARDS FOR GOOD PRACTICE
Beck (1994), Starratt (1996), English (2008), Shapiro and Stefkovich (2010), and
others writing on the topic of ethics have identified standards of good prac-
tice that can serve school administrators as a foundation for ethical behavior.
Standards of good practice include being conscious (aware and informed),
encouraging dialogue, modeling, and being reflective. In recent years,
researchers have described various approaches that can help educational ad-
ministrators develop skills to function as ethical school leaders (Craig, 1999;
Duke & Grogan, 1997; Mertz, 1997a; Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2010), including
the following:
■ Examining situations from a variety of perspectives, including feminism,

postmodernism, liberation theology, and critical theory
■ Writing personal essays, or educational platforms, describing ethical prin-
ciples or values that students subscribe to
■ Examining dilemmas from consequentialist and nonconsequentialist points
of view
■ Utilizing data from values instruments such as the Personal Values Inven-
tory and the Hall-Tonna Inventory that supply information on several areas
of human growth

■ Comparing and contrasting ethical codes of conduct from a variety of

organizations
■ Learning and using group dynamics training
■ Reading ethical dilemmas rooted in particular contextual variables be-
cause “leadership does not exist apart from context” (Duke & Grogan,
1997, p. 145)
Craig (1994) believes that “virtue can be developed through arduous practice” and
that “treating others justly and respectfully over a long period of time may result
in a virtuous person” (p. 134).
Codes of Ethics
According to Shapiro and Stefkovich (1997), a legal perspective focuses on the
interpretation of state and federal codes of ethics. These codes are rule bound.
Standards also exist for many professional associations. Go to the Web
site for your professional organization and find their “statement of ethics.”
These standards can be viewed as a beginning step for a school administrator
when developing a personal educational platform that includes the principles
he or she advocates. The codes of ethics stress the common values of honesty,
integrity, due process, civil and human rights, and above all, the students’
well-being. Ethics assist with individual ethical quandaries. Leaders must be
aware of the beliefs they have and the dispositions that they display because
they have a profound influence on their behavior. In addition to the profes-
sional association code of ethics, many state statutes have also codified codes
of ethics for public employees. Such codes can be important in ascertaining
what might be considered “immorality,” “moral turpitude,” “incompetency,”
and “conduct unbecoming of a professional,” which may be used as grounds
for dismissal. In this way, the power of ethical codes is quite high, demanding
that school personnel perform at the highest level in all facets of their respon-
sibilities. As Dantley (2005) suggests, “Leadership of this nature is not only
transformative but it is also principled and purposive. . . . Principled leader-
ship emanates from a sense of the need to ground the work of education in a
context of morality and meaning. . . . ” (p. 15). Codes of ethics contain some
principles that educational administrators might want to include when devel-
oping a personal platform.
AASA’S STATEMENT OF ETHICS

FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS
An educational leader’s professional conduct must conform to an ethical code of behav-
ior, and the code must set high standards for all educational leaders. The educational
leader provides professional leadership across the district and also across the community.
This responsibility requires the leader to maintain standards of exemplary professional

conduct while recognizing that his or her actions will be viewed and appraised by the
community, professional associates, and students.
The educational leader acknowledges that he or she serves the schools and com-
munity by providing equal educational opportunities to each and every child. The work
of the leader must emphasize accountability and results, increased student achievement,
and high expectations for each and every student.
To these ends, the educational leader subscribes to the following statements of
standards.
The educational leader:
1. Makes the education and well-being of students the fundamental value of all decision
making.
2. Fulfills all professional duties with honesty and integrity and always acts in a trust-
worthy and responsible manner.
3. Supports the principle of due process and protects the civil and human rights of all
individuals.
4. Implements local, state, and national laws.
5. Advises the school board and implements the board’s policies and administrative
rules and regulations.
6. Pursues appropriate measures to correct those laws, policies, and regulations that
are not consistent with sound educational goals or that are not in the best interest of
children.
7. Avoids using his/her position for personal gain through political, social, religious,
economic, or other influences.
8. Accepts academic degrees or professional certification only from accredited
institutions.
9. Maintains the standards and seeks to improve the effectiveness of the profession
through research and continuing professional development.
10. Honors all contracts until fulfillment, release, or dissolution mutually agreed upon
by all parties.
11. Accepts responsibility and accountability for one’s own actions and behaviors.
12. Commits to serving others above self.
Source: AASA, Printed with permission.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP PLATFORMS
Senge and colleagues (2000) state: “Reflection and inquiry are not practiced much:
People everywhere are impeded from working together effectively by the conflict-
ing views of the world. But the discovery of oneself, the ability to see something
in your own behavior that was invisible to you before, and appreciation of what’s
productive and what’s painful in your attitudes—awareness of these capabilities
seems pretty intrinsic to the human condition. . . . There is something integral in
the core idea that manifests at all different levels and can be seen from all different
angles” (pp. 560–561). Thus, it is important that administrators and those whom

they influence have a clear understanding of the foundational principles, concep-

tualizations, philosophy, and values on which they base their judgments.
Empathy, integrity, fairness, respect, honesty, optimism, self-esteem, self-
confidence, determination, and self-awareness are essential to good leadership.
In addition to administrative knowledge and skills, beliefs, opinions, values, and
attitudes provide the foundation for the actions of leaders. They are seen by the
school community as the educational values and beliefs of the leader and often
become the mood of the school. These relatively intangible qualities of the prin-
cipalship spur leaders, their staff, and the entire school to superior performance.
People need to connect emotionally as well as intellectually in order to suc-
ceed. There is some wisdom in establishing the right level of passion and emotion
when communicating with others. Too much or too little can easily turn others off
to what you are saying. Simple things like eye contact can be very important along
with effective listening and oral communication skills. Sensing where to focus at-
tention is certainly another of those intangible and hard-to-describe skills. These
can all be embodied in the platform on which one stands. Sergiovanni and Starratt
(2001) refer to one’s personal philosophy as a platform. An individual’s platform
“is made up of those basic assumptions, beliefs, attitudes and values that are un-
derpinnings of an educator’s behavior” (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2001, p. 84).
An educational leadership platform is a document that provides a descrip-
tion of one’s values, beliefs, and philosophies about educational leadership. It is a
self-reflective document providing a framework for administrative action. It helps
administrators determine if their actions are aligned with their espoused beliefs.
Barnett (1991) stresses the importance of platform development in helping admin-
istrators “to identify the moral dilemmas they will face as administrators and to
articulate the standards of practice they will use in judging situations” (p. 135).
The platform is a statement that systematically and accurately states the princi-
ples, ethics, and values that underlie a person’s actions. It is crucial that adminis-
trators reflect on the basis of the choices they will ultimately make.
Educators carry on their work, make decisions, and plan instruction on the
basis of their platforms; thus, these platforms should be clearly articulated and es-
poused. This concept is based on the political model in which parties are expected
to develop platforms to aid supporters and voters to make the clearest, best, most
informed choices for themselves. Knowing the platform and being aware of any
inconsistencies with practice or other platforms is immensely helpful. Argyris and
Schön (1978) refer to these inconsistencies as differences between espoused theory
and theory-in-use. Espoused theories detail philosophies, beliefs, values, assump-
tions, theories, and paradigms underlying behavior; theory-in-use represents the
way people actually implement them. Argyris and Schön (1978) state:
When someone is asked how he would behave under certain circumstances, the an-
swer he usually gives is his espoused theory of action for the situation. This is the
theory of action to which he gives allegiance and which, upon request, he communi-
cates to others. However, the theory that actually governs his actions is his theory-in-
use, which may or may not be compatible with his espoused theory; furthermore, the
individual may or may not be aware of the incompatibility of the two theories. (p. 11)

Argyris and Schön (1978), Cunningham (1982), Blake and McCanse (1991),
and Sagor and Barnett (1994) suggest that the best first step in improving orga-
nizational functioning is for practitioners to discover and make explicit any dif-
ferences between espoused theory and theory in use. An administrator needs to
clearly state her or his espoused theory—that is, her or his administrative plat-
form. The administrator then compares this platform to her or his behavior within
the organization. When platform and behavior are incompatible, the administra-
tor decides which to alter. It is best for all concerned when actual behavior is com-
patible with espoused values and theories. When it is not, trust breaks down and
the organization becomes ineffective. Thus, the development of an educational
and administrative platform is essential for all administrative action.
Individual platforms should be in general agreement with the philosophy,
mission, goals, and direction of the school system. When they are not, administra-
tors should endeavor to explain why such differences exist.
Platforms often include a statement of the person’s philosophy of leader-
ship, preferred leadership style, and the process by which he or she works with
teachers, other school community members, and other foundational areas related
to leadership practices. Ovando (2004) found platform development to be a pow-
erful learning experience—enhancing self-awareness and value clarification. Plat-
forms provide an opportunity for reflection while they serve “as a foundation for
school leadership practice” (Ovando, 2004, p. 37). The platform serves as a guide
for school leadership performance as it is consulted as a point of reference. Sharing
one’s platform with peers is enlightening, enhances understanding, and is useful
in bringing out areas of agreement and disagreement.
Sergiovanni and Starratt (1998) describe how to get started:
Once we have written down the elements of our platform, we can with further reflection
begin to group them in clusters and place them in some order of importance. . . .
[Some] will find the writing exercise too tedious and will seek out a colleague
to discuss this whole question. The free flow of shared ideas frequently stimulates
the process of clarification. . . . Still others may go to a formal statement of goals that
the school or system has in print to begin the process. (p. 244)
Sergiovanni and Starratt (1998) refer to this as a work in progress that should
be periodically revisited and updated. Colleagues, students, and professors should
challenge the leader to prove that his or her platform is more than espoused theory.
The leader’s theory in use must be observable in his or her actions. They go on to
suggest that regardless of how individual platforms are developed, administrators
should compare them with those of other colleagues to provide an opportunity
to reflect on “areas of agreement or disagreement.” Sometimes this comparison
leads to modification and sometimes to acceptance of greater diversity in perspec-
tives. It usually helps to build collegiality, understanding, alignment, and—when
the platform is compatible with behavior—trust, integrity, cooperation, and con-
tinuous improvement, which creates organizational effectiveness (Cunningham &
Gresso, 1993).

THE KNOWLEDGE BASE IN EDUCATIONAL

ADMINISTRATION
There is considerable debate and little agreement regarding a specific knowledge

base for educational administration (Hoy & Miskel, 2008). Obviously, no “cookbook”
tells practitioners what paradigms, values, methods, or models to use; what issues
and operational areas to address; or how to apply specific skills in various different
contexts. Administrative knowledge is a complex array of theories, ideologies, skills,
ethical principles, paradigms, and practices that are applied to a diverse set of issues.
The synthesis of knowledge in educational administration can be conceptu-
alized as comprising seven factors: functions, skills, ethics, structure, operational
areas, context, and issues. Table 1 presents a comprehensive model of the complex-
ity of educational administration. Even though in practice factors cannot be sepa-
rated, it is probably best to focus on and integrate one factor at a time. Each leads
to some truth, but none by itself affords an adequate understanding. Together they
provide a more complete understanding of educational leadership.
THE KNOWLEDGE BASE IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION:

A PRACTICAL REASONING
ROBERT DONMOYER
The University of San Diego
The search for a scientific knowledge base for Later, educational administration schol-
the educational administration field has taken ars, motivated at least in part by the failure of
various forms during the past 100 years. Cubberly and his contemporaries to produce
Initially, scholars in the emerging field took a definitive knowledge base that could be
their cue from efficiency experts in busi- used to “choreograph” educational practice,
ness. For instance, Elwood P. Cubberly, focused their work on creating social science
who often has been called the father of the theory. They assumed that the theories scholars
educational administration field, wrote in generated (not the findings of particular stud-
1909: “Our schools are, in a sense, facto- ies, per se) could direct educational practice.
ries in which the raw products (children) The lack of success of this so-called theory
are to be shaped and fashioned into the movement can be seen in PRIMIS, a comput-
products to meet the various demands of erized set of documents developed by the
life” (p. 383). Cubberly, like many other University Council of Educational Adminis-
20th-century scholars (e.g., Good, Biddle, tration (Hoy, 1994) that ostensibly organizes
and Brophy, 1975; Thorndike, 1910), assumed the knowledge base for the field. Rather than
that educational researchers could, through providing a coherent and relatively consis-
experimentation, create a knowledge base tent vision of educational administration practice,
that would lead to standardizing the teaching the document base presents a plethora of
and learning process. This belief turned out different—and at times conflicting—theoretical
to be wrong. perspectives. These perspectives can be useful
(continued)

TABLE 1 Key Factors in Effective Administration
ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE AND OPERATIONAL
SKILLS ETHICAL STANDARDS CONTEXT ISSUES
FUNCTIONS* ORGANIZATION AREAS
■ Plan ■ Leadership ■ Honesty ■ President ■ Finance ■ Community ■ Safe schools

■ Organize ■ Problem analysis ■ Integrity ■ U.S. Department ■ Curriculum ■ Taxpayers ■ Multiculturalism
■ Actuate/direct ■ Decision making ■ Loyalty/fidelity of Education and ■ Special-interest ■ Inclusion
■ Coordinate ■ Delegation ■ Promise keeping ■ Secretary of instruction groups ■ Technology
■ Control/evaluate ■ Supervising and ■ Fairness Education ■ Human ■ Teachers/ ■ Synchronous and
motivating ■ Concern for others ■ Governors resource parents/kids asynchronous
■ Interpersonal ■ Respect for others ■ State school development ■ Chamber of learning
sensitivity ■ Law-abiding/ boards ■ Research commerce ■ Standardized
■ Oral civic duty ■ State and ■ College testing (high-
communication ■ Pursuit of superintendents development professors/ stakes testing)
■ Written excellence ■ State depart- ■ Business and researchers ■ Assessment
communication ■ Personal ments of logistics ■ Media/TV ■ Vouchers
■ Assessment accountability education ■ Physical ■ City council ■ Charter schools
■ Legal, policy, ■ Local school plant ■ Religious ■ School choice
and political boards ■ Pupil organizations ■ Achievement gap
applications ■ Superintendents personnel ■ Private ■ Global education
■ Public relations ■ Central business ■ Environmentalism
■ Technology administrators ■ Professional ■ Alternative
■ Social ■ Principals associations certification
■ Teachers ■ Textbook ■ Best practices
■ PTA manufacturers ■ Comprehensive
■ Industry school reform
■ Government ■ Preschool
■ International education
groups ■ Childhood
■ Technologists obesity
■ Differentiated
instruction
*Henri Fayole (1949).

to school administrators as they think about The second problem, which can be la-
what actions to take and which policies to beled the problem of values, can best be ex-
implement; a theoretical knowledge base plained by using an example: Assume that a
containing many different, often conflicting team of researchers has been hired to deter-
theories, however, does not provide the sort of mine whether a kindergarten program created
direction to administrators and policymakers from the developmental theories of Piaget
that theory movement advocates envisioned. produces more learning than a kindergarten
(For a more detailed discussion of the issue, program that is rooted in Skinnerian behavior-
see Donmoyer, 1999a.) ism. Before the team can begin to study the
As is often the case, there are echoes of programs and their effects, the team must
the past in the present (see, for example, answer a question that, ultimately, is a value
National Research Council, 2002b; Whitehurst, question: How should learning be defined in
2003). It is a virtual certainty, however, that the study? If the research team’s values are
current efforts to develop a definitive knowl- consistent with the way Piaget conceptual-
edge base for the field will be no more izes learning, they almost certainly will select
successful than efforts in the past have been a definition—and outcome measures con-
because of two problems that have not—and sistent with the definition—that reflects Pia-
will not—go away. get’s view of learning. The same can be said
One problem is that of idiosyncrasy. of researchers who prefer Skinner’s way of
Anthropologists allude to this problem when thinking. Whatever definition is selected will
they note that normally there is as much have a significant impact on which program
variation within a culture or group as there is judged more successful; the definition—
is between cultures and groups. Observant and the values implicit in it—will determine
teachers certainly understand what an- what data count and, in fact, what data get
thropologists are talking about. They know counted. That is why educational research in
(either from experience or from reading re- the past—and any educational research that
search), for example, that 4th-grade African- will be done in the future—will inevitably sup-
American males tend to respond positively to port differing, and at times even contradic-
certain strategies and negatively to others; tory, courses of action.
however, they also know that not all African- So, do the two problems discussed ear-
American 4th-grade students fit the general lier mean that educational administration can-
pattern. Skilled teachers understand that not develop a knowledge base? And, because
they must always see children as unique a knowledge base is generally thought to be a
individuals rather than merely as types; by prerequisite for classifying a field as a profes-
contrast, researchers intent on producing sion, does that mean that educational admin-
a general knowledge base for the field can istrators cannot be considered professionals?
only speak in terms of general categories Not necessarily.
(i.e., ideal types). Consequently, the knowl- There is at least one very prestigious
edge researchers produce, though not use- profession, the profession of law, in which
less, cannot be translated into formulas or what counts most is not a knowledge of
recipes that policymakers and administrators facts and theories but, rather, a knowledge
can mandate with any certainty about the of how to think and reason (Donmoyer,
results that will be produced. Indeed, the prob- 2007). To be sure, lawyers do understand
lem of idiosyncrasy suggests that deviation legal principles (which also, at times, con-
from a “scientifically validated” standardized flict) and know about particular legal cases
program will be required for certain students (the raw material employed in the legal
to succeed. reasoning process). This knowledge is
(continued)

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the
Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability,
costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or
indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur:
(a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b)
alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project
Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small
donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax
exempt status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.

PDF Educational Leadership Pearson New International Edition A Bridge To Improved Practice Paula Cordeiro Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

PDF Educational Leadership Pearson New International Edition A Bridge To Improved Practice Paula Cordeiro Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PDF Educational Leadership Pearson New International Edition A Bridge To Improved Practice Paula Cordeiro Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Educational Leadership Pearson New

International Edition A Bridge to

Study Guide and Student s Solutions Manual for Organic

Introduction to Biotechnology: Pearson New

Body school a new guide to improved movement in daily

Biostatistical Analysis: Pearson New International

Diversity in families Ninth Edition, Pearson New

Analysis with an introduction to proof. Fifth Edition,

Research in education Tenth Edition, Pearson New

Child Development and Education Pearson New

Visit us on the World Wide Web at:www.pearsoned.co.uk

© Pearson Education Limited 2014

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Printed in the United States of America

Visit the site for Educational Leadership: A Bridge to Im-

some states offer professional development programs, as well. These

Those preparing to be administrators as well as practicing administrators

aspects of education by enhancing organizational and individual effectiveness.

Research, Theory, and Practice

HUMAN CAPITAL AND THE ACCUMULATED

There exists a diverse variety of sometimes conflicting perspectives on how one

Certainly, educational administration practice is a blending of knowledge,

Current Conditions and Expectations

outperforming the United States in education is both a threat and an opportunity.

See also the School Leadership Study (srnleads.org/resources/publications

1. Developing a deep understanding of how to support teachers

1. Hold the postgraduate professional license with an elementary, middle, high

At each education level—whether elementary, middle, or high school—the candi-

promoted had participated in workshops or conferences during the previous year

have written articles or reviews on specific educational topics. Examples of some

■ Leadership experience as a superintendent or assistant superintendent of a

CORE EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP VALUES

GROUNDING MORAL EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE

The Ethic of Caring

The Ethic of Justice

The Ethic of Critique

FOUNDATIONS OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR:

■ Examining situations from a variety of perspectives, including feminism,

■ Comparing and contrasting ethical codes of conduct from a variety of

AASA’S STATEMENT OF ETHICS

Source: AASA, Printed with permission.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP PLATFORMS

they influence have a clear understanding of the foundational principles, concep-

THE KNOWLEDGE BASE IN EDUCATIONAL

There is considerable debate and little agreement regarding a specific knowledge

THE KNOWLEDGE BASE IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION:

■ Plan ■ Leadership ■ Honesty ■ President ■ Finance ■ Community ■ Safe schools

*Henri Fayole (1949).

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

Section 3. Information about the Project

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Section 4. Information about Donations to

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make