Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Advanced Training Course On FPGA Design and VHDL For Hardware Simulation and Synthesis
Advanced Training Course On FPGA Design and VHDL For Hardware Simulation and Synthesis
Massimiliano Nolich
DEEI
Facolta' di Ingegneria Universita' degli Studi di Trieste
via Valerio, 10, 34127
Trieste
Italy
The z-transform
See Oppenheim and Schafer, Second Edition pages 94–139, or First Edition
pages 149–201.
1 Introduction
That is, the z-transform is the Fourier transform of the sequence xŒnr n . For
r D 1 this becomes the Fourier transform of xŒn. The Fourier transform
therefore corresponds to the z-transform evaluated on the unit circle:
1
z−plane Im
z D e j!
!
Re
Unit circle
for the existence of the z-transform. The ROC therefore consists of a ring in
the z-plane:
2
z−plane Im
Region of
convergence
Re
In specific cases the inner radius of this ring may include the origin, and the
outer radius may extend to infinity. If the ROC includes the unit circle jzj D 1,
then the Fourier transform will converge.
Most useful z-transforms can be expressed in the form
P .z/
X.z/ D ;
Q.z/
where P .z/ and Q.z/ are polynomials in z. The values of z for which
P .z/ D 0 are called the zeros of X.z/, and the values with Q.z/ D 0 are
called the poles. The zeros and poles completely specify X.z/ to within a
multiplicative constant.
Example: right-sided exponential sequence
Consider the signal xŒn D an uŒn. This has the z-transform
1
X 1
X
n n 1 n
X.z/ D a uŒnz D .az / :
nD 1 nD0
1
which is only the case if jaz j < 1, or equivalently jzj > jaj. In the ROC, the
3
series converges to
1
X
1 n 1 z
X.z/ D .az / D 1
D ; jzj > jaj;
nD0
1 az z a
a
Re
1
The Fourier transform of xŒn only exists if the ROC includes the unit circle,
which requires that jaj < 1. On the other hand, if jaj > 1 then the ROC does
not include the unit circle, and the Fourier transform does not exist. This is
consistent with the fact that for these values of a the sequence an uŒn is
exponentially growing, and the sum therefore does not converge.
Example: left-sided exponential sequence
Now consider the sequence xŒn D an uŒ n 1. This sequence is left-sided
because it is nonzero only for n 1. The z-transform is
1
X X1
n n
X.z/ D a uŒ n 1z D an z n
nD 1 nD 1
1
X 1
X
n n 1
D a z D1 .a z/n :
nD1 nD0
4
1
For ja zj < 1, or jzj < jaj, the series converges to
1 1 z
X.z/ D 1 1z
D 1
D ; jzj < jaj:
1 a 1 az z a
z−plane Im
unit circle
a
Re
1
Note that the expression for the z-transform (and the pole zero plot) is exactly
the same as for the right-handed exponential sequence — only the region of
convergence is different. Specifying the ROC is therefore critical when dealing
with the z-transform.
Example: sum of two exponentials
n n
The signal xŒn D 12 uŒn C 13 uŒn is the sum of two real exponentials.
The z-transform is
1 n n
X 1 1
X.z/ D uŒn C uŒn z n
nD 1
2 3
1 n 1 n
X 1 X 1
D uŒnz n C uŒnz n
nD 1
2 nD 1
3
1 1
1 1 n X 1 1 n
X
D z C z :
nD0
2 nD0
3
From the example for the right-handed exponential sequence, the first term in
this sum converges for jzj > 1=2, and the second for jzj > 1=3. The combined
transform X.z/ therefore converges in the intersection of these regions, namely
5
when jzj > 1=2. In this case
1
1 1 2z.z 12
/
X.z/ D 1
C D :
1 2
z 1 1 C 31 z 1 .z 1
2
/.z C 1
3
/
The pole-zero plot and region of convergence of the signal is
z−plane Im
unit circle
1
Re
1 1 1
3 12 2
1 .az 1 /N 1 zN aN
D D :
1 az 1 zN 1 z a
Since there are only a finite number of nonzero terms the sum always
converges when az 1 is finite. There are no restrictions on a (jaj < 1), and
the ROC is the entire z-plane with the exception of the origin z D 0 (where the
terms in the sum are infinite). The N roots of the numerator polynomial are at
zk D ae j.2k=N / ; k D 0; 1; : : : ; N 1;
6
since these values satisfy the equation z N D aN . The zero at k D 0 cancels
the pole at z D a, so there are no poles except at the origin, and the zeros are at
zk D ae j.2k=N / ; k D 1; : : : ; N 1:
The properties of the ROC depend on the nature of the signal. Assuming that
the signal has a finite amplitude and that the z-transform is a rational function:
The ROC is a ring or disk in the z-plane, centered on the origin
(0 rR < jzj < rL 1).
The Fourier transform of xŒn converges absolutely if and only if the ROC
of the z-transform includes the unit circle.
The ROC cannot contain any poles.
If xŒn is finite duration (ie. zero except on finite interval
1 < N1 n N2 < 1), then the ROC is the entire z-plane except
perhaps at z D 0 or z D 1.
If xŒn is a right-sided sequence then the ROC extends outward from the
outermost finite pole to infinity.
If xŒn is left-sided then the ROC extends inward from the innermost
nonzero pole to z D 0.
A two-sided sequence (neither left nor right-sided) has a ROC consisting
of a ring in the z-plane, bounded on the interior and exterior by a pole (and
not containing any poles).
7
3 The inverse z-transform
Formally, the inverse z-transform can be performed by evaluating a Cauchy
integral. However, for discrete LTI systems simpler methods are often
sufficient.
If one is familiar with (or has a table of) common z-transform pairs, the inverse
can be found by inspection. For example, one can invert the z-transform
!
1 1
X.z/ D 1
; jzj > ;
1 2z 1 2
For any rational function we can obtain a partial fraction expansion, and
identify the z-transform of each term. Assume that X.z/ is expressed as a ratio
of polynomials in z 1 :
PM k
kD0 bk z
X.z/ D PN :
a z k
kD0 k
8
It is always possible to factor X.z/ as
b0 M 1
Q
kD1 .1 ck z /
X.z/ D QN ;
a0 kD1 .1 dk z 1/
where the ck ’s and dk ’s are the nonzero zeros and poles of X.z/.
If M < N and the poles are all first order, then X.z/ can be expressed as
N
X Ak
X.z/ D 1
:
1 dk z
kD1
If M N and the poles are all first order, then an expansion of the form
M
XN N
r
X Ak
X.z/ D Br z C 1
rD0
1 dk z
kD1
9
correspond to exponential sequences. For these terms the ROC properties must
be used to decide whether the sequences are left-sided or right-sided.
Example: inverse by partial fractions
Consider the sequence xŒn with z-transform
1 C 2z 1 C z 2 .1 C z 1 /2
X.z/ D D ; jzj > 1:
1 23 z 1 C 12 z 2 .1 1
2
z 1 /.1 z 1/
2
1 3
z 2 z 1 2 1
2 2
C1 z C2z C1
2 1
z 3z C2
1
5z 1
so
1
1 C 5z
X.z/ D 2 C 1
:
.1 2
z 1 /.1 z 1/
so
1 C 2z 1 C z 2ˇ
ˇ
1C4C4
A1 D ˇ D D 9
1 z 1 ˇ
z 1 D2 1 2
and ˇ
1 2ˇ
1 C 2z C z 1C2C1
A2 D D D 8:
ˇ
1 21 z 1 1=2
ˇ
ˇ 1 D1
z
Therefore
9 8
X.z/ D 2 1
C 1
:
1 2
z 1 1 z
10
Using the fact that the ROC is jzj > 1, the terms can be inverted one at a time
by inspection to give
then any value in the sequence can be found by identifying the coefficient of
the appropriate power of z 1 .
Example: finite-length sequence
The z-transform
1
X.z/ D z 2 .1 z 1
/.1 C z 1
/.1 z 1
/
2
can be multiplied out to give
1 1
X.z/ D z 2 z 1C z 1
:
2 2
By inspection, the corresponding sequence is therefore
8̂
ˆ
ˆ 1 nD 2
ˆ
ˆ 1
ˆ
ˆ
< 2
ˆ nD 1
xŒn D 1 nD0
ˆ
1
ˆ
nD1
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ2
ˆ
ˆ
:̂0 otherwise
11
or equivalently
1 1
xŒn D 1ıŒn C 2 ıŒn C 1 1ıŒn C ıŒn 1:
2 2
Example: power series expansion
Consider the z-transform
1
X.z/ D log.1 C az /; jzj > jaj:
Using the power series expansion for log.1 C x/, with jxj < 1, gives
1
X . 1/nC1 an z n
X.z/ D :
nD1
n
a2 z 2
C
or
1 1
1
D 1 C az C a2 z 2
C :
1 az
12
Therefore xŒn D an uŒn.
Example: power series expansion for left-sided sequence
Consider instead the z-transform
1
X.z/ D ; jzj < jaj:
1 az 1
Because of the ROC, the sequence is now a left-sided one. Thus we divide to
obtain a series in powers of z:
1 2 2
a z a z
aCz z
z a 1z2
az 1
Thus xŒn D an uŒ n 1.
4.1 Linearity
13
4.2 Time shifting
14
4.3 Multiplication by an exponential sequence
where the notation jz0 jRx indicates that the ROC is scaled by jz0 j (that is,
inner and outer radii of the ROC scale by jz0 j). All pole-zero locations are
similarly scaled by a factor z0 : if X.z/ had a pole at z D z1 , then X.z=z0 / will
have a pole at z D z0 z1 .
15
From the exponential multiplication property,
1 j!0 n Z 1=2
.re / uŒn ! ; jzj > r
2 1 re j!0 z 1
1 j!0 n Z 1=2
.re / uŒn ! ; jzj > r;
2 1 re j!0 z 1
so
1=2 1=2
X.z/ D C ; jzj > r
1 re j!0 z 1 1 re j!0 z 1
1 r cos !0 z 1
D ; jzj > r:
1 2r cos !0 z 1 C r 2 z 2
4.4 Differentiation
we have
1 1
dX.z/ X
n 1
X
n
z D z . n/xŒnz D nxŒnz D ZfnxŒng:
dz nD 1 nD 1
16
to be
az 1
d 1
X.z/ D z 1
D ; jzj > a:
dz 1 az .1 az 1 /2
4.5 Conjugation
This property is
Z
x Œn !X .z /; ROC D Rx :
Here
Z 1
x Œ n !X .1=z /; ROC D
:
Rx
The notation 1=Rx means that the ROC is inverted, so if Rx is the set of values
such that rR < jzj < rL , then the ROC is the set of values of z such that
1=rl < jzj < 1=rR .
Example: time-reversed exponential sequence
The signal xŒn D a n uŒ n is a time-reversed version of an uŒn. The
z-transform is therefore
1 a 1z 1 1
X.z/ D D ; jzj < ja j:
1 az 1 a 1z 1
4.7 Convolution
17
Example: evaluating a convolution using the z-transform
The z-transforms of the signals x1 Œn D an uŒn and x2 Œn D uŒn are
1
X 1
X1 .z/ D an z n
D 1
; jzj > jaj
nD0
1 az
and
1
X
n 1
X2 .z/ D z D 1
; jzj > 1:
nD0
1 z
For jaj < 1, the z-transform of the convolution yŒn D x1 Œn x2 Œn is
1 z2
Y .z/ D D ; jzj > 1:
.1 az 1 /.1 z 1/ .z a/.z 1/
Using a partial fraction expansion,
1 1 a
Y .z/ D 1 1
; jzj > 1;
1 a 1 z 1 az
so
1
yŒn D .uŒn anC1 uŒn/:
1 a
18
Some common z-transform pairs are:
s D d C j!;
we have
z D e .d Cj!/T D e d T e j!T :
Therefore
19
where !s is the sampling frequency. As ! varies from 1 to 1, the s-plane is
mapped to the z-plane:
The j! axis in the s-plane is mapped to the unit circle in the z-plane.
The left-hand s-plane is mapped to the inside of the unit circle.
The right-hand s-plane maps to the outside of the unit circle.
20