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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

EPIC PERFORMANCES FROM THE MIDDLE AGES

INTO THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

Frontispiece. Paper Cinema Odyssey (2012) Poster. APGRD collection.

© Nic Rawling.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

Epic Performances from the

Middle Ages into the
Twenty-First Century

Edited by
FIONA MACINTOSH,
JUSTINE MCCONNELL,
STEPHEN HARRISON, AND
C L A I RE K E N W A RD

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

3
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© Fiona Macintosh, Justine McConnell, Stephen Harrison,
Claire Kenward, and the several contributors 2018
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2018
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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

Acknowledgements

During the first few years of the new millennium, the Graeco-Roman epics
regularly featured in staged, musical, dance, operatic, and film performances.
Yet there was no systematic study of the long history of epic-inspired per-
formances in various media across previous millennia. The three-year APGRD
Leverhulme-funded ‘Performing Epic’ project, based at the Archive of Per-
formances of Greek and Roman Drama (APGRD), University of Oxford,
sought to address this largely untold history.¹
The project has grown along the way, just like the epics that inspired it, and
with this development have come numerous debts. As ever, we are truly
grateful to the marvellous team at OUP: to Charlotte Loveridge and Georgie
Leighton; and to Tom Perridge, who initially oversaw the commissioning
process. We are also indebted to our scrupulous copy-editor Rowena Anketell,
to our proof reader Brian North, to our Production Manager Saranya Jayakumar,
and to our outstanding indexer Cheryl Hunston, whose patience and skills
have considerably enhanced this APGRD volume.
We wish to thank the following in particular for their help and support in
various ways: Tania Demetriou for kindly giving us advance copy of her
forthcoming major study of Homer in the early modern period after other
commitments prevented her from contributing to the volume; to Helen Slaney
and to Susanne Wofford too for their very stimulating papers at the first of our
workshops. Rachael White has performed a brilliant task on the Bibliography
and done so with characteristic precision and good humour. Huge thanks to
Hannah Silverblank, Lily Aaronovitch, Peter Swallow, and Zoe Jenkins for
their help in cataloguing the epic material. We are also enormously grateful to
the Performing Epic Advisory Board members: Edith Hall, Oliver Taplin,
Stephe Harrop, Rachel Bryant Davies, Henry Stead, and Marchella Ward.
Last but by no means least, we remain indebted to all APGRD colleagues for
their ongoing support, and encouragement, not least Peter Brown, Felix
Budelmann, Constanze Güthenke, Naomi Setchell, and Tom Wrobel.

¹ <http://www.apgrd.ox.ac.uk/about-us/research/performing-epic>.
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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

Contents

List of Illustrations xi
List of Contributors xv
Note on Nomenclature, Spelling, and Texts xxi

I. DEFINING TERMS
1. ‘Epic’ Performances: From Brecht to Homer and Back 3
Fiona Macintosh
2. Performing Epic and Reading Homer: An Aristotelian
Perspective 16
Barbara Graziosi
3. Shakespeare and Epic 31
Colin Burrow
4. Theatre on an Epic Scale 46
Tim Supple

II. CROSSING GENRES

5. Encountering Homer through Greek Plays in
Sixteenth-Century Europe 63
Tanya Pollard
6. Epic Acting in Shakespeare’s Hamlet 76
David Wiles
7. ‘I am that same wall; the truth is so’: Performing a
Tale from Ovid 90
Marchella Ward
8. Monsters and the Question of Inheritance in Early
Modern French Theatre 103
Wes Williams
9. The Future of Epic in Cinema: Tropes of Reproduction
in Ridley Scott’s Prometheus 119
Pantelis Michelakis
10. From Epic to Lyric: Alice Oswald’s and Barbara Köhler’s
Refigurings of Homeric Epic 133
Georgina Paul
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viii Contents

11. Choreographing Epic: The Ocean as Epic ‘Time-Space’

in Homer, Joyce, and Cunningham 149
Arabella Stanger
12. Epic Bodies: Filtering the Past and Embodying the
Present—A Performer’s Perspective 164
Marie-Louise Crawley

III. FORMAL REFRACTIONS

13. A Harmless Distemper: Accessing the Classical Underworld
in Heywood’s The Silver Age 181
Margaret Kean
14. Epic Poetry into Contemporary Choreography: Two
Twenty-First-Century Dance Adaptations of the Odyssey 194
Tom Sapsford
15. Voicing Virgil: Dante Performs the Latin Epic 209
Robin Kirkpatrick
16. Homer as Improviser? 228
Graeme Bird
17. ‘Now hear this’: Text and Performance in Christopher Logue’s
War Music (1959–2011) 250
Henry Power
18. Unfixing Epic: Homeric Orality and Contemporary
Performance 262
Stephe Harrop
19. Multimodal Twenty-First-Century Bards: From Live
Performance to Audiobook in the Homeric Adaptations
of Simon Armitage and Alice Oswald 275
Emily Greenwood
20. Homer ‘Viewed from the Corridor’: Epic Refracted in
Michael Tippett’s King Priam 289
Emily Pillinger

IV. EMPIRE AND POLITICS

21. Institutional Receptions: Camões, Saramago, and
the Contemporary Politics of The Lusíads on Stage 307
Tatiana Faia
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Contents ix

22. Achilles in French Tragedy (1563–1680) 322

Tiphaine Karsenti
23. The Spectacle of Conquest: Epic Conflicts on
the Seventeenth-Century Spanish Stage 336
Imogen Choi
24. Epic on Stage in the Dutch Republic 351
Frederick Naerebout
25. ‘Marpesia cautes’: Voicing Amazons, England and Ireland, 1640 361
Deana Rankin
26. After the Aeneid: Ascanius in Eighteenth-Century Opera 377
Stephen Harrison
27. Epic Performance through Invencão de Orfeu and
An Iliad: Two Instantiations of Epic as Embodiment in
the Americas 389
Patrice Rankine
28. Performing Walcott, Performing Homer: Omeros on Stage
and Screen 404
Justine McConnell

V. HIGH AND LOW

29. ‘Of arms and the man’: Thersites in Early Modern
English Drama 421
Claire Kenward
30. Classical Epic and the London Fairs, 1697–1734 439
Edith Hall
31. Classical Epic in Early Musical Theatre: The Case of Kane
O’Hara’s Midas 461
Henry Stead
32. Epic Transposed: The Real and the Hyperreal during
the Revolutionary Period in France 476
Fiona Macintosh
33. Sacrilegious Translation: The Epic Flop of François Ponsard’s
Ulysse (1852) 493
Cécile Dudouyt
34. Epic Cassandras in Performance, 1795–1868 508
Laura Monrós-Gaspar
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x Contents

35. ‘Of the rage, sing Goddess’: Epic Opera 524

Margaret Reynolds
36. Fish, Firemen, and Prize Fighters: The Transformation of
the Iliad and Aeneid on the London Burlesque Stage 540
Rachel Bryant Davies
Epilogue. Voices, Bodies, Silences, and Media: Heightened
Receptivity in Epic in Performance 558
Lorna Hardwick

Bibliography 573
Index 619
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

List of Illustrations

Frontispiece. Paper Cinema Odyssey (2012) Poster. APGRD collection. ii

© Nic Rawling.
1.1. Marina Carr’s Hecuba (2015) at the RSC. Hecuba on the throne. 12
Photograph by Topher McGrills © RSC.
4.1. Peter Brook’s Battlefield (2016). 57
Photograph by Richard Termine. © Richard Termine.
8.1. L’Histoire éthiopique d’Héliodore [. . .] Traduite de grec en françois,
par Maistre J. Amiot conseiller du Roy [etc.] (Paris: Chez Anthoine
de Sommaville, 1626), facing p. 635. 107
9.1. ‘Engineer disintegrates into primordial waters’. Frame capture from
DVD edition by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment of
Ridley Scott’s Prometheus (2012). 122
© 20th Century Fox.
10.1. Epic (model). Numbers denote characters in the narrative; letters
denote (implied) locations. 136
10.2. Lyric (model). The lyric images are held simultaneously in the space
of the poem. 137
12.1. Marie-Louise Crawley in mask as Myrrha.
Photograph by Christian Hunt. © Christian Hunt. 173
14.1. Clemmie Sveaas in Nest. 199
Photograph by Barnaby Churchill Steel. © Barnaby Churchill Steel.
14.2. Nest performance image. 201
Photograph by Sandra Ciampone. © Sandra Ciampone.
14.3. Sonya Cullingford and Aaron Vickers in ‘Choreographing the Katabasis’.
© Cathy Marston. 205
16.1. Homer’s Iliad, 1.1–15. Greek taken from Lord (2000), 143. 234
© 1960, 2000 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College.
© renewed 1988 by Alfred Bates Lord.
16.2. Homer’s Iliad, 1.1–15. 235
English translation by the author.
16.3. Musical notation by Graeme Bird. 237
16.4. Musical notation by Graeme Bird. 238
16.5. Musical notation by Graeme Bird. 238
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xii List of Illustrations

16.6. Musical notation by Graeme Bird. 238
16.7. Cole Porter’s ‘Night and Day’, Improv 1, p. 1.
© Graeme Bird. 240
16.8. Cole Porter’s ‘Night and Day’, Improv 1, p. 2.
© Graeme Bird. 241
19.1. Copies of Alice Oswald’s Memorial, and Simon Armitage’s Homer’s
Odyssey and Walking Home held in a sample of UK public libraries.
Compiled by the author. 284
27.1. Timothy Edward Kane in the Court Theatre, Chicago production
of An Iliad (2011).
© Michael Brosilow. 397
28.1. Photo of Joseph Marcell in Omeros, by Derek Walcott, directed
by Bill Buckhurst, in the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse at
Shakespeare’s Globe (2015).
Photograph by Pete Le May. © Shakespeare’s Globe. 412
29.1. Title page to Thomas Heywood’s The Second Part of
the Iron Age (1632). 424
30.1. William Hogarth’s Southwark Fair engraving (1734).
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Public domain. 440
30.2. Engraving of the Trojan Horse in Troy, reproduced from the 3rd edn.
of The Works of Virgil, Containing his Pastorals, Georgics and Aeneis,
translated into English by Mr Dryden (London: J. Tonson, 1699).
Reproduced by permission of Paul Hartle. The engravings were reproduced
from those in John Ogilby’s translation (1654). 445
30.3. Title page of the Southwark Fair edition of The Siege of Troy
droll (1707).
Reproduced by permission of King’s College Library. 446
30.4. Title page of Settle’s Troy Opera (1702), variously entitled Cassandra:
The Virgin Prophetess and The Virgin Prophetess; or The Fate of Troy.
Reproduced by permission of the British Library. 450
30.5. Frontispiece and title page to The New History of the Trojan Wars
and Troy’s Destruction (1750 edn., London: J. Hodges).
In the author’s private collection. 460
31.1. Kane O’Hara by Edmund Dorrell. Etching, published 1 November
1802. NPG D5391.
© National Portrait Gallery, London. 468
31.2. The Blind Enthusiast. Cartoon, British Museum, image
no. AN361549001.
© The Trustees of the British Museum. 472
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List of Illustrations xiii

32.1. Pierre Gardel as Télémaque. Painting by Sébastien Cœuré in the
collection of Jean-Louis Tamvaco, Paris. 488
32.2. Angelica Kauffman, Telemachus and the Nymphs of Calypso (1782).
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Public domain. 489
32.3. William Hamilton, Calypso Receiving Telemachus and Mentor in
the Grotto (1782). 490
Private collection. Public domain.
34.1. Siege of Troy Playbill.
© Senate House Library, University of London. 513
34.2. ‘Hodgson’s Characters in the Giant Horse: Descent of the Greek
spies from the giant horse’.
© Victoria and Albert Museum, London. 518
34.3. ‘Hodgson’s Characters in the Giant Horse’.
© Victoria and Albert Museum, London. 519
36.1. Astley’s Playbill, Siege of Troy.
© Victoria and Albert Museum, London. 541
36.2. ‘The Pas de Déesses at Her Majesty’s Theatre’, Illustrated
London News, 1 August 1846. 546
36.3. ‘The “Talking Fish”’, Illustrated London News of the World,
14 May 1859, p. 292. 548
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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

List of Contributors

Graeme Bird studied Classics at Auckland University in his native

New Zealand, before coming to the US and earning a music degree in jazz
piano from the Berklee College of Music, and then a PhD in Classical Philology
from Harvard University. His publications include a monograph on the
Ptolemaic Papyri of Homer’s Iliad, as well as a chapter on Critical Signs in the
tenth-century Iliad manuscript Venetus A. He currently teaches Linguistics and
Classics at Gordon College in Wenham, and Mathematics at the Harvard
University Extension School in Cambridge, both in Massachusetts.
Rachel Bryant Davies holds an Addison Wheeler Fellowship in the Depart-
ment of Classics at the University of Durham and is an Early Career Associate
with the APGRD. Her first book, Troy, Carthage and the Victorians: The
Drama of Classical Ruins in the Nineteenth-Century Imagination (2017) was
researched during her Doctoral Fellowship with the Leverhulme-funded Cam-
bridge Victorian Studies Group. Forthcoming publications include an edition
of a critical anthology of Victorian Epic Burlesque and, with Barbara Gribling,
Childhood Encounters with History in British Culture, 1750–1914. Her current
project is ‘Classics at Play: Graeco-Roman Antiquity in British Children’s
Culture, 1750–1914’.
Colin Burrow is Professor of English and Comparative Literature and
Senior Research Fellow at All Souls College, Oxford. His most recent book
is Shakespeare and Classical Antiquity (2013).
Imogen Choi is Associate Professor of Spanish Golden Age Literature at Exeter
College, University of Oxford. Her research focuses on the ways in which early
modern Spanish and Latin American literature acts as a medium for political
thought and discussion of the ethics of war in Spain’s far-flung empire. Her
publications to date have applied this approach to the Hispanic epic tradition.
Marie-Louise Crawley studied at the University of Oxford and was vocation-
ally trained with Marcel Marceau at his school in Paris. Marie-Louise began
her professional performance career with Ariane Mnouchkine’s Théâtre du
Soleil (2003–9). Since 2010, she has been working in the UK as an independent
choreographer and dance artist with companies as diverse as Birmingham
Opera Company, Marc Brew, Gary Clarke, Ballet Cymru, and Rosie Kay
Dance Company. New choreographic work has included pieces for a TATE/
ARTIST ROOMS exhibit and for the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. She was
recently Artist-in-Residence at the APGRD (2017) and is currently a PhD
candidate at C-DaRE (Centre for Dance Research), Coventry University.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

xvi List of Contributors

Cécile Dudouyt is Assistant Professor at the University of Paris 13, Sorbonne

Paris Cité, where she teaches Translation and Translation Studies. Her
research explores the reception of translated ancient Greek theatre in English
and French from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment.
Tatiana Faia is both a scholar and a poet affiliated to the Centre for Classical
Studies of the University of Lisbon. Her doctoral thesis studied characters and
characterization in the Iliad. She works on classical reception in contemporary
Portuguese literature. Recently published work explores the links between the
poetry of Herberto Helder, Adrienne Rich and the myth of Orpheus, and
Fernando Pessoa on Antinous; and forthcoming is a study on Pessoa’s theatre
and Fantin-Latour’s paintings. She is one of the editors of the literary journal/
small press Enfermaria 6, a project committed to curate the best of Lusophone
contemporary writing.
Barbara Graziosi is Professor of Classics at Princeton University. Her numer-
ous publications include Homer (2016), The Gods of Olympus: A History
(2013), and Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic (2002); and with
Johannes Haubold, Homer: Iliad Book VI (2010) and Homer: The Resonance of
Epic (2005).
Emily Greenwood is Professor of Classics at Yale University. She is the author
of Thucydides and the Shaping of History (2006) and Afro-Greeks: Dialogues
Between Anglophone Caribbean Literature and Classics in the Twentieth Cen-
tury (2010). She has published widely on ancient Greek historiography, the
adaptation and translation of various Greek authors, and the broader recep-
tion of classical antiquity.
Edith Hall is Professor of Classics at King’s College London and Co-Founder
and Consultant Director of the APGRD. She has published twenty-five books
on ancient culture and its reception, the most recent being Introducing the
Ancient Greeks (2014) and Happiness: Ten Ways Aristotle Can Change your
Life (2017). She is the recipient of the 2015 Erasmus Prize of the European
Academy and an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Athens.
Lorna Hardwick is Emeritus Professor of Classical Studies at the Open
University, UK and an Honorary Research Associate at the APGRD, Uni-
versity of Oxford. She is (with James Porter) the editor of the Classical
Presences series (Oxford University Press) and was the founding editor of
the Classical Receptions Journal. She is Director of the Reception of Classical
Texts Research Project and author of Translating Words, Translating Cul-
tures (2000) and Reception Studies (2003, also translated into Greek), and
co-editor of Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds (2007), Companion to Classical
Receptions (2007), and Classics in the Modern World: A ‘Democratic
Turn’? (2013).
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List of Contributors xvii

Stephen Harrison is Professor of Latin Literature, Fellow and Tutor in Classics

at Corpus Christi College, University of Oxford, and Adjunct Professor at the
universities of Copenhagen and Trondheim. He has published extensively on
Latin literature and its reception, including A Commentary on Vergil, Aeneid
10 (1991), Generic Enrichment in Vergil and Horace (2007), Living Classics:
Greece and Rome in Contemporary Poetry in English (ed. 2009), Louis Mac-
Neice: The Classical Radio Plays (jointly edited with Amanda Wrigley, 2013),
and Classics in the Modern World: A ‘Democratic Turn’? (jointly edited with
Lorna Hardwick, 2013). He is a member of the APGRD Advisory Board.
Stephe Harrop is Senior Lecturer in Drama (Shakespeare and the Classics) at
Liverpool Hope University. Her research focuses on the reperformance of
ancient drama and epic, the traditional arts on modern British stages, and
contemporary storytelling practices. Stephe is also an associate of the APGRD.
Tiphaine Karsenti is Assistant Professor in Performance Studies at Paris-
Nanterre University. She is a specialist in French theatre of the early modern
period and author of Le Mythe de Troie dans le théâtre français, 1562–1715
(2012). She is co-organizer, with Cécile Dudouyt, of the APGRD/HAR annual
joint colloquium.
Margaret Kean is the Dame Helen Gardner Fellow and Tutor in English at
St Hilda’s College, Oxford. Her research focuses on the works of John Milton,
John Dryden, early modern theatre, the epic tradition and its reception
history. She also has a teaching interest in children’s literature. She has
recently completed Inferno: A Cultural History of Hell (2018) and is the editor
of John Milton’s Paradise Lost: A Sourcebook (2005).
Claire Kenward is Archivist and Researcher at the APGRD. Her publications
include ‘The Reception of Greek Drama in Early Modern England’ in
A Handbook to the Reception of Greek Drama (2016) and ‘Sights to Make an
Alexander? Reading Homer on the Early Modern Stage’ in Homer and Greek
Tragedy in Early Modern England’s Theatres: Special Issue of Classical Recep-
tions Journal (2017). Forthcoming publications focus on the reception of
Hecuba and Homer’s Iliad in science fiction and speculative fantasy. Claire
is also co-author and curator of the APGRD’s two multimedia, interactive
ebooks: Medea—A Performance History (2016), and Agamemnon—A Per-
formance History (2019).
Robin Kirkpatrick is Emeritus Professor of Italian and English Literature at
the University of Cambridge. As well as a verse translation of Dante’s The
Divine Comedy (Penguin, 2012), he has written a number of books on Dante
and on the Renaissance, including The European Renaissance, 1400–1600
(2002) and English and Italian Literature from Dante to Shakespeare:
A Study of Source, Analogue, and Divergence (1995).
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xviii List of Contributors

Fiona Macintosh is Professor of Classical Reception, Director of APGRD, and

Fellow of St Hilda’s College, Oxford. She is the author of Dying Acts: Ancient
Greek and Modern Irish Tragic Drama (1994), Greek Tragedy and the British
Theatre 1660–1900 (with Edith Hall, 2005), and Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannus
(2009). This is the seventh APGRD volume that she has edited.
Justine McConnell is Lecturer in Comparative Literature at King’s College
London. She is author of Black Odysseys: The Homeric Odyssey in the African
Diaspora since 1939 (2013), and co-editor of three volumes: Ancient Slavery
and Abolition: from Hobbes to Hollywood (2011), The Oxford Handbook of
Greek Drama in the Americas (2015), and Ancient Greek Myth in World
Fiction since 1989 (2016).
Pantelis Michelakis is Reader in Classics at the University of Bristol. He is the
author of Greek Tragedy on Screen (2013), Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis (2006),
and Achilles in Greek Tragedy (2002). He has also co-edited The Ancient
World in Silent Cinema (2013), Agamemnon in Performance, 458 BC to AD
2004 (2005), and Homer, Tragedy and Beyond: Essays in Honour of
P. E. Easterling (2001). He is a member of the APGRD Advisory Board.
Laura Monrós-Gaspar is Associate Professor of English and Head of the Area
of Performing Arts at the Universitat de València. She is also a Research
Associate of the APGRD. She is the author of Victorian Classical Burlesques.
A Critical Anthology (2015), Cassandra the Fortune Teller: Prophets, Gipsies
and Victorian Burlesque (2011), and various articles and book chapters on
Victorian literature and culture.
Frederick Naerebout is Lecturer in Ancient History at Leiden University. His
research centres on Greek and Roman religion, especially the non-verbal
aspects of ritual (dance), and on cultural contact, especially within Hellenistic
kingdoms and the Roman Empire. The reception of the ancient world is
another major research area.
Georgina Paul is Associate Professor of German at the University of Oxford
and Fellow and Tutor in German at St Hilda’s College, Oxford. She is author of
Perspectives on Gender in Post-1945 German Literature (2009) and editor of
An Odyssey for Our Time: Barbara Köhler’s Niemands Frau (2013).
Emily Pillinger is Lecturer in Latin Language and Literature in the Depart-
ment of Classics at King’s College London. She has written on the supernatural
voices of prophets, witches, and the dead in the poetry of the ancient world,
and her book Cassandra and the Poetics of Prophecy in Greek and Latin
Literature is forthcoming (2019). She has also published on classical reception
in music and is currently researching the use of Graeco-Roman myth and
history in music composed after the Second World War.
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List of Contributors xix

Tanya Pollard is Professor in English at Brooklyn College and the CUNY

Graduate Centre, New York. Her books include Greek Tragic Women on
Shakespearean Stages (2017), Drugs and Theater in Early Modern England
(2005), Shakespeare’s Theater: A Sourcebook (2004), and three co-edited
collections of essays.
Henry Power is Associate Professor of English at the University of Exeter. He
specializes in English literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
and is author of Epic into Novel: Scriblerian Satire, and the Consumption of
Classical Literature (2015), Homer’s Odyssey (2011), The Oxford Handbook of
English Prose, 1640–1715 (with N. McDowell, 2018). One current project is on
the Homeric translations of Christopher Logue.
Deana Rankin is Senior Lecturer in English at Royal Holloway, University of
London. She specializes in English and Irish Literature of the early modern
period. Her publications include Between Spenser and Swift: English Writing in
Seventeenth-Century Ireland (2005) and the first scholarly edition of Land-
gartha: A Tragie-comedy by Henry Burnell (2013).
Patrice Rankine is Professor of Classics and Dean of the School of Arts &
Sciences at the University of Richmond. He is author of Ulysses in Black: Ralph
Ellison, Classicism, and African American Literature (2006), which was named
in 2007 by Choice magazine as one of the outstanding academic books and is
currently in its second printing; and Aristotle and Black Drama: A Theater of
Disobedience (2013). He is also co-editor of The Oxford Handbook of Greek
Drama in the Americas (2015).
Margaret Reynolds is Professor of English at Queen Mary, University of
London. Her publications include The Sappho History (2003), The Sappho
Companion (2000), and (with Angela Leighton) Victorian Women Poets (1999).
Her critical edition of Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s Aurora Leigh (1996) won
the British Academy’s Rose Mary Crawshay prize. She is the presenter of BBC
Radio 4’s ‘Adventures in Poetry’.
Tom Sapsford is Fellow at the Center for Ballet and the Arts NYU, an Early
Career Associate with the APGRD, and was previously a Lecturer in the
Department of Classics at the University of Southern California. Prior to the
study of Classics, Tom was a professional dancer and choreographer working
with institutions such as the Royal Ballet, the Royal Opera House, and the
Institute of Contemporary Arts in London.
Arabella Stanger is Lecturer in Drama: Theatre and Performance at the
University of Sussex. She previously held the post of Lecturer in Dance Studies
at the University of Roehampton and received her PhD and MA in Theatre
and Performance from Goldsmiths, University of London. Before studying for
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

xx List of Contributors

her BA in Classical Studies with English Literature from King’s College

London, Arabella trained professionally in classical ballet and contemporary
dance in London. She is currently preparing a monograph on choreographic
space and is engaged in new research projects on sabotage, and performance
and light.
Henry Stead is a Leverhulme Early Career Research Fellow in English and
Classical Studies at the Open University, UK. He is author of A Cockney
Catullus (2015) and co-editor of Greek and Roman Classics in the British
Struggle for Social Reform (2015).
Tim Supple is a multi-award-winning British theatre director, who has dir-
ected and adapted theatre across the world. He is co-director of Dash Arts, a
company that produces theatre, dance, music, and art events in collaboration
with artists around the world. His recent projects include The Tempest at The
National Centre for Performing Arts in Beijing.
Marchella Ward recently completed her doctorate in Classics at St Hilda’s
College, Oxford on blindness and the theatre. She has a background in Classics
and English and is currently Archivist and Researcher at the APGRD. In 2017
she was the specialist researcher on a BBC Four documentary, produced in
partnership with the Royal Shakespeare Company, ‘Ovid from the RSC: The
World’s Greatest Storyteller’.
David Wiles is Emeritus Professor of Drama at the University of Exeter, and a
member of Wolfson College, Oxford. He spent much of his career in the
Department of Drama and Theatre at Royal Holloway, before moving to
Exeter in 2013. His major areas of historical interest have been Greek and
Elizabethan theatre, and key themes in his work have been festival, mask, and
space. His Theatre and Citizenship (2011) covered a broad historical span with
a focus upon the French Enlightenment. With Christine Dymkowski, he
edited the Cambridge Companion to Theatre History (2013). He is currently
working on the history of acting, more specifically the rhetorical method
derived from antiquity. He has had a long association with the APGRD.
Wes Williams is Professor of French Literature at the University of Oxford.
His main research interests are in the field of early modern literature: they
encompass the study of genre and of subjectivity, and the intersection of
medicine, law, and literature in the period. His first book was Pilgrimage
and Narrative in the French Renaissance: ‘The Undiscovered Country (1998)
and his most recent is Monsters and their Meanings in Early Modern Culture;
‘Mighty Magic’ (2011). Currently working on the long (and continuing)
history of ‘Voluntary Servitude’, he also teaches European film and literary
theory, and writes and directs for the theatre.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

Note on Nomenclature, Spelling, and Texts

For ancient texts and authors, we have adopted the standard spellings and
abbreviations in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th edn.) and the citations
from ancient authors are taken from the Oxford Classical Texts editions,
unless otherwise indicated. Translations are the author’s own, unless stated.
Spelling throughout is UK, unless referring to a US particular place/
institution.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

I
Defining Terms
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

‘Epic’ Performances
From Brecht to Homer and Back

Fiona Macintosh

During the course of the APGRD’s Leverhulme-funded ‘Performing Epic’

project, epic performances provided the theme for one of the joint annual
colloquia with the ‘Histoires des arts et des représentations’ (HAR), Université
de Paris, Nanterre.¹ On this particular occasion, the cross-disciplinary dia-
logue during the colloquium proved, at first, surprising and occasionally
disorienting; and it took some time for everyone to realize just how instructive
the initial crosstalk in fact was. It was the terminology that proved a stumbling
block here: whilst for the Paris-based performance scholars/theatre historians,
Brecht’s ‘Epic Theatre’ was self-evidently what ‘performing epic’ meant, the
Oxford-based classicists were puzzled to find this particular German play-
wright/theorist providing the subject for discussion.
Brecht’s Epic Theatre, which the playwright developed both in theory and
practice from the late 1920s onwards, may have loomed long and large on the
modern stage, either as model or as foil to theatre practitioners and theorists,
but for classicists it has generally been regarded as marginal to their concerns.²
Although Martin Revermann has recently demonstrated how mistaken such

¹ For details of the Leverhulme-funded ‘Performing Epic’ project: <http://www.apgrd.ox.ac.

uk/about-us/research/performing-epic>. And for details of the partnership with HAR, see:
<www.apgrd.ox.ac.uk/about-us/about-us/collaborations>. This volume grew out of three work-
shops, especially the last two that focused on the Middle Ages to 1800 and from 1800 into the
twenty-first century respectively. Additional chapters began life in the APGRD lecture/seminar
series (those by Supple, Burrow, and Paul); others were newly commissioned (those by Choi,
Crawley, Faia, Power, Karsenti, and Ward).
² The fullest account is Brecht’s ‘Notes on the Opera Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny’
(1930), which includes the first (and best known) schema in tabular form of Epic versus
Dramatic Theatre. Brecht (2015), 61–71. For the perspective of one practitioner, see Supple,
Ch. 4 in this volume. The studies by classicists, Silk (2001) and Revermann (2013) and (2016),
are the exceptions that prove the rule.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

4 Fiona Macintosh
an oversight is for studies of tragedy and the tragic,³ Brecht is often only
acknowledged by classical scholars as a rewriter of Hölderlin’s boldly eccentric
translation of Sophocles’ Antigone. When ‘Epic Theatre’ is considered by
classicists, it is narrowly construed as simply ‘narrative’ theatre with very little,
if anything, to do with the Greek and Roman epic poems.
Cast by Brecht in contradistinction to what he termed bourgeois, illusionist,
‘Aristotelian’ theatre, Epic Theatre advocates the deployment of Verfremdung-
seffekte (very loosely ‘distancing’ techniques⁴), which are designed to disrupt
the flow of the action, rupture the fourth wall, and thereby render a critical
stance on the part of the spectators in order to effect radical change within
society at large. The employment of film projections in Epic Theatre, designed
to usher in real-life experiences, both extends and segments the theatrical
space by turns; and, perhaps most importantly, these stage technologies effect
temporal disjunctions within the dramatic action, resulting in multilayered/
multi-perspectival performances.
It is important to concede that the epic performances discussed in this
volume are very often interventionist, as Brecht advocated; and they routinely
extend theatrical space (albeit vertically to the realm of the divine and hori-
zontally across continents) in their handling of the ‘big themes’, which Brecht
maintained provided the requisite subject matter of Epic. They also focus
intently on the here and now: as the theatre director Tim Supple suggests in
this volume, epic theatre must be both big and small—handling the general-
ities and the specificities of life. Temporally too the epic performances dis-
cussed in this volume are very often disjunctive in Brechtian terms as their
action leaps back and forth across time.
However, what the epic performances discussed here do not adopt in any
systematic fashion is Verfremdung—the concept generally considered to be
central to Brechtian theatre.⁵ They may well include deliberate features that set
these performances at some remove from reality, as with Homeric epic’s
stylized dactylic hexameter, which clearly effected in practice a degree of
Verfremdung;⁶ or, say, through the use of a choric/narrator figure who mediates
the action for the spectators.⁷ It could be argued that many epic performances
under discussion here, and not just those in opera and dance, depend absolutely
on the very spellbinding qualities that Brecht demonizes and associates with
the intoxication of bourgeois/‘Aristotelian’ theatre.
But is Brecht’s Epic Theatre really so far from the epic performances under
discussion in this volume? Were we Oxford-based classicists, then, initially

³ Revermann (2013), Revermann (2016).

⁴ I follow the editors of the 3rd edition of Brecht (2015), who admit to finding no satisfactory
English equivalent of Brecht’s use of Verfremdung.
⁵ Silk (2001). ⁶ Cf. Graziosi, Ch. 2 in this volume.
⁷ For Tippett’s adoption of an Epic-narrator figure, see Pillinger, Ch. 20 in this volume.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

‘Epic’ Performances 5
too quick to emphasize the differences between epic performances and the
towering twentieth-century, Epic Theatre model? We slowly realized that we
needed to take heed. For even if Brecht’s ‘approach to acting, playmaking,
scenography, and music has not been accepted outside Germany’, his ‘approach
to staging, storytelling, technology, and ensemble acting has triumphed’.⁸ More-
over, whilst Brecht in the late 1920s and early 1930s followed Schiller and
Goethe in his apparent misapprehension that, according to Aristotle, epic and
drama were opposites,⁹ by 1935 both his position and his understanding of
any Aristotelian polarity had evolved. In his ‘Thoughts for Pleasure or Theatre
for Instruction’, there is more nuance and greater room for overlap between
the two genres:
The term ‘epic theatre’ seemed self-contradictory to many because, following
Aristotle, the epic and the dramatic forms of presenting the plot are held to be
distinct . . . [But] Aristotle himself distinguished between the dramatic and epic
forms as a difference in their construction . . . [and] there was the ‘dramatic
element’ in epic works and the ‘epic element’ in dramatic works.¹⁰
Now, it seems, ‘epic drama’ and ‘dramatic epic’ are both possibilities according
to his schema.
During the course of the APGRD’s ‘Performing Epic’ project and in the
commissioning and editing process for this volume, it has become apparent
that formal questions—Brecht’s modes of ‘construction’—are central to an
understanding of epic performances in the modern world. And Brecht has
turned out not to be the outlier: his multilayered, multifaceted action, seg-
mentation, and discontinuity all reappear in the epic plots in evidence in this
volume. Brecht, as Silk has demonstrated, has borrowed much from Aristotle
on epic (not least the notion of epic segmentation, which comes from Poetics
chapter 26, where he speaks of epic as less unified than tragedy); and Brecht
very often provides coherence to Aristotle’s theory where there is none.¹¹ And
just as Brecht’s Epic Theatre demystifies the theatrical conventions associated
with the neoclassical unities and the deus ex machina,¹² so epic performances
from the late seventeenth century were deemed to be in breach of those
‘unities’ and were consequently confined to performance spaces where the
‘rules’ were not applicable—in the fairs, in the opera house.
Brecht, then, despite our initial conviction to the contrary, has turned out to
be a very helpful guide in analysing the epic performances under discussion
here. Just as Brecht can illuminate tragedy,¹³ so his theory is by no means
unhelpful when it comes to analysing epic on stage. And as so often with

⁸ Supple, Ch. 4 in this volume, p. 56. ⁹ Silk (2001), 186. ¹⁰ Brecht (2015), 109.
¹¹ Silk (2001). See too Graziosi, Ch. 2 in this volume, for Aristotle on epic.
¹² Giles, in Brecht (2015), 17. ¹³ Revermann (2016).
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/9/2018, SPi

6 Fiona Macintosh
interdisciplinary dialogue, the initially slow process of discovery has afforded
exciting new perspectives that a classical lens, tout court, occluded.

EPIC CONTENT

When it was explained that the principal research focus for the APGRD’s
Leverhulme project was the content of the Graeco-Roman epics in perform-
ance, it is true to say that there was a degree of bemusement on the part of the
members of HAR, the Paris-Nanterre theatre research group. The subtext of the
dialogue was something on the lines of: ‘How could ancient “epic” content
constitute a “research” focus?’ And ‘How could source-spotting provide serious
research findings?’ It took some explaining to make it clear that ‘Performing
Epic’ entailed rather more than source-spotting and data collection (however
important that was for the APGRD database).¹⁴ The project was designed, inter
alia, not only to trace systematically the afterlife of the ancient epics in per-
formance; it was seeking also, and most importantly, to examine the multiple
reasons behind the continuous attraction of ancient epic material to theatre and
film directors, to playwrights, composers, and choreographers down to this day.
Indeed, it was developments in theatre into the twenty-first century, when ‘epic
performances’ have enjoyed considerable prominence in theatrical repertoires
around the globe, that prompted the research project in the first place.
For some contemporary theatre makers, such as Peter Brook, epic material
has provided a staple and a reference point throughout a long career. Late in
2015 at the Bouffes du Nord in Paris and then early in 2016 at the Young Vic
Theatre in London, Brook returned to the subject of his epic-scale, nine-hour
Mahabharata (1985, made into a six-hour film in 1989 after four years’
touring internationally) with a short episode entitled Battlefield from Vyasa’s
Sanskrit epic.¹⁵ This internecine struggle between the Bharata family members
is set against the backdrop of the Kurukshetra War; and as Aeschylus was said
to have done with Homer, Battlefield takes a ‘slice’ from Vyasa’s epic ‘banquet’
in order to make some sense of the tragedies of families torn apart by the
horrors of war.
Brook’s engagement with epic had initially been fed by his interest in living
oral indigenous epic performances in India and in traditional societies around
the world. In recent years, verse narratives of quest, adventure, and destiny—
the Greek and Roman Iliad, Odyssey, Argonautica, Aeneid, Metamorphoses
alongside Gilgamesh, the Mahabharata, the Inuit Atanarjuat, and the West
African Sundiata—have been inspiring new theatrical, danced and sung

¹⁴ See the APGRD performance database. <http://www.apgrd.ox.ac.uk/research-collections/

performance-database/productions>
¹⁵ See Fig. 4.1, p. 57.
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“shouldn’t we dominate the East? You mean to tell me you’d let a
bunch of Japs do it?” Cuthwright thumped the table. “And you said
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“No.”
“All right, Jameson, we’ll have to ask for your resignation.”
Jameson was very pale now but his gaze was unwavering. “For
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“I know, I know, Jameson. We’re sorry about it. But our duty—what
you don’t understand, Jameson, is that the welfare of the State is
greater than that of any individual. You didn’t use to be a
communist.”
“And I’m not one now.”
“Well, any man can hide behind a definition. Anyway....”
John Benton wondered afterwards why he did not speak up in
defense of his colleague. “I’m a coward,” he told his wife. He paced
the room, agitated. “I’m a coward!” he cried. “I can see it now!” And a
week later, when the local paper again called him a communist and
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all over. He felt the nameless dread of his youth. And when his fellow
trustees called him into conference behind a locked door, he
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They asked for his resignation. They asked if he had anything to say.
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last thing I’ll ever say. Yes, I want to say that I fought in the last war. I
know a lot of men who fought in the last war. Where are they? Dead
—like Harlan and Roscoe and Ainsworth.” He licked his dry lips. He
placed hands on a table to steady his shaking frame. “But you didn’t
fight in that war. Did you?—did you?—or you? No, you’re
Goddamned right you didn’t! But I did. And I was not a coward,
either!” His voice was a little wild now. “I was decorated for bravery,
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I came back and hated war and I spoke against war, and what did
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But now—now nobody speaks to me and they call me a communist,
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nobody can please men like you! You don’t want war and you don’t
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there was something terrible in his eyes now. He advanced a little,
his body shaking. “I—you—” he said. The muscles in one cheek
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searching for friendliness and goodwill. “Three nations decorated me
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his smile was more chilling than his words. “I—” He stopped, trying
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said, softly, terribly, advancing toward them. “Honest!” he declared,
clenching his lean hands. The knuckles on his hands were as white
as his mouth. “I’d fight again,” he said.
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