INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH, VOL.

14, 859-867 (1990)

SOLAR ENERGY AT VARIOUS DEPTHS BELOW

A WATER SURFACE
M. A. JAMAL A N D J. A. MUADDI
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, United Arab Emirates University, AI-Ain. PO Box 17551, U A E

SUMMARY
The total solar energy at various depths in water has been calculated by adopting two sets of data, namely the extinction
coefficient of water in the spectral range of 300-2500 nm, and the solar spectrum at sea level in the same spectral range.
With the aid of a computer program designed for this purpose, the solar spectrum at various depths has been
reconstructed and the total solar energy has been measured by calculating the area under the spectral distribution curves.
A mathematical expression for the integrated solar energy as a function of depth in water has been derived.

KEY WORDS Solar energy at depth Absorbed solar energy Water absorption of solar energy

INTRODUCTION
The transfer of energy from solar radiation to water is a subject of significant importance in the utilization of
solar energy. Detailed information about the total solar energy at a depth in water is required particularly for
the design of solar ponds.
Solar radiation incident normally on the surface of water is subjected to the effect of the air-water interface,
where a small part of the intensity is reflected.
The transmitted intensity of solar radiation I in terms of the incident intensity I, is given in Reference 1 by

where n, and n2 are the refractive indices of the air and water, respectively. The transmitted spectrum is
weakened gradually by two processes: absorption and scattering.
For a monoenergetic beam of radiation, the transmitted intensity I, at any depth x in water is given by the
following exponential equation from Reference 2:
I, =I e -yx (2)
where I is the intensity that enters the water at depth zero, and u is the extinction coefficient of the water.
The extinction of solar energy by water cannot be simply represented by a mathematical formula of
exponential nature like equation (21, because the extinction coefficient of water has different values in
different parts of the spectrum.
As a heterogeneous beam of radiation, the total solar intensity I , at any depth x in water is given in
Reference 3 by an integral of the following form:

where 1, is the short-wavelength limit of the solar spectrum, u(L) is the wavelength dependent extinction
coefficient of the water, and f (1)is the spectral distribution function.

0363-907X/90/08085949$05.00 Received 22 February 1990

0 1990 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
860 M. A. JAMAL A N D J. A. MUADDI

The interest in the total solar energy at depth in water grew in connection with physical oceanography
[4,5] with the renewed interest in the physics of the solar ponds in the 1970s; the literature on that topic
became richer but still needs some attention.
In the present work, a detailed study of the integrated solar energy at depth in water has been made by
utilizing two sets of data: the extinction coefficient of water and the digitized solar spectrum at sea level.
These two sets of data were utilized in a computer program to calculate the integrated solar energy at various
depths from 1 cm to 10 m.

SOLAR ENERGY AT DEPTH IN WATER

The extinction coefficientof pure water for solar energy has been the subject of interest for a long time [6-91,
and reliable results have been classified and reported by Defant [4].
Rabl and Nelson [103 first used the data reported by Defant to suggest an approximate mathematical
representation for the total solar energy I, at any depth x in water; they suggested the following formula:
4
I , = TIClk exp( - ukx) (4)
1

where z is defined as a coefficient of transmission, I is the total solar intensity at the water surface, and & and
Uf are the fitting parameters.
Equation (4) has been obtained by dividing the data of the extinction coefficient of water into four different
groups, each group following a certain exponential trend. The superposition of these four exponential
formulas gives rise to equation (4).
In order to find the total solar energy transmitted at a certain depth in water, eight parameters are to
be used.
Bryant and Colbeck [113 suggested a two-parameter equation for the transmitted fraction of solar energy
I, at depth x in water, their formula is
I, = 0.73 - 0.08 ln(x) (5)
A third model has been developed by Hull [l2], where the transmitted solar energy as a function of depth in
water is given by a three-parameter equation of the following form:
I, = 0727 - 0.056 ln(100x) (6)
Equation(6) was obtained by dividing the solar spectrum into 40 parts. A computer program has been
made for fitting the transmission function generated by the 40-part spectrum in 10 cm intervals down to a
depth of 2 m.

THE PRESENT WORK

In this work, the total solar energy has been calculated at various depths in water. The calculation is based
on two sets of data:
(i) the extinction coefficient of pure water [4] in the spectral range of 300-2500 nm; these data are illustrated
in Figure 1.
(ii) the solar spectrum at sea level [13]; the many dips that appear in the infra-red region due to the
absorption by water vapour and carbon dioxide have been omitted in order to make the solar spectral
distribution more suitable for a dry desert place with almost no pollution. This spectral distribution is
illustrated in Figure 2.

The transmitted solar spectrum

For a beam of solar energy incident normally on the surface of the water, i.e. the sun is at the zenith,
equation (1) has been used to calculate the intensity of the transmitted beam. The calculation was done to
cover the whole spectral range from 300 to 2500 nm in 10 nm steps.
 SOLAR ENERGY AT DEPTH 86 1

1500 2500
Wavdength I nm 1

Figure 1 Extinction coefficient of pure water from various sources, after Defant (1961) [4]

2.

1.

14

0.

Wavelength ( nm 1

Figure 2. Solar spectrum at sea level, after Thekaekara (1974) [13]

862 M. A. JAMAL A N D J. A. MUADDI

The refractive index of water is not constant over the solar spectral range, and its variation with
wavelength is accounted for by Cauchy's formula for dispersion [14], namely
B C
n=A+T+- (7)
A A4
where A, B, and C are constants characteristic of the water medium.
For many purposes-it is sufficiently accurate to include the first two terms only [14].
The values of A and B in equation (7) have been obtained by using two known values of refractive index for
water at two different wavelengths, namely 258 nm and 589 nm [14]. And for air the refractive index is equal
to one.
The transmitted solar energy at the air-water interface was calculated via the computer program in which
the data of the transmitted intensity at each wavelength were used to reconstruct the solar spectrum. The
total solar energy transmitted at the interface was calculated from the area under the spectral distribution
curve.

Solar energy at depth in water

Total solar energy has been calculated at various points below a water surface from a depth of 1 cm to
a depth of 10m. The calculations have been performed by using a computer program designed for this
purpose. The following procedure was used:
( a ) The data obtained in the preceding section for the transmitted fraction of solar energy were used as the
intensity which enters the water at a depth equal to zero.
(b) For each depth x, the intensity I, has been calculated by using equation (2).
(c) At each depth, the solar spectrum is reconstructed and the total solar energy is measured by measuring
the area under the spectral distribution curve.
( d ) The percentage of energy transmitted at each depth has also been determined by assuming that the total
solar energy which enters the water at the interface is the 100% energy.
The data obtained in this work for the total solar energy at different depths in water are contained in Table 1.

REGRESSION ANALYSIS
The data points listed in Table 1 may be divided into three groups as follows:
1. The first group, which contains the first 10 points from a depth of 1 cm to a depth of 10 cm.
2. The second group, which contains 20 points from a depth of 10 cm to a depth of 2.5 m,.
3. The third group, which contains 15 points from a depth of 3 m to a depth of 10 m.
The points in the first group are illustrated in Figure 3, and the points in the second and third groups are
illustrated in Figure 4.
In order to obtain a mathematical expression that can reproduce all the data points listed in Table 1,
regression analysis was used for the three groups as follows:

Group 3: Regression analysis through the data points of this group gives
u, = 34.53e-0'05"
where U , is the total solar energy at any depth from 3 m to 10 m, and the correlation coefficient is equal
to 0.97.
To widen the validity of equation (8), i.e. to include the points of the second and first groups, the following
procedure has been performed:
Group 2: Assume that the total solar energy at any depth from 10 cm to 10 m is given by
U 2 = 34.53 e-O'OSxM 1 (9)
 SOLAR ENERGY AT DEPTH 863

Table 1. Total and percentage solar energy at various depths in pure water

Depth Solar energy Percentage Depth Solar energy Percentage

m x lo2 W/m2 of total m x 10' W/m2 of total
0.00* 12.109 - 1.40 4.163 35.10
om** 11.864 10090 1.50 4.113 34.67
0.01 8.630 72.74 1.60 4.067 34.28
0.02 8.1 12 68-40 1.70 4.025 33.92
0.03 7.772 65-35 1.80 3.984 33.58
0.04 7.516 63-35 1.90 3.946 33.26
0.05 7.311 61-62 200 3.910 32.95
0.06 7.139 60.17 2.50 3.751 31.62
0.07 6.99 1 58.92 3430 3.617 30.50
008 6862 57.84 3.50 3.500 29.5 1
0.09 6748 56-87 4.00 3.396 28.62
0.10 6,645 56-00 4.50 3.300 27.82
0.20 5.964 50-27 5.00 3.213 27.10
0.30 5.557 46.84 5.50 3.132 26.40
0.40 5.266 44.39 6.00 3.056 25.76
0 50 5.044 42.5 1 6.50 2.986 25.17
0.60 4.868 41.00 7430 2.919 24.61
0.70 4.724 39.82 7.50 2.856 24.07
0.80 4.606 38.82 8.00 2.796 23.57
0.90 4.505 37-98 8.50 2.740 23.10
1.00 4.4 19 37.25 9.00 2.686 22.64
1.10 4.344 36.62 9.50 2.634 22.21
1.20 4.277 36.05 10~00 2.585 21.80
1.30 4-218 3555

*incident solar energy

**transmitted solar energy at zero depth

80
t
70 t

ra
0:
c
0
a
0!

;4 0 - -
d
L
a!
a

30 - -
 M. A. JAMAL A N D J. A. M U A D D I

100

901
80
70

60

Y
+I 5 0
+
.-
5
4-
I 40
c
.-c0

Figure 4. Transmittance of pure water to solar radiation as a function of depth from 10 cm to 10 m

where M , is a multiplication factor. The values of M, for the points of the second group have been found as
follows:
(a) For each depth from 10 cm to 2.5 m, the total solar energy has been calculated by using equation (9).
(b) The multiplication factor M, has been obtained for each depth by dividing the actual solar energy at that
depth (Table 1) by the figure obtained from equation (9). Figure 5 illustrates ln(1n M I ) against depth x.
The second regression through the points of group 2 gives

with a correlation coefficient equal to unity.

On substituting the value of M , from equation (10) into equation (9), the total solar energy at any depth
from 10 cm to 10 m is given by

U 2= 34.53e-0'05Xexp[exp( - 2-08x O - ~ * ) ] (11)

Group I : It remains to include the data points for the total solar energy from a depth of 1 cm to a depth of
 SOLAR ENERGY AT DEPTH 865

Figure 5. Multiplication factor M , as a function of depth

10 cm into equation (11). To do this we assume that

where U is the total solar energy at any depth from 1 cm to 10m.

The values of M, for the data points of the first group have been obtained by using the same procedure
used for calculating M I . These values are plotted against x in Figure (6).
The third regression through the points of group 3 shows that M , and x are correlated by the following
equation:
M2 = 1 . 0 2 ~ ~ ' ~ ' ~ (13)
with a correlation coefficient equal to 0.97.
The final formula for the total solar energy at any depth is given by

U = 3 5 . 2 2 ~ ~ ' ~ ' ~-
e xO.OS)exp[exp(
p( - 2-08x O ' ~ * ) ]
866 M. A. JAMAL AND J. A. MUADDI

1.00 -

zN 0.95 i
i
a90- L 1 1 I 1 I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Figure 6. Multiplication factor M, as a function of depth

CONCLUSIONS
At the air-water interface, about 2% of the normally incident solar energy is reflected back to the
atmosphere, the rest is transmitted. The fraction of the reflected solar energy at the interface is higher in the
region of the short-wavelength part of the solar spectrum as is suggested by equations (1) and (7).
The mathematical expression for the total solar energy at depth in water which is obtained in this work
[equation (14)] can reproduce the data listed in Table 1 to an accuracy of within k 1.5%. This accuracy is
not achievable by previous mathematical models [10-121. Equation (14) is equally applicable to highly
filtered seawater for two reasons:
(i) The removal of scattering centres due to colloid materials and dust particles makes seawater equivalent
in its light transmission properties to pure water Cl5-J.
(ii) The dissolved salts of 3.5% by weight in seawater make no contribution to the absorption process of
solar energy on the one hand, but on the other hand they enhance the scattering coefficient of seawater by
an insignificant amount [16].
Solar energy at depth in water does not show an exponential trend of decrease with depth as is evident from
Figures 3 and 4. But, at a depth greater than 3 m (data points of group 3), the total solar energy at depth can
be represented by exponential equation (8). At a depth greater than 3 m in water, the solar radiation beam
behaves as a monoenergetic beam of radiation.
This behaviour may be explained on the basis that the 3 m of water acts as a filter which cuts the low-
energy part of the solar spectrum, i.e. that part where the extinction coefficient is significantly high.
It is important to mention that a considerable fraction, about 27%, of the transmitted solar energy is
absorbed in the first centimetre of water, and about 70% in the first 3 m.
At a depth of 100 m it is predicted from equation (14) that about 0.25%of the solar energy is transmitted.
 SOLAR ENERGY AT DEPTH 867

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