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 ENGINEERING
INTERVENTIONS IN
FOODS AND PLANTS
Innovations in Agricultural and Biological Engineering

ENGINEERING
INTERVENTIONS IN
FOODS AND PLANTS

Edited by
Deepak Kumar Verma, PhD
Megh R. Goyal, PhD
Apple Academic Press Inc. Apple Academic Press Inc.
3333 Mistwell Crescent 9 Spinnaker Way
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© 2018 by Apple Academic Press, Inc.
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International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-77188-596-6 (Hardcover)
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This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material
is quoted with permission and sources are indicated. Copyright for individual articles remains with the
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Engineering interventions in foods and plants / edited by Deepak Kumar Verma, PhD, Megh R. Goyal, PhD.
(Innovations in agricultural and biological engineering)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Issued in print and electronic formats.
ISBN 978-1-77188-596-6 (hardcover).--ISBN 978-1-315-19467-7 (PDF)
1. Food industry and trade. 2. Agricultural engineering. 3. Bioengineering. 4. Food crops. 5. Plants,
Edible. I. Goyal, Megh Raj, editor II. Verma, Deepak Kumar, 1986-, editor III. Series: Innovations in
agricultural and biological engineering
TP370.E54 2017 664 C2017-905007-9 C2017-905008-7

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Verma, Deepak Kumar, 1986- editor. | Goyal, Megh Raj, editor.
Title: Engineering interventions in foods and plants / editors: Deepak Kumar Verma, PhD; Megh R. Goyal,
PhD.
Description: Waretown, NJ : Apple Academic Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017033109 (print) | LCCN 2017034333 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315194677 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781771885966 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Agricultural processing. | Food--Technological innovations. | Plant products--Technolog-
ical innovations.
Classification: LCC S698 (ebook) | LCC S698 .E55 2017 (print) | DDC 630.72/4--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017033109

Apple Academic Press also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears
in print may not be available in electronic format. For information about Apple Academic Press products,
visit our website at www.appleacademicpress.com and the CRC Press website at www.crcpress.com
CONTENTS

List of Contributors..................................................................................... vii

List of Abbreviations.................................................................................... ix
Preface 1 by Deepak Kumar Verma........................................................... xiii
Preface 2 by Megh R. Goyal..................................................................... xvii
Warning/Disclaimer .................................................................................. xix
About the Editor ........................................................................................ xxi
About the Senior Editor-in-Chief............................................................. xxiii
Books on Agricultural and Biological Engineering
from Apple Academic Press .......................................................................xxv
Editorial ..................................................................................................xxvii

PART I: EMERGING ENTREPRENEURSHIP FOR RURAL AREAS ....... 1

1. Beekeeping Technology and Honey Processing: Emerging
Entrepreneurship for Rural Areas ........................................................... 3
Vishal Singh, Deepak Kumar Verma, and Deepali Chauhan
2. Herbal Formulations for Treatment of Dental Diseases:
Perspectives, Potential and Applications ............................................... 27
Ashwini G. Patil, Pravin Onkar Patil, Arpana H. Jobanputra,
and Deepak Kumar Verma
3. Engineering Interventions for Extraction of Essential Oils
from Plants ................................................................................................ 51
Saad Rehman Saeed Al-Hilphy

PART II: ENGINEERING INTERVENTIONS IN FOODS AND

PLANTS FOR HEALTH BENEFITS .................................................... 87
4. Processing Technology and Potential Health Benefits of Coffee .......... 89
Vishal Singh and Deepak Kumar Verma
vi Contents

5. Biochemical Composition, Processing Technology and Health

Benefits of Green Tea: A Review ........................................................... 119
Vishal Singh, Deepak Kumar Verma, and Dipendra Kumar Mahato
6. Effects of Thermal Processing on Nutritional Composition of
Green Leafy Vegetables: A Review ....................................................... 157
Deepak Kumar Verma, Sudhanshi Billoria, Dipendra Kumar Mahato, and
Prem Prakash Srivastav

PART III: MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN AGRICULTURAL

ENGINEERING ..................................................................................... 209
7. Ethanol Production from Different Substrates: Effects on
Environmental Factors and Potential Applications ............................ 211
Leela Wati, Annu Goel, and Kushal Raj
8. Food Grain Storage Structures: Introduction and Applications........ 247
Vishal Singh, Deepak Kumar Verma, and Prem Prakash Srivastav
Glossary of Technical Terms..................................................................... 285
Index.......................................................................................................... 297
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Asaad Rehman Saeed Al-Hilphy

Assistant Professor, Department of Food Science, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah,
Basrah City, Iraq; Mobile: +00-96-47702696458; E-mail: aalhilphy@yahoo.co.uk

Haider I. Ali
Assistant Professor, Department of Food Science, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah,
Basra City, Iraq; Mobile: +00-96-47703131398; E-mail: haiderr_2004@yahoo.com

Sudhanshi Billoria
PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering, Indian Institute
of Technology, Kharagpur – 721302, West Bengal, India; Mobile: +91-8768126479; E-mail:
sudharihant@gmail.com

Deepali Chauhan
Scientist (Home science), KVK (CSAUA&T, Kanpur), Dariyapur, Raibareli – 229001, Uttar Pradesh,
India; Tel.: +91-5352001732; Mobile: +91-9839946033; E-mail: deepali_chauhan20@rediffmail.com

Annu Goel
Research Associate, National Ganga River Basin Authority, Central Pollution Control Board,
Parivesh Bhawan, East Arjun Nagar, Delhi – 110032; Mobile: +91-9711104743;
E-mail: anugoel.micro@gmail.com

Megh R. Goyal
Retired Professor in Agricultural and Biomedical Engineering, University of Puerto Rico –
Mayaguez Campus; and Senior Technical Editor-in-Chief in Agriculture Sciences and Biomedical
Engineering, Apple Academic Press Inc., Mailing Address: PO Box 86, Rincon – PR – 00677, USA;
E-mail: goyalmegh@gmail.com

Arpana H. Jobanputra
Assistant Professor, Department of Microbiology, PSGVPM’s, SIP Arts, GBP Science & STSKVS
Commerce College, Shahada – 425409, Maharashtra, India; Mobile: +91-9822401695; Tel.: +91-
2565229576; Fax: +912565229576; E-mail: arpana_j12@rediffmail.com
Dipendra Kumar Mahato
Senior Research Fellow, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Pusa Campus, New Delhi –
110012, India; Mobile: +91-9911891494 or 9958921936; E-mail: kumar.dipendra2@gmail.com

Ghassan. F. Mohsin
Vocational Teacher, Maysan City, Iraq; Mobile: +00-4915214130015; E-mail: ghassanmohsin@
ymail.com
Ashwini G. Patil
Assistant Professor (Microbiology), Faculty of Science, R.C. Patel A.C.S. College, Shirpur – 425405,
Maharashtra, India; E-mail: ashwinipatil447@gmail.com

Pravin O. Patil
Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, H. R. Patel Institute of
Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Shirpur – 425405 – Maharashtra, India;
E-mail: popatil@hrpatelpharmacy.co.in
viii List of Contributors

Kushal Raj
Assistant Scientist, Department of Plant Pathology, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar – 125004, Haryana, India; Mobile: +91-9416263020; E-mail: kushalraj2008@
gmail.com
Vishal Singh
Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Agricultural Engineering, M. S. Swaminathan School
of Agriculture, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Jatni P.O., District Khurda –
752050, Odisha, India; Mobile: +00-91-8093872582, +00-91-8348521736;
E-mail: vishalsinghiitkgp87@gmail.com, vishalsinghiitkgp@cutm.ac.in

Prem Prakash Srivastav

Associate Professor, Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur – 721302, West Bengal, India; Tel.: +91-3222281673; E-mail: pps@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in

Ajay Kumar Swarnakar

PhD Research Scholar, Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur – 721302, West Bengal, India; Mobile: +91-8101766639;
E-mail: aksw11@gmail.com

Deepak Kumar Verma

PhD Research Scholar, Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur – 721302, West Bengal, India; Tel.: +91-3222281673; Mobile: +91--
7407170260; Fax: +91-3222282224; E-mail: deepak.verma@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in;
rajadkv@rediffmail.com

Leela Wati
Principal Scientist, Department of Microbiology, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar – 125004, Haryana, India; Mobile: +91-9416397853; Tel.: +91-1662-285292;
E-mail: lwkaj@gmail.com
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AA
amino acid
AAO
ascorbic acid oxidase
ADP
adenosine diphosphate
AFEX
ammonia fiber explosion
Akt
proteinkinase B
ATP
adenosine triphosphate
aw
water activity
BOD
biochemical oxygen demand
(C6H10O5)n cellulose
C12H17N4OS+ thiamine
C12H22O11 sucrose
C17H20N4O6 riboflavin
C19H19N7O6 folic acid or folate or folacin
C2H4 ethene
C2H5OH
ethanol
C63H88CoN14O14P cobalamin
C6H12O6 fructose
C6H12O6 glucose
C6H8O6
ascorbate
C6NH5O2 niacin or nicotinic acid
C8H11NO3 pyridoxine or pyridoxol
C9H17NO5 panthothenic acid or pantothenate
Ca
calcium
CAPS
cover and plinth storage structure
CAT catalase
CBP consolidated bioprocessing
CDS condensed distillers solubles
CG catechin gallate
CH3CH2OH ethanol
CNS central nervous system
CO2 carbon dioxide
x List of Abbreviations

COD chemical oxygen demand

CVD cardiovascular diseases
DDGS dried distillers grains with solubles
EC epicatechin
ECG epicatechin-3-gallate
ED pathway enter-doudoroff pathway
EGC epigallocatechin
EGCG epigallocatechin gallate
EMP embden-meyerhof pathway
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FCC food chemical codex
FCI Food Corporation of India
Fe iron
FID flame ionization detector
GC gallocatechin
GC gas chromatography
GC-MS gas chromatography mass spectrometry
GCG gallocatechin gallate
GCO gas chromatography olfactometry
GLFs green leafy vegetables
GNS grain neutral spirits
GRAS generally recognized as safe
H2O2 hydrogen peroxide
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
HACCP hazard analysis critical control point
HCl hydrochloric acid
HD hydro (water) distillation
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
HPLC high performance liquid chromatography
HSH hydrogenated starch hydrolysate
HTST high-temperature short-time
IR infrared spectroscopy
ITCs isothiocyanates
ITU International Telecommunication Union
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
K potassium
List of Abbreviations xi

LDPE low-density polyethylene

LTLT low-temperature long-time
MAWD microwave-assisted water distillation
MC moisture content
Mg magnesium
MgCO3 magnesium carbonate
Mn manganese
MS multiple sclerosis
MS mass spectrometry
MSSP minimum safe sterilization process
MSW municipal solid wastes
Na sodium
NaOH sodium hydroxide
NDEA nitrosodiethylamine
OH ohmic heating
OHHD ohmic heating hydro (water) distillation
P phosphorus
PID photo ionization detector
PO peroxidase
ppm parts per million
PPO polyphenol oxidase
PVP polyvinyl pyrrolidone
RH relative humidity
SCMC sodium carboxy methyl cellulose
SHF separate hydrolysis and fermentation
SPC system performance coefficient
SSCF simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation
SSF simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
TWD traditional water distillation
UHT ultrahigh temperature
USA United State of America
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
UVR ultra-violet radiation
WHO World Health Organization
Zn zinc
PREFACE 1 BY
DEEPAK KUMAR VERMA

Food is an integral component of life and meets physiological and nutri-

tional demands for human existence. Foods are accepted by living beings
depending on their quality, quantity and variety. The main source of food
is agriculture, especially crop plants, which entrap solar energy and con-
verts it into chemical energy in the form of biomass and is further used for
food, feed, fiber and fuel. However, according to the present world sce-
nario, about 30–50% of the total food produced gets spoiled or squandered
before consumption, due to lack of proper processing and storage technol-
ogy. This causes lack of food and a hike of its price, resulting in starvation
in developed countries. Some other issues are drastic changes and reduc-
tion in biodiversity, over-fertilization causing aquatic eutrophication by
nitrogenous and phosphorous substances, enteric fermentation and use of
fossil fuels resulting to global warming, water shortages due to irrigation,
eco-toxicity, side-effects of pesticides, etc. Thus, destruction of food and
lack of storage and supply has resulted in global malnutrition and protein,
calorie and mineral deficiencies in 800 million people, causing risk in food
and nutritional security to the increasing population.
Burgeoning growth of populations in the last several centuries has
resulted in demands for sustainable food production, processing tech-
nologies and its industrialization, which is the main source of food and
the backbone of economies. Therefore, bridging the balance is required
between the demand of sustainable food production, processing, supply,
and maintaining socio-economically healthy environment for long-term
survival of human life, which will be the most important challenge for
humankind in the coming decades. To surmount this problem and to meet
the growing demands for food supplies, new tools of science, novel pro-
cesses and emerging technologies are being developed and create tremen-
dous opportunities for agricultural applications. And the new technologies,
mechanization, use of chemicals, specialization and various governmen-
tal policies have increased food and crop plants productivity and have
resulted in favoring enhancement of storage and economy.
xiv Preface 1 by Deepak Kumar Verma

The book, Engineering Interventions in Foods and Plants, focuses on

these issues, it evaluates the food supply chain, provides detailed descrip-
tions of food production and processing using the tools of life cycle
assessment, presents improved technological approaches for agricultural
practices, explores sustainable processing techniques, discusses emerging
analytical techniques for research and development, looks at the challenges
associated with the use of agricultural resources to grow biofuels and bio-
based products, presents technologies for the reduction of process-induced
toxins generated, considers social factors influencing consumer percep-
tions about current and emerging technologies, and explains the impor-
tance of maintaining biodiversity in sustainable human diets. Therefore,
this book volume will be an asset to improve and to provide knowledge
and feedback in the progress and future opportunities for all those who are
associated with agricultural and biological engineering.
Part One of this book, Emerging Entrepreneurship for Rural Areas,
consists of three chapters (“Beekeeping Technology and Honey Process-
ing: Emerging Entrepreneurship for Rural Areas”; “Herbal Formulations
for Treatment of Dental Diseases: Perspectives, Potential, and Applica-
tions”; and “Engineering Interventions for Extraction of Essential Oils
from Plants”) devoted to entrepreneur opportunities for rural peoples with
employment of food and agricultural processing.
Part Two, Engineering Interventions in Health Benefits, contains three
chapters (“Processing Technology and Potential Health Benefits of Cof-
fee”; “Biochemical Composition, Processing Technology and Health Ben-
efits of Green Tea: A Review”; and “Effects of Thermal Processing on
Nutritional Composition of Green Leafy Vegetables: A Review”) dealing
with research opportunities and novel practices in human health. These
three chapters are devoted on biochemical composition, processing tech-
nology, and human health benefits.
Part Three, Management Strategies in Agricultural Engineering,
consists of two chapters. Chapter 7 (“Ethanol Production from Different
Substrates: Effects on Environmental Factors and Potential Applications”)
describes production technology of ethanol from sources and its potential
application in various industries like chemical, food, pharmaceutical as
well as biofuel. And the last chapter (“Food Grain Storage Structures:
Introduction and Applications”) focuses on minimizing the losses from
Preface 1 by Deepak Kumar Verma xv

microbial issues as well as from insect-pest problems during grain storage

by different storage structures to fulfill an increasing demand of rapidly
growing populations of the world.
With contributions from a broad range of leading professors and sci-
entists, this book focuses on areas of processing technologies in foods and
plants. It will provide a guide to students, instructors and researchers of
foods and plants. In addition, food and plant science professionals who are
seeking recent advanced and innovative knowledge in processing will find
this book helpful. It is envisaged that this book will also serve as a refer-
ence source for individuals engaged in research, processing and product
development in foods and plant science areas.
With great pleasure, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all the
learned contributors for excellent contributions and attention details and
accuracy of information presented as well as their consistent support and
cooperation. They have made our task as editors a pleasure. I also thank
Megh R. Goyal, Senior Editor-in-Chief, for his guidance, mission, and
vision.
It is hoped that this edition will stimulate discussion and generate help-
ful comments to improve upon future editions. Efforts are made to cross-
reference the chapters as such.
Finally, we acknowledge Almighty God, who provided all the inspi-
rations, insights, positive thoughts, and channels to complete this book
project.
—Deepak Kumar Verma
Editor
PREFACE 2 BY MEGH R. GOYAL

This book, Engineering Interventions in Foods and Plants, is unique

because it encompasses new technologies of beekeeping, extraction of
essential oils from plants, potential of herbal formulations to cure dental
conditions and diseases, potential of coffee/tea, and poiential of leafy veg-
etables to keep us healthy.
The weblink “https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beekeeping” indicates that
“Apiculture (from Latin: apis, bee) is the maintenance of honey bee colo-
nies, commonly in hives, by humans. A beekeeper (or apiarist) keeps bees
in order to collect their honey and other products that the hive produces
(including beeswax, propolis, pollen, and royal jelly), to pollinate crops,
or to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers. A location where bees are
kept is called an apiary or bee yard.” The Orange Blossom Beekeepers
Association (OBBA) is a collective of commercial and vocational bee-
keepers from across Central Florida. The club strives to mentor novices
and to serve as a resource for experienced beekeepers. In addition, OBBA
(http://www.orangeblossombeekeepers.org/) seeks to educate the public
about the importance of bees and beekeeping. Throughout the year, OBBA
conducts interactive workshops in its apiary and brings in expert speak-
ers for monthly club meetings. Also, OBBA attends and hosts educational
events throughout Central Florida. I invite readers to have a taste of bee-
keeping in this book volume.
Apple Academic Press, Inc., published my first book on Management
of Drip/Trickle or Micro Irrigation, a 10-volume set under the book series
Research Advances in Sustainable Micro Irrigation, in addition to other
books in the focus areas of agricultural and biological engineering. The
mission of this book series is to introduce the profession of agricultural
and biological engineering. I cannot guarantee the information in this
book series will be enough for all situations.
At 49th Annual Meeting of the Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers
at Punjab Agricultural University during February 22–25 of 2015, a group
of ABEs convinced me that there is a dire need to publish book volumes
xviii Preface 2 by Megh R. Goyal

on the focus areas of agricultural and biological engineering (ABE). This

is how the idea was born to create this new book series titled, Innovations
in Agricultural and Biological Engineering.
The contributions by all cooperating authors to this book volume have
been most valuable in the compilation. Their names are mentioned in each
chapter and in the list of contributors. This book would not have been writ-
ten without the valuable cooperation of these investigators, many of whom
are renowned scientists who have worked in the field of ABE throughout
their professional careers. Dr. Deepak Kumar Verma joins me as a Editor
of this book volume. Dr. Verma is a frequent contributor to my book series
and a staunch supporter of my profession. His contribution to the content
and quality of this book has been invaluable.
I want to thank editorial staff, Sandy Jones Sickels, Vice President, and
Ashish Kumar, Publisher and President at Apple Academic Press, Inc., for
making every effort to publish the book when diminishing water resources
are a major issue worldwide. Special thanks are due to the AAP Production
Staff for typesetting for the quality production of this book.
I request readers to offer constructive suggestions that may help to
improve the next edition.
I express my deep admiration to my family for their understanding and
collaboration during the preparation of this book.
As an educator, there is a piece of advice to one and all in the world:
“Permit that our Almighty God, our Creator, allow us to inherit new tech-
nologies for a better life at our planet. I invite my community in agricul-
tural engineering to contribute book chapters to the book series by getting
married to my profession”. I am in total love with our profession by length,
width, height and depth. Do you?
—Megh R. Goyal, PhD, PE
Senior Editor-in-Chief
WARNING/DISCLAIMER

PLEASE READ CAREFULLY

The goal of this book volume, Engineering Interventions in Foods and

Plants, is to guide the world community on how make efficient use of
technology available for different processes in food science and technol-
ogy. The reader must be aware that the dedication, commitment, honesty,
and sincerity are important factors for success.
The editors, the contributing authors, the publisher, and the printer
have made every effort to make this book as complete and as accurate as
possible. However, there still may be grammatical errors or mistakes in
the content or typography. Therefore, the content in this book should be
considered as a general guide and not a complete solution to address any
specific situation in food engineering. For example, one type of food pro-
cess technology does not fit all case studies in dairy engineering/science/
technology.
The editors, the contributing authors, the publisher, and the printer
shall have neither liability nor responsibility to any person, any organiza-
tion or entity with respect to any loss or damage caused, or alleged to have
caused, directly or indirectly, by information or advice contained in this
book. Therefore, the purchaser/reader must assume full responsibility for
the use of the book or the information therein.
The mention of commercial brands and trade names are only for tech-
nical purposes. A particular product is not endorsed over another product
or equipment not mentioned. The editors, cooperating authors, educational
institutions, and the publisher Apple Academic Press Inc. do not have any
preference for a particular product.
ABOUT THE EDITOR

Deepak Kumar Verma, PhD

Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural and
Food Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
West Bengal, India

Deepak Kumar Verma is an agricultural science pro-

fessional and is currently a PhD Research Scholar
in the specialization of food processing engineering
in the Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur (WB), India. In 2012, he received a DST-INSPIRE
Fellowship for PhD study by the Department of Science & Technology
(DST), Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India. Mr.
Verma is currently working on the research project “Isolation and Char-
acterization of Aroma Volatile and Flavoring Compounds from Aromatic
and Non-Aromatic Rice Cultivars of India.” His previous research work
included “Physico-Chemical and Cooking Characteristics of Azad Bas-
mati (CSAR 839-3): A Newly Evolved Variety of Basmati Rice (Oryza
sativa L.)”. Apart from his area of specialization in plant biochemistry, he
has also built a sound background in plant physiology, microbiology, plant
pathology, genetics and plant breeding, plant biotechnology and genetic
engineering, seed science and technology, food science and technology,
etc. In addition, he is a member of different professional bodies, and his
activities and accomplishments include conferences, seminars, work-
shop, training, and also the publication of research articles, books, and
book chapters. He earned his BSc degree in agricultural science from the
Faculty of Agriculture at Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, and his MSc
(Agriculture) in Agricultural Biochemistry in 2011. He also received an
award from the Department of Agricultural Biochemistry, Chandra Shek-
har Azad University of Agricultural and Technology, Kanpur, India. Read-
ers may contact him at: rajadkv@rediffmail.com or deepak.verma@agfe.
iitkgp.ernet.in.
ABOUT THE SENIOR EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Megh R. Goyal, PhD

Retired Professor in Agricultural and Biomedical
Engineering, University of Puerto Rico,
Mayaguez Campus Senior Acquisitions Editor,
Biomedical Engineering and Agricultural Science,
Apple Academic Press, Inc.
E-mail: goyalmegh@gmail.com

Megh R. Goyal, PhD, PE, is a Retired Professor in Agricultural and Bio-

medical Engineering from the General Engineering Department in the
College of Engineering at University of Puerto Rico–Mayaguez Cam-
pus; and Senior Acquisitions Editor and Senior Technical Editor-in-Chief
in Agriculture and Biomedical Engineering for Apple Academic Press
Inc. He has worked as a Soil Conservation Inspector and as a Research
Assistant at Haryana Agricultural University and Ohio State University.
He was the first agricultural engineer to receive the professional license
in Agricultural Engineering in 1986 from the College of Engineers and
Surveyors of Puerto Rico. On September 16, 2005, he was proclaimed
as “Father of Irrigation Engineering in Puerto Rico for the twentieth cen-
tury” by the ASABE, Puerto Rico Section, for his pioneering work on
micro irrigation, evapotranspiration, agroclimatology, and soil and water
engineering. During his professional career of 45 years, he has received
many prestigious awards and honors, including being recognized as one
of the experts “who rendered meritorious service for the development of
[the] irrigation sector in India” by the Water Technology Centre of Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University in Coimbatore, India. A prolific author and
editor, he has written more than 200 journal articles and textbooks and
has edited over 50 books. He received his BSc degree in engineering
from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India; his MSc and PhD
degrees from Ohio State University, Columbus; and his Master of Divin-
ity degree from Puerto Rico Evangelical Seminary, Hato Rey, Puerto
Rico, USA. Readers may contact him at: goyalmegh@gmail.com.
BOOKS ON AGRICULTURAL AND
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FROM APPLE ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.

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Book Series: Research Advances in Sustainable Micro Irrigation

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EDITORIAL

Under the book series titled Innovations in Agricultural and Biological

Engineering, Apple Academic Press, Inc., (AAP) is publishing book vol-
umes in specialty areas over a span of 8 to 10 years. These specialty areas
have been defined by the American Society of Agricultural and Biologi-
cal Engineers (http://asabe.org). AAP wants to be the principal source of
books in the field of agricultural and biological engineering. We seek book
proposals from the readers in area of their expertise.
The mission of this series is to provide knowledge and techniques for
agricultural and biological engineers (ABEs). The series aims to offer high-
quality reference and academic content in agricultural and biological engi-
neering (ABE) that is accessible to academicians, researchers, scientists,
university faculty, and university-level students and professionals around
the world. The following material has been edited/modified and repro-
duced below “Goyal, Megh R., 2006. Agricultural and biomedical engi-
neering: Scope and opportunities. Paper Edu_47 at the Fourth LACCEI
International Latin American and Caribbean Conference for Engineer-
ing and Technology (LACCEI’ 2006): Breaking Frontiers and Barriers in
Engineering: Education and Research by LACCEI University of Puerto
Rico – Mayaguez Campus, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, June 21–23.”

WHAT IS AGRICULTURAL AND BIOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

(ABE)?

“Agricultural Engineering (AE) involves application of engineering to

production, processing, preservation and handling of food, fiber, and shel-
ter. It also includes transfer of technology for the development and welfare
of rural communities,” according to http://isae.in.” ABE is the discipline
of engineering that applies engineering principles and the fundamental
concepts of biology to agricultural and biological systems and tools, for
the safe, efficient and environmentally sensitive production, processing,
xxviii Editorial

and management of agricultural, biological, food, and natural resources

systems,” according to http://asabe.org.
“AE is the branch of engineering involved with the design of farm
machinery, with soil management, land development, and mechaniza-
tion and automation of livestock farming, and with the efficient planting,
harvesting, storage, and processing of farm commodities,” definition by:
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/agricultural+engineering.
“AE incorporates many science disciplines and technology practices to
the efficient production and processing of food, feed, fiber and fuels. It involves
disciplines like mechanical engineering (agricultural machinery and auto-
mated machine systems), soil science (crop nutrient and fertilization, etc.),
environmental sciences (drainage and irrigation), plant biology (seeding
and plant growth management), animal science (farm animals and housing),
etc.,” by: http://www.ABE.ncsu.edu/academic/agricultural-engineering.php.
“According to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_engineering:
“BE (Biological engineering) is a science-based discipline that applies con-
cepts and methods of biology to solve real-world problems related to the life
sciences or the application thereof. In this context, while traditional engi-
neering applies physical and mathematical sciences to analyze, design and
manufacture inanimate tools, structures and processes, biological engineer-
ing uses biology to study and advance applications of living systems.”

SPECIALTY AREAS OF ABE

Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ABEs) ensure that the world has
the necessities of life including safe and plentiful food, clean air and water,
renewable fuel and energy, safe working conditions, and a healthy envi-
ronment by employing knowledge and expertise of sciences, both pure
and applied, and engineering principles. Biological engineering applies
engineering practices to problems and opportunities presented by living
things and the natural environment in agriculture. BA engineers under-
stand the interrelationships between technology and living systems, have
available a wide variety of employment options. “ABE embraces a vari-
ety of following specialty areas,” http://asabe.org. As new technology and
information emerge, specialty areas are created, and many overlap with
one or more other areas.
Another random document with
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prayed to God, “O Lord! save me from this untoward generation.”
And God heard his cry, and He carried him away and gave him life
till the day when Israfiel shall sound the trump of judgment.[686]
Both Jews and Mussulmans believe that Elijah is not dead, but that
he lives, and appears at intervals. The Mussulmans have confused
him with El Khoudr, and relate many wonderful stories of him. He is
unquestionably the origin of the Wandering Jew. His reappearances
are mentioned in the Talmud, and in later Jewish legends, as, for
instance, in a story told by Abraham Tendlau.[687] A poor Jew and his
wife were reduced to great necessity; the man had not clothes in
which to go forth and ask for work. Then his wife borrowed for him
clothes, and he entered the street seeking work. He met a venerable
man, who bade him use him as a slave. The Jew engaged to build a
palace for a prince with the assistance of his slave, for ten thousand
thalers. The mysterious stranger laboured hard, and angels assisted
him, so that the mansion was completed with astonishing rapidity.
When the Jew had received the money, the old man announced that
he was Elijah, who had come to assist him, and vanished.
After the Arabs had captured the city of Elvan, Fadhilah, at the head
of three hundred horsemen, pitched his tents, late in the evening,
between two mountains. Fadhilah having begun his evening prayer
with a loud voice, heard the words “Allah akbar!” (God is great!)
repeated distinctly, and each word of his prayer was followed in a
similar manner. Fadhilah, not believing this to be an echo, was much
astonished, and cried out, “O thou! whether thou art of the angel
ranks, or whether thou art of some other order of spirits, it is well, the
power of God be with thee; but if thou art a man, then let mine eyes
light upon thee, that I may rejoice in thy presence and society.”
Scarcely had he spoken these words, before an aged man with bald
head stood before him, holding a staff in his hand, and much
resembling a dervish in appearance. After having courteously
saluted him, Fadhilah asked the old man who he was. Thereupon
the stranger answered, “Bassi Hadut Issa, I am here by command of
the Lord Jesus, who has left me in this world, that I may live therein
until He comes a second time to earth. I wait for the Lord, who is the
Fountain of Happiness, and in obedience to his command I dwell
beyond the mountain.”
When Fadhilah heard these words, he asked when the Lord Jesus
would appear; and the old man replied that his appearing would be
at the end of the world.
But this only increased Fadhilah’s curiosity, so that he inquired the
signs of the approach of the end of all things; whereupon Zerib bar
Elia gave him an account of the general social and moral dissolution
which would be the climax of this world’s history.[688]
“In the second year of Hezekiah,” says the Rabbinic Sether Olam
Rabba (c. 17), “Elijah disappeared, and he will not appear again till
the Messiah come; then he will show himself once more; and he will
again disappear till Gog and Magog show themselves. And all this
time he writes the events and transactions that happen in each
century.... Letters from Elijah were brought to King Joram seven
years after Elijah had disappeared.”
A prophecy ascribed to Elijah is preserved in the Gemara:[689] “The
world will last six thousand years; it will lie desert for two thousand
years; the Messiah will reign two thousand years; but, because of
our iniquities which have super-abounded, the years of the Messiah
have passed away.”
 XL.
ISAIAH.

The Book of the Ascension of Isaiah has reached us only in an

Ethiopic version, which was published along with a translation by
Archbishop Laurence, Oxford, 1819. Gieseler translated the book,
and gave learned prolegomena and notes, Göttingen, 1837; and
Gfrörer has included it in his “Prophetæ Pseudepigraphi,” Stuttgardt,
1840, pp. 1-55, with the Latin translation. It must have existed in
Greek and Latin, for fragments of the Latin apocryphal book remain,
and have been published by Cardinal Mai, in “Scriptorum Veterum
Nova Collectio;” Romæ, 1824, t. III. ii. 238 et seq.: and it is very
evident from these that they are versions of a Greek original, and not
of the Ethiopic.
Whilst Isaiah was speaking to the king Hezekiah, he suddenly
stopped, and his soul was borne away by an angel. He traversed the
firmament, where he saw the strife of the angels and demons,
waged between the earth and the moon. He entered the six heavens
and admired their glory; then he penetrated into the seventh heaven,
where he saw the Holy Trinity, and there the events of futurity were
revealed to him. When he returned to himself, Isaiah related to
Hezekiah all that he had seen and heard, except what concerned his
son Manasseh.
This is the prophecy of Isaiah concerning Antichrist: “And when that
time is passed, Berial, the great angel, the prince of this world, Berial
will descend from his place in the form of a man; an impious king,
the murderer of his mother, a king of this world.
“And he will pluck up from amongst the twelve apostles the plant that
they had planted, and it will fall into his hands.
“And all the powers of the world will do the will of the angel Berial,
the impious king.
“At his word, the sun will shine in the darkness of the night, and the
moon will appear at the eleventh hour.
“He will do all his pleasures; he will illtreat the Well-Beloved, and will
say to him, Lo! I am God, and before me there is none other.
“And all the world will believe in him.
“And sacrifice will be offered to him, and a worship of adoration,
saying, He alone is God, and there is none other.
“Then the greater number of those gathered together to receive the
Well-Beloved will turn aside to Berial;
“Who by his power will work miracles in the cities and in the country;
“And everywhere shall a table be spread for him.
“His domination shall be for three years seven months and twenty-
seven days.”[690]
Only when Hezekiah was at the point of death, did Isaiah reveal to
him what and how great would be the iniquities of his son. Then the
king would have slain Manasseh: “I had rather,” said he, “die without
posterity, than leave behind me a son who should persecute the
saints.”
When the prophet saw that Hezekiah loved God more than his own
son, he was glad, and he restrained the king, and said, “It is the will
of God that he should live.”
Manasseh reigned in the room of his father, and was a cruel tyrant.
He worshipped idols, and sought to make Isaiah partake in his
idolatry. And when he could not succeed, he sawed him asunder
with a saw of wood.
“And whilst Isaiah was being cut asunder, Melekira stood up and
accused him, and all the lying prophets were present, and they
showed great joy, and they mocked him.
“And Belial said to Isaiah: ‘Confess that all thou hast said is false,
and that the ways of Manasseh are good and just.
“‘Confess that the ways of Melekira, and of those that are with him,
are good.’
“He spake thus to him, as the saw entered into his flesh.
“But Isaiah was in an ecstasy, and his eyes were open, and he
looked upon the spectators of his passion.
“Then said Melekira to Isaiah: ‘Confess what I shall say, and I will
change the heart of those who persecute thee, and I will make
Manasseh, and the heads of Judah, and his people, and all
Jerusalem, worship thee.’
“Then Isaiah answered and said: ‘Cursed art thou in all that thou
sayest, and in all thy power, and in all thy disciples!’
“‘Thou canst do nothing against me; all thou canst do is to take from
me this miserable life.’
“Then they seized the prophet, and they sawed him with a saw of
wood, Isaiah, son of Amos.
“And Manasseh and Melekira, and the lying prophets, and the
princes of Israel, and all the people, beheld his execution.
“Now, before that the execution was accomplished, he said to the
prophets who had followed him: ‘Fly to Tyre and Sidon, for the Lord
hath given the cup to me alone.’
“And whilst the saw cut into his flesh, Isaiah uttered no complaint
and shed no tears; but he ceased not to commune with the Holy
Spirit till the saw had cloven him to the middle of his body.”[691]
In the Mishna[692] it is related that the Rabbi Simeon Ben Azai found
in Jerusalem (2nd cent.) a genealogy, wherein it was written that
Manasseh killed Isaiah. Manasseh said to Isaiah, “Moses, thy
master, said, There shall no man see God and live.[693] But thou hast
said, I saw the Lord seated upon His throne.[694] Moses said, What
other nation is there so great, that hath God so nigh unto them?[695]
But thou hast said, Seek ye the Lord while He may be found.”[696]
Isaiah thought, “If I excuse myself, I shall only increase his guilt and
not save myself;” so he answered not a word, but pronounced the
Incommunicable Name, and a cedar-tree opened, and he
disappeared within it. Then Manasseh ordered, and they took the
cedar, and sawed it in two length-ways; and when the saw reached
his mouth, he died.
 XLI.
JEREMIAH.

The work entitled De Vitis Prophetarum, falsely attributed to S.

Epiphanius, contains some apocryphal details concerning Jeremiah.
It is said that he was stoned at Taphnes in Egypt, in a place where
Pharaoh formerly lived. He was held in great honour by the
Egyptians, because of the service he had rendered them in taming
the serpents and crocodiles.
The faithful who take a little dust from the spot where he died, are
able to employ it as a remedy against the bites of serpents, and to
drive away crocodiles.
The prophet announced to the priests and wise men of Egypt that
when a virgin, who had borne a son, should set her foot on Egyptian
soil, all the idols should fall.
Before the destruction of Jerusalem, he hid the ark of the covenant
in a rock, which opened for the purpose, and closed upon it. Then
said he to the princes of the people and to the elders, “The Lord has
gone up from Sinai, but He will come again with His sacred power.
And this shall be the token of His coming,—all nations shall bow
before the Wood.”
Then the prophet continued, “None of the priests and prophets shall
open the ark, except Moses, the elect of God; and Aaron shall alone
unfold the tables it contains. At the Resurrection, the ark shall arise
out of the rock first of all, and it shall be placed upon Mount Zion.
Then all the saints will go there and await the Lord, and they will put
the enemy to flight who seeks their destruction.”
Having said these words, he traced with his finger the name of God
upon the rock, and the name remained graven there, as if cut with
iron. Then a cloud descended upon the rock and hid it, and no man
has seen it since. It is in the desert, amongst the mountains, where
are the tombs of Moses and Aaron. At night, a cloud of fire shines
above the spot.
 XLII.
EZEKIEL.

Ezekiel, whom the Arabs call Kazquil, was the son of an aged
couple, who had no children. They prayed to God, and He gave
them a son.
Ezekiel was a prophet, and he exhorted the men of Jerusalem to
war, but they would not go forth to battle. Then God sent a
pestilence, and there died of them every day very many. So, fearing
death, a million fled from the city, hoping to escape the pestilence,
but the wrath of God overtook them, and they fell dead.
Then those who survived in the city went forth to bury them, but they
were too numerous; therefore they built a wall round the corpses to
protect them from the beasts of the field; and thus they lay exposed
to the heat and cold for many years, till the flesh had rotted off their
bones.
Once the prophet Ezekiel came that way, and he saw this great
multitude of dead and dry bones. He prayed, and God restored them
to life again, and they stood upon their feet, a great army, and
entered into the city, and lived out the rest of their days. It is said that
among the Jews there are, to this day, descendants of those who
were resuscitated, and they may be recognized by the corpse-like
odour they exhale.[697]
The Jews relate that a celebrated Rabbi found the greatest difficulty
in comprehending the Book of Ezekiel; therefore his disciples
prepared for him three hundred tuns of oil to feed his lamp whilst he
studied at night the visions of the prophet.[698]
 XLIII.
EZRA.

Cyrus, in the year 537 before Christ, put an end to the captivity of the
Jews in Babylon, as had been foretold by Daniel; and not only did he
permit the Jews to return to Jerusalem, but he furnished them with
the means of rebuilding their city and temple. The Oriental writers, to
explain the motive of Cyrus, say that his mother was a Jewess, and
that he himself was married to the Jewess Maschat, sister of
Zerubbabel, a granddaughter of the king Jehoiakim.
In 523 before Christ, Cambyses, having reigned a brief time, was
succeeded by Smerdis, the Magian, who is called, in the Scriptures,
Artaxerxes. He, being ill-disposed towards the Jews, withdrew from
them the gifts made by Cyrus, and arrested their work. Smerdis,
however, reigned only two years, and was succeeded by Darius
Hystaspes, who continued the work of Cyrus, by the hands of Ezra
or Esdras, one of the instruments used by God to restore His people.
Ezra was the son of Seraiah, of the lineage of Aaron.
In the Koran[699] it is said that Ezra, passing through a village near
Jerusalem, whose houses were ruined, exclaimed, “Can God restore
these waste places, and revive the inhabitants?”
Then God made him die; and he remained dead for one hundred
years. At the end of that time God revived him, and he saw the
village rebuilt, and full of busy people.
The commentators on the Koran say that Ezra (Ozaïr), when young,
had been taken away captive by Nebuchadnezzar, but that he was
delivered miraculously from prison, and returned to Jerusalem, which
he found in ruins. He halted at a village near the city, named Sair-
Abad. Its houses were fallen and without inhabitants, but the fig-tree
and vines remained in the gardens. Ezra collected the fruit, and
made himself a little cell out of the fallen stones. And he kept near
him the ass on which he had ridden.
The holy man, on contemplating from his hermitage the ruins of the
holy city and the temple, wept bitterly before the Lord, and said often
with a tone rather of lament than doubt, “How can the walls of
Jerusalem ever be set up again?”
Then God bade him die, and hid him from the eyes of men, in his
cell, with all that he had about him, his fruit, his mat, and his ass. At
the close of a century God revived him, and he found all as when he
had died; the ass standing, and the fruit unwithered. Then Ezra saw
the works that had been executed in Jerusalem, how the walls were
being set up, and the breaches repaired, and he said, “God is
Almighty; He can do whatsoever pleaseth Him!”
After his resurrection, he went into the holy city, and spent night and
day in explaining to the people the Law, as he remembered it. But it
had been forgotten by the Jews, and therefore they disregarded his
instruction.
The Iman Thalebi says, that the Jews, to test the mission of Ezra,
placed five pens in his hand, and with each he wrote at the same
moment with like facility as if he held only one; and he wrote all the
Books of the Sacred Canon, as he drew them from his memory,
without the assistance of a book.
The Jews, however, said amongst themselves, “How can we be sure
that what Ezra has written is the true sacred text, since there is none
amongst us who can bear witness?”
Then one of them said, “I have heard say that my grandfather
preserved a copy of the sacred books, and that they were hidden by
him in a hollow rock, which he marked so that it might be recognized
again.”
They therefore sought the place which had been marked, and there
they found a volume containing the Scriptures, which having been
compared with what Ezra had written, it was found that the
agreement was exact. Then the people, astonished at the miracle,
cried out that Ezra was a god.[700]
At the time of carrying away into Babylon, the sacred fire had been
cast into a well in the temple court. Ezra, having drawn some of the
dirt out of the well, placed on it the wood of the sacrifice; then the
flame, which for a hundred and forty years had been extinguished,
burst forth again out of the mire. When Ezra saw this wonder, he
thrice drank of the dust out of the well; and thus he imbibed the
prophetic spirit, and the power of recomposing from memory the lost
sacred books.[701]
 XLIV.
ZECHARIAH.

Sozomen[702] relates that the prophet Zechariah appeared to

Colomeras, a farmer of the village of Chupher, in Palestine, and
revealed to him his tomb; and on excavations having been made on
the spot, an ancient Hebrew book was discovered, which, however,
was not regarded as canonical. Nicephoras repeats the story after
Sozomen.[703]
LONDON:
R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,
BREAD STREET HILL.

Footnotes
1. Rev. xii. 7-9.

2. Isaiah xiv. 13, 14.

3. Luke x. 18.

4. Fabricius (J. A.), Codex Pseudepigraphus Vet. Test. Hamb.,

1722, p. 21.

5. Jalkut Rubeni, 3, sub. tit. Sammael.

6. Fol. 139, col. 1; see Eisenmenger, i. p. 831.

 7. Jalkut Rubeni, in Eisenmenger, i. p. 307.

8. Eisenmenger, i. p. 104.

9. Ibid., i. p. 820.

10. Ibid., ii. 416, 420, 421.

11. Chronique de Tabari. Paris, 1867, i. c. xxvii.

12. Abulfeda, Hist. Ante-Islamica. Lipsiæ, 1831, p. 13.

13. 1 Cor. x. 20.

14. Majer, Mythologische Lexicon, Th. i. p. 231.

15. Orig. adv. Cels. vi. 42.

16. Lettres Edifiantes, viii. p. 420.

17. Bibliothèque Univ. de Genève, 1827; D’Anselme, i. p. 228.

18. Hist. Naturelle de l’Orinoque, par Tos. Gumilia. Avignon, 1751,

t. i. p 172.

19. Weil, Biblische Legenden der Muselmänner. Frankfort, 1845,

pp. 12-16.

20. Geiger, Was hat Mohammed aus d. Judenthum

aufgenommen? p. 99.

21. So also Abulfeda, Hist. Ante-Islamica, ed. Fleischer. Lipsiæ,

1831, p. 13.

22. Tabari, i. c. xxvi.

23. Collin de Plancy, p. 55.

24. Eisenmenger, Neuentdecktes Judenthum. Königsberg, 1711, i.
pp. 364-5.

25. Bochart, Hierozoica, p. 2, l. 8, fol. 486.

26. Tract Sanhedrim, f. 38.

27. Jalkut Schimoni, f. 6.

28. Tract Hagida, f. 12.

29. Eisenmenger, i. p. 367.

30. Eisenmenger, i. p. 368.

31. Eisenmenger, i. p. 369.

32. Müller, Amerikanische Urreligionen; Basle, 1855. Atherne

Jones, North American Traditions, i. p. 210, &c. Heckewelder’s
Indian Nations, &c.

33. Fourmont, Anciens Peuples, i. lib. ii. p. 10.

34. Aves, 666.

35. Mémoires des Chinois, i. p. 105.

36. Berosus, in Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 26.

37. It is unfortunate that I have already written on the myths

relating to the formation of Eve in “Curiosities of Olden Times.”
I would therefore have omitted a chapter which must repeat
what has been already published, but that by so doing I should
leave this work imperfect. However, there is much in this
chapter which was not in the article referred to.

38. Rabboth, fol. 20 b.

39. Eisenmenger, i. 830.

40. Weil, pp. 17, 18.

41. Tabari, i. c. xxvi.

42. Talmud, Tract Berachoth, f. 61; Bartolocci, Bibl. Rabbin., iv. p.

66.

43. Bartolocci, Bibl. Rabbin., iv. p. 67.

44. Ibid., iii. p. 395.

45. Bartolocci, Bibl. Rabbin., iii. p. 396; Eisenmenger, t. i. p. 365.

46. Bhagavat, iii. 12, 51.

47. Colebrooke, Miscell. Essays, p. i. 64.

48. Bun-dehesch, p. 377.

49. Bartolocci, Bibl. Rabbin., iv. p. 465.

50. Mendez Pinto, Voyages, ii. p. 178.

51. Bhagavat, iii. 12, 25.

52. Bhagavat, iv. 15, 27.

53. Ovid, Metamorph., x. 7.

54. Hesiod, Works and Days, 61-79.

55. Gen. i. 27.

56. Gen. ii. 18.

57. Gen. ii. 23.

58. Abraham Ecchellensis. Hist. Arabum, p. 268.

59. Talmud, Tract. Bava Bathra.

60. S. Epiphan. Hæres., xxvi.

61. Tho. Bangius, Cœlum Orientis, p. 103.

62. S. Clementi Recog., c. iv.

63. Lafitau, Mœurs des Sauvages Amériquaines, i. p. 93.

64. Pallas, Reise, i. p. 334.

65. Hodgson, Buddhism, p. 63.

66. Upham, Sacred Books of Ceylon, iii. 156.

67. Mémoires Chinois, i. p. 107.

68. Bundehesh in Windischmann: Zoroastrische Studien. Berlin,

1863, p. 82; and tr. A. du Perron, ii. pp. 77-80.

69. So also Abulfeda, Hist. Ante-Islamica, p. 13.

70. Weil, pp. 19-28.

71. Tabari, i. p. 80.

72. Diod. Sicul., i. 14 et seq.

73. Ausland für Nov. 4, 1847.

74. W. Smith, Nouveau Voyage de Guinée. Paris, 1751, ii. p. 176.

75. Bowdler, Mission from Cape Coast to Ashantee. London, 1819,

p. 344.

76. Cranz, Historie von Grönland. Leipzig, 1770, i. p. 262.

77. Humboldt, Pittoreske Ansichten d. Cordilleren; Plate xiii. and

explanation, ii. pp. 41, 42.
78. De la Borde, Reise zu den Caraiben. Nürnb. 1782, i. pp. 380-5.

79. Allg. Hist. der Reisen, xviii. p. 395.

80. Eisenmenger, i. pp. 827-9.

81. Weil, p. 28.

82. Basnage, Histoire des Juifs. La Haye, iii. p. 391.

83. Tract. Avod., f. 1, col. 3; also Tract. Pesachim, f. 118, col. 1.

84. Eisenmenger, i. pp. 376, 377.

85. Eisenmenger, i. pp. 377-80.

86. Talmud, Avoda Sara, fol. 8 a, and in Levy, Parabeln, p. 300.

87. It is a popular superstition among the lower orders in England

that a woman who dies in childbirth, even if she be unmarried,
cannot be lost.

88. Weil, pp. 29-38.

89. Dillman, Das Adambuch des Morgenlandes; Göttingen, 1853.

This book is not to be confounded with the Testament of Adam.

90. Tabari, i., capp. xxviii. xxix.

91. In More Nevochim, quoted by Fabricius, i. p. 5.

92. Gen. v. 1.

93. Fabricius, i. p. 11.

94. Adv. Hæresi, c. 5.

95. Eusebius Nierembergius, De Origine S. Scripturæ. Lugd.,

1641, p. 46.
96. Fabricius, i. p. 33.

97. Ferdinand de Troilo, Orientale Itinerario. Dresd., 1676, p. 323.

98. Selden, De Synedriis, ii. p. 452.

99. Hottinger, Historia Orientalis, lib. i. c. 8.

100.
Jacobus Vitriacus, Hist. Hierosol., c. lxxxv.

101.
As King Charles’s oak may be seen in the fern-root.

102.
Fabricius, i. p. 84.

103.
Neue Ierosolymitanische Pilgerfahrt. Würtzburg, 1667, p. 47.

104.
Stephanus Le Moyne, Notæ ad Varia Sacra, p. 863.

105.
Abulfeda, p. 15. In the Apocryphal book, The Combat of Adam
(Dillman, Das Christliche Adambuch des Morgenlandes;
Göttingen, 1853), the same reason for hostility is given. In that
account, Satan appears to Cain, and prompts him to every act
of wickedness.

106.
Tabari, i. c. xxx.

107.
Jalkut, fol. 11 a.

108.
Yaschar, p. 1089.
109.
Targums, ed. Etheridge, London, 1862, i. p. 172.

110. Eisenmenger, i. p. 320.

111. Liber Zenorena, quoted by Fabricius, i. p. 108.

112. S. Methodius, jun., Revelationes, c. 3.

113. Eutychius, Patriarcha Alex., Annales.

114. Pirke R. Eliezer, c. xxi.

115. Historia Dynastiarum, ed. Pocock; Oxon. 1663, p. 4.

116. Ad Antiochum, quæst. 56.

117. Fabricius, i. p. 112.

118. Eisenmenger, i. p. 462.

119. Targum, i. p. 173.

120.
Jalkut Chadasch, fol. 6, col. i.

121.
Pirke R. Eliezer, c. xxi.

122.
Ibid.

123.
Ibid.

124.
Eisenmenger, ii. p. 8.