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 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
AND INSTRUMENTATION FOR
CHEMICAL ENGINEERS
SECOND EDITION

GREGORY S. PATIENCE
Experimental Methods and
Instrumentation for Chemical Engineers
This page intentionally left blank
Experimental Methods
and Instrumentation
for Chemical Engineers

Second Edition
Gregory S. Patience
Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Canada
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information
or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for
whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence
or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in
the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-444-64038-3

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visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: John Fedor

Acquisition Editor: Kostas Marinakis
Editorial Project Manager: Amy Clark
Production Project Manager: Maria Bernard
Designer: Miles Hitchen
Typeset by VTeX
Contents

List of Contributors xiii

Preface xv

1. Introduction
G.S. Patience
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Metrology 3
1.3 Scientific Method 5
1.4 Industrial Quality Control 5
1.5 Units of Physical Quantities 7
1.6 Writing Conventions 8
1.7 Unit Conversion 11
1.8 Exercises 15
References 16

2. Measurement and Analysis

G.S. Patience
2.1 Overview 17
2.2 Significant Figures 18
2.3 Statistical Notions 20
2.3.1 Normal (Gaussian) Distribution 22
2.3.2 Criterion of Chauvenet 27
2.3.3 Uncertainty (Type B) 29
2.3.4 Confidence Intervals and Uncertainty (Type A) 29
2.3.5 Sample Size 33
2.3.6 Uncertainty Propagation 33
2.4 Instrumentation Concepts 37
2.4.1 Interval 37
2.4.2 Range, Span, Full Scale 37
2.4.3 Resolution, Sensitivity, Detection Limit, Threshold 37
2.4.4 Precision 38
2.4.5 Error 39
2.4.6 Accuracy 42

v
vi Contents

2.4.7 Repeatability and Reproducibility 44

2.5 Representing Data Graphically 46
2.5.1 Plotting Pitfalls 52
2.5.2 3-D and Contour Graphs 52
2.5.3 Bar Charts 54
2.6 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) 54
2.7 Error Bars 55
2.8 Exercises 56
References 62

3. Experimental Planning
G.S. Patience and A. Bérard
3.1 Overview 65
3.2 Data and Experiments 65
3.2.1 Monitoring 66
3.2.2 Qualification 67
3.2.3 Prove-Out 67
3.2.4 Scouting/Process Development 67
3.2.5 Troubleshooting 68
3.3 Data Analysis 68
3.3.1 Data Smoothing 68
3.3.2 Hypothesis Testing 70
3.3.3 Statistical Tests 71
3.3.4 Error Bars 73
3.3.5 Regression Analysis 75
3.3.6 Coefficient of Determination 76
3.3.7 Nonlinear Regression Analysis 78
3.3.8 Errant Model Data 79
3.4 Design of Experiments (DOE) 81
3.5 Statistical Designs 85
3.5.1 Full Factorial Designs 86
3.5.2 Fractional Factorial Designs 88
3.5.3 Plackett–Burman Design 89
3.5.4 Taguchi Design 90
3.5.5 Central Composite Design—CCD 90
3.5.6 Box–Behnken Design 92
3.5.7 Case Study—Saving Organic Apples 92
3.6 Exercises 97
References 106

4. Force and Mass

J. Gostick
4.1 Overview 107
4.2 Electrical Properties of Strained Metals 109
4.3 Strain Gauge 110
 Contents vii

4.3.1 Gauge Factor 110

4.3.2 Strain Gauge Circuit 111
4.3.3 The Impact of Temperature on Resistance 113
4.4 Strain to Measure Force and Mass 114
4.4.1 Load Cells 114
4.4.2 Pressure Sensors 116
4.5 Other Force Sensing Techniques 117
4.5.1 Force Sensing Resistors 117
4.5.2 Electromagnetic Force Compensation 119
4.5.3 Piezoelectric Sensors and Accelerometers 120
4.6 Exercises 121
References 121

5. Pressure
G.S. Patience

5.1 Overview 123

5.2 Units of Pressure 128
5.3 Types of Pressure 128
5.3.1 Atmospheric Pressure 128
5.3.2 Gauge Pressure 129
5.3.3 Differential Pressure 129
5.3.4 Vacuum Pressure 130
5.3.5 Static and Dynamic Pressure 130
5.3.6 Barometric Pressure 132
5.4 Instrumentation 136
5.4.1 Barometer 136
5.4.2 U-Tube Manometer 137
5.4.3 Bourdon Gauge 139
5.4.4 Diaphragm and Bellows 140
5.4.5 Vacuum 142
5.4.6 Capsule Pressure Gauge 143
5.4.7 McLeod Gauge 144
5.4.8 Pirani Gauge 145
5.5 Process Equipment and Safety 146
5.5.1 Pressure Regulator 146
5.5.2 Back Pressure Regulator 147
5.5.3 Relief Valves 147
5.5.4 Rupture Disk 147
5.5.5 Pressure Testing 148
5.5.6 Leak Test 149
5.6 Instrumentation 149
5.7 Exercises 151
References 158
viii Contents

6. Temperature
G.S. Patience and P.A. Patience
6.1 Overview 159
6.2 Temperature Scales 161
6.2.1 Wet-Bulb, Dry-Bulb Temperature, Dew Point 164
6.2.2 Humidex, Heat Index 166
6.2.3 Wind Chill Factor 166
6.3 Mechanical Instruments 167
6.3.1 Gas Thermometers 167
6.3.2 Liquid Thermometers 171
6.3.3 Bimetallic Thermometers 175
6.4 Electrical Instruments 178
6.4.1 Thermistors 179
6.4.2 Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs) 180
6.4.3 Thermocouples 182
6.4.4 Thermopile 191
6.5 Radiation 194
6.6 Pyrometry 194
6.6.1 Thermal Radiation 194
6.6.2 Pyrometers 195
6.7 Exercises 197
References 199

7. Fluid Metering
G.S. Patience
7.1 Overview 201
7.2 Fluid Dynamics 202
7.3 Flow Meter Selection 206
7.4 Positive Displacement 209
7.5 Differential Pressure 212
7.5.1 Obstruction Meters—Orifice 212
7.5.2 Obstruction Meters—Venturi 214
7.5.3 Compressible Flow 215
7.5.4 Restriction Orifice 216
7.5.5 Pitot Tube 217
7.6 Rotameters 219
7.7 Thermal Mass Flow Meters—MFC 222
7.7.1 Hot Wire Anemometry 223
7.8 Coriolis 223
7.9 Inferential—Turbine 224
7.10 Oscillatory—Vortex 224
7.11 Flow Meters in an Industrial Setting 225
Exercises 229
References 232
 Contents ix

8. Physicochemical Analysis
G.S. Patience
8.1 Overview 233
8.2 Thermal Conductivity 233
8.2.1 Pressure, Temperature Effects 237
8.2.2 Insulation Design 237
8.3 Viscosity 242
8.3.1 Single Phase Flow 244
8.3.2 Reynolds Number 245
8.3.3 Prandtl Number 246
8.3.4 Viscosity Instrumentation 248
8.3.4.1 Newtonian Fluids 248
8.3.4.2 The Saybolt Viscometer 250
8.3.4.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids 251
8.3.4.4 The Rotational Rheometer 251
8.3.5 Influence of Temperature and Pressure on Viscosity 252
8.4 Binary Gas Diffusion 252
8.4.1 Schmidt Number 254
8.4.2 Measuring Diffusion 255
8.4.2.1 Water Vapor Diffusion through Permeable
Materials 256
8.5 Exercises 258
References 262

9. Gas and Liquid Concentration

D. Béland, S. Lucini, C. Neagoe, P. Perreault, F. Galli, and
G.S. Patience
9.1 Overview 263
9.2 Chromatography Theory 263
9.2.1 The Distribution Coefficient 265
9.2.2 The Capacity Factor 266
9.2.3 The Selectivity Factor 267
9.2.4 The Number of Theoretical Plates 268
9.2.5 Eddy Diffusion 269
9.2.6 Longitudinal Diffusion 270
9.2.7 Resistance to Mass Transfer 270
9.2.8 Resolution 271
9.3 Gas Chromatography 273
9.3.1 Columns 273
9.3.2 Injectors 275
9.3.3 Detectors 276
9.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 278
9.5 Method Development 278
9.6 Troubleshooting 280
9.6.1 The Flat Line 281
x Contents

9.6.2 Changing Peak Retention Times 282

9.6.3 Varying Peak Heights 283
9.7 Mass Spectrometry 284
9.8 Exercises 286
References 292

10. Analysis of Solids and Powders

G.S. Patience, M.G. Rigamonti, and H. Li
10.1 Overview 293
10.2 Density 294
10.2.1 Bulk Density 295
10.2.2 Particle Density 298
10.2.3 Skeletal Density 300
10.3 Diameter and Shape 302
10.3.1 Equivalent Diameter 304
10.3.2 Shape Factors—Sphericity 304
10.3.3 Particle Terminal Velocity 307
10.3.4 Reactor Pressure Drop (Fixed/Packed Beds) 308
10.3.5 Fluidization 311
10.4 Particle Size Distribution 314
10.4.1 Population of Particles 314
10.5 Sampling 319
10.6 Particle Size Distribution (PSD) Analytical Techniques 322
10.6.1 Sieve Analysis 323
10.6.2 Laser Diffraction 325
10.7 Microscopy 327
10.7.1 Electrical Sensing Instruments 327
10.7.2 SEM: Scanning Electron Microscopy 328
10.7.2.1 EDS: Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy 329
10.7.3 TEM: Transmission electron microscopy 329
10.7.3.1 EDS for TEM 330
10.8 Surface Area 331
10.9 Exercises 333
References 337

11. Spectroscopy
D.C. Boffito, C. Neagoe, G. Cerrato, C. Boffito, G.L. Chiarello,
C.L. Bianchi, M.G. Rigamonti, A. Benamer, and G.S. Patience
11.1 Overview 339
11.2 Infrared Spectroscopy—IR 344
11.3 Ultraviolet/Visible Spectroscopy—UV/Vis 345
11.4 X-ray Diffraction—XRD 350
11.4.1 Crystalline Materials 352
11.4.2 Powder Diffraction 354
11.4.3 Crystal Size 355
 Contents xi

11.5 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy—XPS 357

11.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance—NMR 359
11.6.1 1 H and 13 C Liquid NMR Analysis 361
11.6.2 Reading an NMR Spectrum 362
11.7 X-ray Absorption—XAS 366
11.7.1 The Absorption Coefficient (μ) 367
11.7.2 XAS Experimental Setup 368
11.7.3 X-ray Fluorescence—XRF 370
11.7.4 The Near-Edge Structure—XANES 370
11.7.5 Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure—EXAFS 371
11.8 Refractometry 376
11.9 Exercises 378
References 382

Solutions 385
Index 401
This page intentionally left blank
List of Contributors

D. Béland, Varian

A. Benamer, Polytechnique Montréal

A. Bérard, Polytechnique Montréal
C.L. Bianchi, Università Degli Studi di Milano
C. Boffito, Università Degli Studi di Milano

D.C. Boffito, Polytechnique Montréal

G. Cerrato, Università Degli Studi di Milano
G.L. Chiarello, Università Degli Studi di Milano
F. Galli, Polytechnique Montréal

J. Gostick, University of Waterloo

H. Li, Polytechnique Montréal
S. Lucini, Shimadzu Scientific Instruments
C. Neagoe, Polytechnique Montréal

G.S. Patience, Polytechnique Montréal

P.A. Patience, Polytechnique Montréal
P. Perreault, Polytechnique Montréal
M.G. Rigamonti, Polytechnique Montréal

xiii
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

Throughout the day, we apply experimental methods to estimate time, mass, vol-
ume, distance, velocity, and temperature—how much to eat (mass), what clothes
to wear (temperature), how long will it take to get somewhere (distance, veloc-
ity, and time). Preparing a meal requires some precision with respect to these
factors, and the kitchen was the first laboratory for chemists and engineers. We
continue to share many concepts related to instrumentation and experimental
design. This book presents the basic principles of measurement particular to
chemical engineering. Redacting this manuscript has been a collaborative effort;
its original inspiration was J.P. Holman’s textbook entitled “Experimental Meth-
ods for Engineers.” In this 2nd edition, we revise the text entirely, correct typos
(and other errors), and add a chapter on mass and distance and spectroscopy.
Each chapter begins with a historical perspective to recognize the work of
early pioneers but also to stimulate the imagination of the students. For example,
10 000 years ago, man created plaster from limestone. Plaster requires temper-
atures nearing 900°C, which is 150°C higher than an open pit fire. It requires
1000 kg of wood (chopped by stone axes), 500 kg of limestone, a pit 2 m in
diameter and 0.7 m deep, rocks to insulate, and two days to burn. Modern man-
ufacturing errors are costly and a nuisance; in prehistoric times, errors would
have been considerably more than just an inconvenience.
In Chapter 1, we list the seven steps of the scientific method and review the
rules of nomenclature—units of physical quantities, abbreviations, conversion
between SI and British Units, writing convention. Chapter 2 introduces signif-
icant figures and what we mean by accuracy, precision, and error analysis. In
this second edition, we report an explicit equation to calculate how many exper-
iments are necessary to achieve a specified confidence interval.
Chapter 3 reviews data analysis including hypothesis testing, data smooth-
ing, and statistical tests. We summarize design of experiments, and we include
more detail in this edition to describe factorial designs, outlining them and other
complementary designs with detailed examples.
Chapter 4 is new and introduces stress, strain, and electrical properties that
relate to manufacturing sensors for mass and force. We apply these concepts in

xv
xvi Preface

Chapters 5 and 6 that deal with pressure and temperature measurements. In each
of these chapters, we first review basic concepts, including thermodynamics.
Then we describe the sensors that rely on mechanical and electrical properties.
Chapters 7 and 8 continue with chemical engineering fundamentals of fluid
flow and physicochemical properties. The former begins with Bernoulli’s equa-
tion and Reynolds number, then lists common flow meters. The three physic-
ochemical properties that Chapter 8 presents include viscosity, thermal con-
ductivity, and diffusion. It demonstrates how these properties are related and
introduces non-dimensional numbers.
Examples throughout the book help the students grasp the mechanics of solv-
ing problems but also to underline pitfalls in solving them.
Measuring gas and liquid concentration by chromatography and mass spec-
trometry is the subject of Chapter 9. In this edition, we dedicate more scope
to troubleshooting the chromatographic instruments. Spectroscopic instruments
we detail in Chapter 11. This summary includes sections written by eminent
chemists. We have selected the most powerful techniques used to character-
ize the physicochemical properties of solids and include infrared spectroscopy,
X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic reso-
nance, UV/Vis, X-ray absorption, and refractometry
Whereas Chapter 11 probes the nature of the solids phases, composition
and morphology, Chapter 10 concentrates on powder properties—particle shape,
size distribution, density, and surface area.
The first edition of this book was a collaborative effort in which Melina
Hamdine early on drafted several chapters in French, including Physicochemical
Properties, Analysis of Powders and Solids, and Design of Experiments. Prof.
Bala Srinivasan contributed to Chapter 3 on experimental design. Katia Senécal
was “instrumental” in gathering the essential elements for the chapters, includ-
ing Measurement Analysis, Pressure, Temperature, and Flow Rate. Prof. Bruno
Detuncq collaborated in the revision of these chapters. Danielle Béland led the
redaction of the chapter on chromatography to determine concentration, with
some assistance from Cristian Neagoe. He also wrote the section concerning
spectroscopy. Amina Benamer contributed extensively to this project, including
preparing solutions to the problems after each chapter, writing sections related
to refractometry and X-ray, and translating. Second-year students from the De-
partment also participated by proposing original problems that were added at
the end of each chapter (together with the name of the author of the problem).
I would particularly like to recognize Paul Patience for his tremendous contribu-
tion throughout the creative process of preparing this manuscript. The depth of
his reflection has been appreciated tremendously (LATEX). He also co-authored
the section on pyrometry. Christian Patience prepared many of the drawings and
 Preface xvii

Nicolas Patience helped with translating from French to English, as did Nadine
Aboussouan.
This second edition is no less a collaborative effort. Ariane Bérard expanded
Chapter 3 with examples of experimental designs. Prof. J. Gostick contributed
the chapter on Mass and Force instrumentation. Stefano Lucini wrote the section
on troubleshooting GC and HPLC instruments, while F. Galli contributed to
the section on mass spectrometry with Patrice Perreault, who was devout at
identifying errors and proposing additional problems. Marco Rigamonti and He
Li wrote sections of Chapter 10. Collaborators on Chapter 11 included Daria
C. Boffito, Cristian Neagoe, Giuseppina Cerrato, Claudio Boffito, Gian Luca
Chiarello, Claudia L. Bianchi, Marco G. Rigamonti, and Amina Benamer. This
chapter is a tremendous contribution to the book because it details simply which
instruments measure which physicochemical property and then describes how
they work.
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1

Introduction
G.S. Patience
Polytechnique Montréal

1.1 OVERVIEW
Experimental methods and instrumentation—for the purpose of systematic,
quantifiable measurements—have been a driving force for human development
and civilization. Anthropologists recognize tool making, together with language
and complex social organizations, as a prime distinguishing feature of Homo
sapiens from primates and other animals. However, the animal kingdom shares
many practices characteristic of experimentation, instrumentation and innova-
tion. Animals measure distance, height, size, estimate probabilities and adapt
objects for tasks: cheetahs, for example, gauge distance between themselves
and their prey before giving chase. Several species devise tools: branches are
levers for large arboreal primates that travel through the forest from tree to tree;
chimpanzees modify sticks as implements to extract grubs from logs; beavers
cut down trees and use mud and stones to build dams and lodges; and, Betty
the crow bends a wire to make a hook to get food out of a narrow tube. If
the act of modifying a twig to extract grubs is considered “tool making” then
we need a more specific definition to differentiate humans from other species.
Man uses tools to make tools and adopts a methodology to improve an out-
come or function. One of the earliest examples of applying methodology is
when early hominids manufactured chopping and core tools—axes and fist
hatchets—before the Lower Paleolithic period (from 650 000 to 170 000 BC):
they produced blades and implements by cleaving rocks with a certain force at
a specific angle to produce sharp edges. The raw material—a rock—is modified
through the use of an implement—a different rock—to produce an object with
an unrelated function (cutting, scraping, digging, piercing, etc.). Striking rocks
(flint) together led to sparks and the discovery of how to make fire.
Throughout the day, we measure mass, size, time, temperature and use in-
struments. The clothes that we wear, the food that we eat, the objects that we
manipulate have all been developed and optimized with standardized procedures
and advanced instrumentation. Sensors have increased the efficiency and safety
of automobiles: gauges in the car assess gasoline/air ratio, rain on the wind-
Experimental Methods and Instrumentation for Chemical Engineers
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-44-463782-6.00001-X 1
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 Experimental Methods and Instrumentation for Chemical Engineers

shield, cabin temperature and whether or not the seat belt is engaged. One of the
key factors in homes is maintaining the correct temperature either in rooms, re-
frigerators, hot water heaters, ovens, or elements on the stove. Advanced scales
display body mass, percent fat, and percent water!
Technological development recognizes and applies unrelated or non-obvious
phenomena to new applications or to improve existing applications. Advancing
technology is achieved through systematic experimental design, trial-and-error
testing, or by accident. Man interprets our environment with the five+ senses
—sight, sound, smell, touch, hearing, time, nociception, equilibrioception,
thermoception—and each has had a historical role to innovate and devise tools.
The manufacture of primitive stone tools and fire required a qualitative ap-
preciation for the most common measures of mass, time, number, and length.
The concept of time has been appreciated for thousands of years. In comparative
terms it is qualified by longer and shorter, sooner and later, more or less. Quanti-
tatively, it has been measured in seconds, hours, days, lunar months, and years.
Calendars have existed for well over 6000 years and clocks—instruments to
measure time intervals of less than a day—were common as long as 6000 years
ago. Chronometers are devices that have higher accuracy and laboratory models
have a precision of 0.01 seconds.
The Egyptians were among the first to tell time over the entire day: 10 hours
during the daylight, 12 hours at night, and 1 hour at dawn and dusk—the shadow
hours. They could tell time at night based on the position of the stars in the
sky. During the same period, Babylonians, Chinese, Greeks, and Romans had
sun dials to tell time. The Egyptians replaced star gazing with a water clock
(clepsydra) to tell time at night: Prince Amenemhet filled a graduated vessel
with water and pierced a hole in the bottom to let the water drain (Barnett,
1998). Records of the hourglass date back to the early 13th century. Burning
candles and incense sticks predated the hourglass.
Recording time requires a numbering system and something to detect a
change in quantity. In the simplest form of the water clock, Egyptians read time
based on the liquid level in a vessel as indicated by a notch on the side. Notches
on bones, wood, stone, and ivory to keep records—tally sticks—date before the
Upper Paleolithic (30 000 BC). Medieval Europe relied on this system to record
trades, exchanges, and even debt, but it was mainly for the illiterate. Courts ac-
cepted tally sticks as legal proof of a transaction. Western civilization continues
to use tally marks to update intermediate results. This unary numeral system is
written as a group of five lines: the first four run vertically and the fifth runs
horizontally through the four.
The driving forces to maintain records and develop numbering systems
in ancient civilizations were for taxes, lending, land surveying, and irriga-
tion. The earliest written records of metrology come from Sumerian clay
 Introduction Chapter | 1 3

tablets dated 3000 BC. These tablets had multiplication tables, division prob-
lems, and geometry. The first abacus—an ancient calculator—appeared around
2700–2300 BC. Later tablets—1800–1600 BC—included algebra, reciprocal
pairs, and quadratic equations (Boyer, 1991). The basis for 60 seconds in a
minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360◦ in a circle comes from the Sumeri-
ans sexagesimal numeral system (Mastin, 2010). Like the Greeks, Romans, and
Egyptians, they also had a decimal system. The Pythagorean doctrine was that
mathematics ruled the universe and their motto was “all is number.”

1.2 METROLOGY
Metrology is the science of measurement and is derived from the Greek words
metron (measure) and logos (logic, study, calculation, and reason). The Interna-
tional Bureau of Weight and Measures defines it as a science that encompasses
theoretical and experimental measures at any level of uncertainty in the fields of
science and engineering. It comprises not only the instruments applied to quan-
tify the magnitude of a physical phenomenon but also standards, procedures,
quality control, training, documentation, etc. Analysis and quantification of un-
certainty are core elements, as is traceability—which relates to an instrument’s
measurements to known standards as well as the documented accreditations to
national and international standards.
Together with the physical aspects of recording data accurately and repeat-
edly, metrology verifies and validates data collected by the test equipment.
Enforcing standards is a critical aspect not only for consumer goods—baby car-
riages, helmets, and the like—but also for industrial equipment such as vessel
design (pressure vessels), materials of construction (quality of steel), and safety
procedures.
Along with international organizations that maintain standards for the ba-
sic measures of distance, weight, etc., countries also maintain their own system
of metrology (Table 1.1). For example, the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), formerly the National Bureau of Standards founded in
1918, maintains both scientific and commercial metrology in the United States.
Its mission is to promote American innovation and competitiveness and supplies
industry, academia, and government with certified standard reference materials,
including documentation for procedures, quality control, and materials for cal-
ibration. The German Institute for Standards (DIN) was founded in 1917 while
in the United Kingdom the BSI was formed in 1901.
Further to national standards, many industries have promoted and main-
tained their own standards. One of the most well-known and oldest non-
governmental standards organizations is the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), which was established in 1898. It collects and maintains
4 Experimental Methods and Instrumentation for Chemical Engineers

TABLE 1.1 International Standards Organizations

Organization Founded
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) 1898
BSI (British Standards Institute) 1901
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) 1905
DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung) 1917
JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards) 1921
ISO (International Organization for Standards) 1926
NF (Norme Française) 1926
CEN (European Committee for Standardization) 1961

over 12 000 standards that are available to the public and include 82 volumes
(at a price of $9700 in 2010). The origin of the organization was the desire to
improve the quality of the rail system that had been plagued by breaks.
Although the International Organization for Standards—ISO—is a non-
governmental organization, it has the authority to set standards that become law
through treaties or through the national standards organizations that are repre-
sented in the organization and have 163 member countries. It follows ten-steps
to make a procedure:
1. Preliminary work item.
2. New work item proposal.
3. Approved new work item.
4. Working draft.
5. Committee draft.
6. Final committee draft.
7. International standard draft.
8. Final international standard draft.
9. Proof of a new international standard.
10. International standard.
Three common standards are:
• ISO 5725 (1998–2005): Accuracy of Measurement Methods and Results
Package.
• ISO 9001 (2008): Quality Systems Management—Requirements.
• ISO 17025 (2005): General Requirements for Calibration Laboratories.
The ISO 9001 standard was originally based on BS 5750. A primary ob-
jective of this standard is to ensure the commitment of management to quality
with respect to the business as well as to customer needs. The Quality Systems
Management standard recognizes that employees require measurable objectives.
 Introduction Chapter | 1 5

In addition to a detailed record system that shows the origin of raw materials
and how the products were processed, it includes auditing (both internal and
external, in the form of certification) at defined intervals to check and ensure
conformity and effectiveness.
The standard for calibration laboratories (ISO 17025) is closely aligned with
the ISO 9001 standard but includes the concept of competency. Moreover, con-
tinual improvement of the management system itself is explicitly required as
well as keeping up to date with technological advances related to the laboratory.

1.3 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is a structured sequence of steps to answer questions or
evaluate observations. Many disciplines apply a structured approach to solve
problems: a 1600 BC papyrus detailed a procedure to treat disease that started
with an examination, followed by diagnosis, treatment and prognosis (Wilkins,
1992). The scientific method first asks a question or makes an observation. The
second step involves background research including reading the literature. In
the third step, we make a hypothesis (Chapter 3) then test the hypothesis with
an experiment. Many experiments rely on instrumentation that we assemble,
each of which has a degree of uncertainty. All equipment must be carefully
calibrated and monitored before, during, and after the experiments to ensure that
the data we collect are reproducible (Chapter 2). If they are irreproducible, then
we must re-examine the experimental methodology and instrumentation. After
we analyze the data, we communicate our findings by addressing the original
hypothesis:
1. Ask a question.
2. Review literature.
3. Formulate a hypothesis.
4. Design and conduct experiments.
5. Analyze the data.
a. Evaluate reproducibility and uncertainty.
b. Improve reproducibility and reduce uncertainty, if needed.
6. Comment on the hypothesis.
7. Communicate the results.

1.4 INDUSTRIAL QUALITY CONTROL

Industrial metrology concerns accuracy as much in the laboratory as in the
field but it is more constrained in that measurements must often be made in
hostile environments including high temperature, dust, vibration, and other fac-
tors. Moreover, time and financial cost are other factors. Companies implement
6 Experimental Methods and Instrumentation for Chemical Engineers

quality control systems to account for these factors. The ability to measure accu-
rately and consistently and then interpret the results correctly to make coherent
decisions is the basis of modern manufacturing. In advanced commercial chem-
ical installations, workstations collect thousands of independent measurements
at frequencies greater than 1 Hz and store them in massive databases. Opera-
tors read data in real time through consoles in a central location. They serve to
control the plant, troubleshoot, detect deviations from normal operation, ana-
lyze tests designed for process optimization, and are also a historical record in
the case of accidents. Additionally, the databases may be used for environmen-
tal reporting to the authorities. Online analytical devices are less common than
pressure and temperature measurements, but increase the level of confidence in
operations and allow for mass balance and process performance calculations in
real time—this improves product tracking and troubleshooting capabilities.
Duplicate and triplicate measurements of pressure and temperature of critical
pieces of equipment improve safety. When a variable like pressure or temper-
ature exceeds a threshold value, an alarm sounds and a reading appears on
console for the operator to take action. Alarms require operators to intervene
while interlocks shut the process or equipment down automatically.
In addition to redundant pressure and temperature gauges, engineers install
spare pumps and control valves in parallel with the main process equipment.
This allows operators to bypass and service equipment it without interrupting
plant operation, thereby avoiding costly shutdowns.
Although redundant gauges, equipment, and fail-safe devices are mandatory,
accidents still happen. The 2010 Macondo well disaster in the Gulf of Mex-
ico is an example where instrumentation was insufficient to warn operators of
an impending blowout. Human error, instrument error, mechanical failure, and
combinations of these factors cause accidents. Often a process operates at the
design limits and alarms become a nuisance to operators who then ignore them.
Shutting down a process to fix instrumentation or equipment outside the normal
maintenance cycle is very expensive and can represent millions of dollars of lost
production. Engineers and managers may choose unorthodox methods to keep a
plant running. In one example, a vessel operating over 600 ◦ C lost the refractory
lined bricks that insulated the metal wall from the high temperature. To avoid
an unscheduled shutdown, operators sprayed cold water on the wall. This opera-
tion is clearly non-standard and introduced a potentially hazardous situation—if
the water spray were inadvertently shut off, the wall temperature could increase
sufficiently and perforate and result in an explosion. The chemical industry has
made tremendous efforts in producing goods and services in such a way as not
to impact the health and well-being of society. Before commissioning a new
plant or equipment, engineers and technicians write detailed operating proce-
dures covering all aspects of the process to ensure it operates safely.
 Introduction Chapter | 1 7

Methodologies to assess safety hazards include: What-if, Checklist (Hu-

man Factor Checklist or General Hazards Identification Checklist, for example),
Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP), Failure Mode, and Effect Analysis
(FMEA) or a Fault Tree Analysis. Together with general safety, other aspects
that engineers assess include occupational health, ergonomics, fire safety, pro-
cess safety, product stewardship. Instrumentation is a cornerstone to process
safety management.

1.5 UNITS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Throughout history, civilizations have developed systems to measure weight,
time, and distance. The notion of weight, or mass, emerged during the same
period as counting. Local authorities defined the systems and based them on
practical measures—the length of an arm, a foot, or a thumb. In the late 18th
century the French National Assembly and Louis XVI commissioned the French
Academy of Science to conceive a rational system of measures. The National
Convention in 1793 adopted the modern standards of mass and length.
Originally, the meter was to be defined as the length of a pendulum, L, for
which the half-cycle, t, was equal to 1 s:

L
t =π , (1.1)
g

where g is the gravitational constant. Eventually, the Assemblée Constituante

defined the meter as one ten-millionth of the distance between the equator and
the North Pole. In 1795, the gram was defined as the mass of melting ice oc-
cupying a cube whose sides equal 0.01 m. In 1799, they changed the reference
temperature to 4 ◦ C. At the Metre Convention of 1875, the Système interna-
tional (SI) was formally established and a new standard for measuring mass was
created: an alloy composed of 90 % Pt and 10 % Ir that was machined into a
cylinder with a height and diameter equal to 39.17 mm. Iridium was included in
the new “International Prototype Kilogram” to increase hardness. The kilogram
is the only unit based on a physical artifact and not a property of nature as well
as the only base unit with a prefix.
The definition of the meter and the techniques to assess it evolved with tech-
nology. In 1799, a prototype meter bar was fabricated to represent the standard.
(It was later established that this bar was too short by 0.2 mm since the curvature
of the Earth had been miscalculated.) In 1889, the standard Pt bar was replaced
with a Pt(90 %)–Ir(10 %) bar in the form of an X. One meter was defined as the
distance between two lines on the bar measured at 0 ◦ C. In 1960, the standard
was changed to represent the number of wavelengths of a line in the electromag-
8 Experimental Methods and Instrumentation for Chemical Engineers

netic emission of 86 Kr under vacuum. Finally, in 1983, the standard was defined
as the distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1/299 792 458 s.
The standard to measure the base unit of time—the second—has evolved
as much as the standard to measure distance. During the 17–19th centuries, the
second was based on the Earth’s rotation and was set equal to 1/86 400 of a mean
solar day. In 1956, recognizing that the rotation of the Earth slows with time as
the Moon moves further away (about 4 cm y−1 ), Ephemeris Time became the
SI standard: 1/31556925.9747 the length of the tropical year of 1900. In 1967,
the second was based on the number of periods of vibration radiation emitted
by a specific wavelength of 133 Cs.
The International System of Units (Système international d’unités or SI) rec-
ognizes seven base properties (Table 1.2)—time, length, mass, thermodynamic
temperature, amount of matter, electrical current, and luminous intensity. Other
measures include the plane angle, solid angle, sound intensity, and seismic mag-
nitude and intensity. The standard changed from the cgs—centimeter, gram,
second—system to SI in 1960. In 1875 at the Convention du Mètre, three in-
ternational organizations were formed to oversee the maintenance and evolution
of the metric standard:
• General Conference on Weights and Measures (Conférence générale des
poids et mesures—CGPM).
• International Bureau of Weights and Measures (Bureau international des
poids et mesures—BIPM).
• International Committee for Weights and Measures (Comité international
des poids et mesures—CIPM).

1.6 WRITING CONVENTIONS

Table 1.2 lists not only the seven standard properties recognized by the Inter-
national System of Quantities (SIQ) but also the symbols representing each
property and its dimension as well as the base unit and its symbol. All other

TABLE 1.2 SI Base Units

Base quantity Base symbol Measure SI unit SI symbol
Time t T second s
Length l, x, y, z, r L meter m
Mass m M kilogram kg
Amount of matter n N mole mol
Temperature T θ kelvin K
Luminous intensity lv J candela cd
Electrical current I, i I ampere A
 Introduction Chapter | 1 9

quantities may be derived from these base properties by multiplication and di-
vision (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 2006). For example, speed
equals distance (length) divided by time: L/T . Kinetic, potential, and thermal
are different forms of energy and Leibniz defined it as the product of the mass
of an object and its velocity squared: ML2 T −2 with the units kg m2 s−2 . SI
has designated this expression as the joule (J) to honor the contributions of the
19th century English physicist. Pressure is the force exercised on a unit area
and has units of ML−1 T −2 . The unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa) named after
the French physicist who demonstrated that atmospheric pressure changes with
elevation.
Quantities or properties are either extensive—properties that are additive for
subsystems, for example mass and distance—or intensive, for which the value is
system independent like temperature and pressure. Prefixes qualify the meaning
of properties like specific and molar. Specific heat capacity is the heat, or energy,
required to raise the temperature of a given mass by an increment. Its SI unit is
J kg−1 K−1 and the unit of molar heat capacity is J mol−1 K−1 (Table 1.3). The
volume occupied by 1 mol of a substance is the molar volume.
The minute, hour, day and hectare are symbols that fall outside the standard-
ized nomenclature but SI recognizes them as part of the system (Table 1.4).
A space or half-high dot separates SI base unit symbols and names in de-

TABLE 1.3 SI Coherent Derived Units

Quantity Unit Symbol SI base units
Force newton N kg m s−2
Pressure pascal Pa kg m−1 s−2
Energy joule J kg m2 s−2
Power watt W kg m2 s−3
Moment of force – Nm kg m2 s−2
Surface tension – N m−1 kg s−2
Dynamic viscosity – Pa s kg m−1 s−1
Heat flux density, irradiance – W m−2 kg s−3
Entropy – J K−1 kg m2 s−2 K−1
Specific entropy, heat capacity – J kg−1 K−1 kg m2 s−2 K−1
Specific energy – J kg−1 m2 s−2 K−1
Molar energy – J mol−1 kg m2 s−2 mol−1
Energy density – J m−3 kg m−1 s−2
Molar entropy – J mol−1 K−1 kg m2 s−2 K−1 mol−1
Thermal conductivity – W m−1 K−1 kg m s−3 K−1
10 Experimental Methods and Instrumentation for Chemical Engineers

TABLE 1.4 SI Recognized Units

Unit Symbol SI
minute min 60 s
hour h 3600 s
day d 86 400 s
hectare ha 10 000 m2
liter L (l is discouraged) 0.001 m3
tonne t 1000 kg
decibel dB –
electronvolt eV 1.602 176 53 × 10−19 J
knot kn 1852 m h−1
fathom ftm 1.828 80 m
nautical mile M 1852 m

rived units: the viscosity of water at 0 ◦ C equals 0.001 Pa s. Negative expo-

nents, a solidus, or a horizontal line indicate division. SI accepts only one
solidus, thus atmospheric pressure is 101 325 mkgs2 or 101 325 kg m−1 s−2 but
not 101 325 kg/m/s2 . Derived unit symbols named after a person are capital-
ized (N—Newton, Hz—Hertz, W—Watt, F—Faraday) but they are lower case
when written out (one pascal, a newton). Symbols are mathematical entities so
it is incorrect to add an “s” to indicate plural or a period except at the end of
a sentence—“min.” is unacceptable in the middle of a sentence. Express unit
symbols in roman upright type regardless of the font.
The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM—Bureau Interna-
tional des Poids et Mesures) (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 2006)
publishes standards to represent quantities including numerical values, spac-
ing, symbols, and combinations of symbols. A space follows numerical values
before the unit symbol: 9001 kg. In the case of exponential notation, a space
follows the numerical value before the multiplication sign: 9.001 × 103 kg.
Plane angular symbols—degrees, minutes, and seconds—are exceptions and
follow the numerical value without a space. Temperature, expressed in de-
grees Celsius, takes a space after the number—25.0 ◦ C. In 2003, the CGPM
recognized the comma and the period as decimal markers. English-speaking
countries and most Asian countries adopt a period while other nations use a
comma. Separate groups of numbers in multiples of a thousands with spaces
(c = 299 792 458 m s−1 ). Up to 9999, spaces are unnecessary (1337 and not
1 337). For numbers between −1 to 1, a zero precedes the decimal marker:
R = 0.008 314 kJ mol−1 K−1 .
Another random document with
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 Nieuwe Kerk, 22;
Oude Kerk, 22.
Dieppe—
St. Jacques, 14;
St. Rémi, 14.
Dijon—
The Cathedral, 14.
Durham—
The Cathedral, 11.

Frankfort—
The Cathedral, 26.
Freiburg, Switzerland—
St. Nicolas, 28.
Freiburg-im-Bresgau—
The Cathedral, 26;
St. ——, 26.

Geneva—
The Cathedral, 28;
English Church, 29.
Ghent (Gand)—
The Cathedral (St. Bavon), 20;
Béguinage, 21;
English Church, 21;
St. Jacques, 21;
St. Michael, 21;
St. Nicolas, 21.
Gouda—
Janskerk (St. John’s), 22.

Haarlem—
Grootekerk (St. Bavon), 23.
Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc)—
St. Janskirk, 23.

Innsbruck—
 Hof-kirche, 27;
Jesuits’ Church, 27.
Isola Bella—
Parish Church, 30.

Laon—
The Cathedral, 14.
Liége—
St. Jacques, 21.
Lisieux—
St. Pierre (formerly the Cathedral), 14;
St. Jacques, 14.
London—
St. Paul’s Cathedral, 10;
All Hallows, Lombard Street, 10;
Christchurch, Newgate Street, 10;
St. Clement’s, Eastcheap, 10;
St. Lawrence, Jewry, 10;
St. Magnus the Martyr, London Bridge, 11;
St. Olave’s, Southwark, 11;
St. Sepulchre’s, 11.
Louvain—
St. Pierre, 21.
Lucerne—
Hof-kirche (St. Leger), 29;
English Church, 30.
Lyons—
The Cathedral, 14.

Madonna di Tirano—
Il Santuario, 31.
Magdeburg—
The Cathedral, 27.
Malines—
The Cathedral, 21;
St Jean 22;
 St. Jean, 22;
Notre Dame, 22.
Mayence—
The Cathedral, 27.
Mechlin (Malines).
Milan—
The Cathedral, 31;
San Ambrogio, 31;
San Giovanni in Lateran, 31;
San Lorenzo, 31;
Santa Maria delle Grazie, 31;
Santa Maria Pudone, 32;
San ——, in the Via di Giadini, 32.
Munich—
Jesuits’ Church, 27.

Paris—
Notre Dame, 15;
St. Eustache, 15.
Prague—
The Cathedral, 27;
Monastery of Strahow, 27.

Rheims—
The Cathedral, 15;
St. André, 15;
St. Rémi, 15.
Rotterdam—
Groote Kerk (St. Lawrence), 24.
Rouen—
The Cathedral, 15;
Canteleu, 16;
St. Georges de Boscherville, 16;
St. Maclou, 16;
Notre Dame de Bon Secours, 16;
St. Ouen, 16;
St. Sever, 16;
 St. Sever, 16;
St. Vincent, 17;
St. Vivien, 17.

St. Bernard—
Hospice, 29.
St. Lo—
The Cathedral (formerly), 17;
St. Croix, 17.
St. Ricquier—
The Abbey Church, 17.
Schwarz—
Pfarrkirche, 27.
Strasburg—
The Cathedral, 17.

Troyes—
The Cathedral, 17;
St. Jean, 18;
St. Nizier, 18;
St. Rémi, 18.

Utrecht—
The Cathedral, 24;
St. Nicolas, 25.

York—
Minster, 11.
he ox f histles.
 CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.

HE Box of Whistles! what a quaint title! Yes, but a good

one, I think, for this book, as the old organ of Father
Smith’s in St. Paul’s, “The Box of Whistles,” as Sir
Christopher Wren contemptuously called it, was the first
organ I ever saw, and which gave me my bent in the liking
of things pertaining to the organ. Well do I recollect standing, a very
small boy, under the Dome of St. Paul’s, on a dark winter’s
afternoon, looking at Grinling Gibbons’ noble case, hearing some
grand out-going voluntary, and trying to see the angels put their
trumpets to their mouths, when the reeds were drawn, which I could
never catch them doing. Now the organ is perhaps the only
instrument which gives equal gratification to three separate classes
of individuals, who are often very different in other respects, the
Musician, the Mechanician, and the Architect. The Musician likes it
for its tone and power, giving sounds which no other instrument can
give, and imitating the tones of almost every other instrument. The
Mechanician likes it as a complicated machine; and the different
modes of its action, and the varied ways of supplying it with wind,
are sources of pleasure and amusement to him. The Architect
admires its noble look, as it stands towering high in Cathedral,
Church, or Concert Room, its case covered with carved work, and its
pipes bright with gilding, be its style Gothic or Renaissance.
Remember that an organ is built, other musical instruments are
made. The Musician very likely cares not for its look, so long as the
tone pleases him, and possibly knows little, and cares less, how the
sound is produced. The Mechanician is pleased to know how and
why certain tones and effects are obtained, caring perhaps very little
for real music, and as for the case, he never gives it a thought. The
Architect may have but small knowledge of music; as for the
mechanical part of the instrument, it is not in the least in his line; but
he does feel the impress of its grandeur, and admires the complex
design of a large and well-built organ case. I am no player, but I
much like the sound of an organ, and to hear good music played on
it.
Of mechanics I have some knowledge, but it is in general difficult
to get a sight of the internal works of an organ. They are well
described in Hopkins’s work, “The Organ,” 1870, and the
“Encyclopédie Roret,” 1849, which, in its valuable reprint of Dom
Bedos, “L’Art du Facteur des Orgues,” gives excellent details and
good engravings. To me it seems a pity that this work has not been
translated into English, and brought down to the present time, as
technical terms in a foreign language are difficult even to good
linguists. To the organ builder, it is a more useful work than that of
Mr. Hopkins, as the French book is for the practical man, while the
English work is for the general reader. I am not an architect, but in
my leisure hours architecture and drawing have been my
amusements. For some years I have sketched and taken notes of
the different organs which I have had the good fortune to see either
at home or abroad, and I now venture to publish (a small quota to
general knowledge) my notes and drawings of organs, the collecting
of which has been my recreation for many an hour. I think that the
ground on which I now venture has not as yet been occupied by any
one.
Mr. Hopkins gives but general information about organ cases,
and no engravings. The “Encyclopédie Roret” gives more particulars,
and also furnishes a few engravings, and the English edition of
“Seidel’s Treatise on the Organ” is very cursory on this subject.
Further information can be gleaned from the Rev. F. H. Sutton’s
“Short Account of Organs Built in England,” &c., 1847, which gives
small woodcuts of the typical cases of the old English builders, and
at the end of the work, five designs of the late Mr. Pugin are given,
which are worth studying; and from “Some Account of the Mediæval
Organ Case,” &c., 1866, and “Church Organs,” 1872, by the Rev.
F. H. Sutton, both of which are very good for reference. Mr.
Faulkner’s “Designs for Organs,” 1838, is now rather out of date, but
C. K. K. Bishop’s “Notes on Church Organs” gives nice suggestive
plates. If the very fine and exhaustive work on “Foreign Gothic
Organs,” mentioned by the Rev. Mr. Sutton in his “Mediæval Organ
Case,” 1866, should ever see light, it would be first-class, as it would
contain drawings and details of the best Gothic organs, which are
rare, and of which it is difficult to obtain drawings or descriptions.
There are many small works which give drawings, &c., to which I do
not more particularly refer, out of which useful information may be
gleaned.
What I wish to put before my readers in this book, is a short
description of the different classes of organ cases, with my remarks
and notes of various instruments, illustrated by lithographs and
chromo-lithographs, from my own sketches. Having now explained
my intention, I have to beg those who read this, my first work, not to
be very severe on my errors and shortcomings.
 CHAPTER II.
THE ORGAN CASE.

(Buffet, French; Orgel Gehause, German; Kist o’

Whistles, Scotticè).

Division into Four Classes.—Subdivisions of ditto.

RGAN cases may broadly be divided into four classes.

Firstly, those which stand at the end of the nave or
transept of a Church, or the end of a Concert Room.
Secondly, organs which are pendent from the side of the
nave or choir of a large Church. Thirdly, organs which
stand on Choir Screens; and Fourthly, organs standing on the
ground. Of these classes many sub-divisions may be made. Of the
organs in these four classes, those in No. 1 are in general the most
imposing, those in No. 2 the most picturesque, those in No. 3 the
best for sound, and those in No. 4 require some skill to make them
rival their compeers. Class 1 may be sub-divided into—
A. Those which fill the entire end, or nearly so, of the building
in which they stand;

B. Those which have a window, or “Rose” over them; and,

C. Divided Organs, and those with exceptionally designed

cases.
 A. This sub-class (a very ordinary one in England and Holland)
has the finest cases in the world, for I suppose that the grandest and
most elaborate case in Europe is that in St. Jan’s Church,
Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc), rich in sculptured oak, and bright with
burnished tin pipes and gilding. Externally, although it has not got so
many stops, it is as large as its well-known neighbour at Haarlem,
which has till lately been considered the type of a “Great Organ.”
Haarlem has a noble case, with excellent pipe-work within, but its
effect is injured by paint. The organ in the Hof Kirche, Lucerne, also
has quaint oak carving in its thirty-two feet front, and for pretty cases,
that at St. Jacques, Liége, by some considered the best of its kind,
and the Organs in St. Lawrence, Jewry, and St. Stephen’s,
Walbrook, the last looking somewhat like a miniature of that at
Troyes, may be cited as good examples.
B. A sub-class to which very many of the large French organs
may be referred. In general, these are more picturesque than those
in Sub-class A, not that the absolute design is so, but that the
architectural effect of the window above the case makes a most
effective combination. In France, the usual window is a Rose, a form
I think the best for the termination of a nave or transept, and when
this is filled with stained glass, as is often the case, the effect is all
that can be desired. The organs in Amiens, Rheims, Troyes, and
Rouen Cathedrals, and also in Rouen in the Churches of St. Ouen
and St. Maclou, are first-class examples. This sub-class is rare in
England, few of our churches being sufficiently lofty to allow an
organ to stand in such a position.
Sub-class C. is employed to show the west window. Fair
examples are to be seen at St. Gudule, Bruxelles, and in Gray’s Inn
Chapel. Among the exceptional cases, that in the Cathedral Church
of St. Vitus at Prague, is one of the most curious, being cut up into
four divisions, and scattered about the west galleries; and for an ugly
style of exceptional case, there is one in a church in Ghent, about as
ugly as can well be wished.
Class II. This class, as I have mentioned before, is highly
picturesque, but is not very common. Good examples are to be seen
in Strasburg and Chartres Cathedrals, and in the Minster at Freiburg,
in Bresgau, all pendent in the nave; and there is a grand modern
example hanging in the north side of the Choir at Ely. Organs which
may be placed in this class are not uncommonly built against the
east wall of the Transept in large Belgian churches: one in the
cathedral church of St. Bavon, Ghent, is a good example. There
must be some difficulty in building a large instrument in this position,
and a lofty church is required to contain it.
Class III. may likewise be subdivided into two divisions: A. Single
Cases, often with a Choir Organ in front; and B. Divided Cases. Of
the former sub-class, the old organ in St. Paul’s was in every way a
fine example. The old organ in Durham Cathedral was the best of
Father Smith’s usual design, all his cases having a strong family
likeness, that at St Paul’s being almost the only exception. The case
on the Grand Screen in York Minster, although perhaps not in the
best taste, is effective; and of the latter sub-class, the organ in St.
Jacques, Antwerp, is excellent, and is worth the study of any one
who may have to erect a divided “Screen Organ.” The much-divided
organ case in Westminster Abbey I am Goth enough to call bad.
Class IV. The divisions of this class are numerous, and often
occur in modern churches. A. those standing on the floor against the
wall of the nave or chancel. St Mary’s, Nottingham, has a first-class
modern specimen, an amplification of the organ case in Strasburg
Cathedral. B. Those standing in the nave, aisle, or some corner. A
good example of an old case in the first position, is in St. Clement’s,
East Cheap; and the organ in All Hallows, Lombard Street, is a good
specimen of one in the second position. Both these instruments, not
so many years ago, stood in galleries at the west end of their
respective churches. C. Those in Organ Chambers, examples of
which, I am sorry to say, are common in new and restored Churches.
D. Those in Organ Chapels, which are rather better for effect than
those in Sub-class C. St. George’s, Doncaster, is an example of an
organ of the largest size in this position. E. Those standing free
under the arches of the Choir of a Cathedral or large church. In the
Cathedral at Hereford is a large modern organ in this position. F.
Organs with Divided cases. St. Paul’s and Durham Cathedral have
good examples of this form, which I fancy is modern and peculiar to
England.
In Italy and Spain, there are often two Great organs, one on
each side of the Choir or Nave, which arrangement, conjointly with a
double Choir of Singers, is capable of the grandest effects of
antiphonal music. As good examples in Italy, may be mentioned the
organs in Milan Cathedral on each side of the Choir, and those in
Como Cathedral on each side of the Nave. Those in Milan are
externally alike, and those in Como differ in appearance. In Spain,
two organs are usual in Cathedrals and large churches, and the two
organs in Seville Cathedral have magnificent cases.

Class I.—A. Filling the entire end of the building.

B. With a window or rose over.
C. Divided and exceptional cases.
„ II.—No subdivision.
„ III.—A. Single cases, or with choir in front.
B. Divided cases.
„ IV.—A. Against wall of nave or choir.
B. Standing in a corner, or in aisle of nave.
C. In organ chambers.
D. In organ chapels.
E. Under arches of choir.
F. Divided instruments.
 CHAPTER III.
WHAT A GOOD CASE SHOULD BE.

Style not necessarily Gothic.—Renaissance Style.—Tin Pipes

now seldom used.—An Organ Case need not correspond
with the Style of Architecture of the Building.—English Cases
during the last hundred years.—An Organ Case should be
good.—Unequal Number of Towers.—Ponts.—Oak and other
Woods.—Culs-de-Lampe.—Ornaments.—Arrangement of
Pipes.—Arrangement of Towers.

EFORE I proceed any further with this Chapter, I may as

well mention that I fear I may a little shock some persons
with my views of what is a good organ case. I have long
ceased to think that nothing but Gothic is correct, and feel
pleasure in looking at any style of architecture (excepting
the modern ultra-Gothic, and even this affords me a certain amount
of amusement). I have, when the Gothic fit was upon me, passed
many a fine organ with a mere glance, at which I should now look
with delight. When I see some of our modern Norman and Gothic
cases, I wonder what the men of the date which these make-believe
cases pretend to be would think of them. I suspect that they would
look at them with amazement. The illuminations in manuscripts do
not give us much help, and the drawings which they hand down to us
are those of very small instruments. Some few cases in the later
period of Gothic are in existence at Perpignan, Strasburg, Gonesse,
New Radnor, and in some few places in Germany, but with the
exception of the one at Strasburg, I have not been so fortunate as to
get a sight of any. With the advent of the Renaissance Style, organs
began to increase in size, so that larger and more architectural
cases were requisite, and we do not even now excel in design and
workmanship many of the old Flemish, Dutch, and French organs.
Carved oak is now an expensive luxury, and pipes of tin, with their
silver-like lustre, are things of the past. The price of tin, and the
cheap contract system, have a good deal to do with this state of
things; and town atmosphere seems to tarnish tin work in a very
short time: about Manchester it cannot be used, and at Rouen I have
seen bright pipe-work, which had been up but a few years, look as
tarnished as if it had been up for fifty years at least. I like an organ to
have a really good case; it is a large and necessary piece of furniture
in both church and concert-room; and I can see no reason why it
should not be in keeping with the building in which it stands. By this I
do not intend that its architectural style should be the same, but that
there should be a certain agreement together, and a fitness one for
the other. Viollet le Duc, I think, was wise in retaining the old
Renaissance case of the organ in Notre Dame (Paris), when the
whole of its contents were taken away, and an entirely new organ
erected in it. No man in France could have better designed a Gothic
case, but he preferred leaving the old work, which well suited its
position. In general all fittings of a later date than the building in
which they stand, if they are really good of their kind, should be
respected. Much new work, intended to be quite in keeping with the
building, and following precedent, is but little more than guesswork.
In an old Norman church, it would be I think foolish to erect a
Norman case: we have nothing to guide us as to what an organ was
like in outward appearance at that date, but we do know that it was a
rather rudely made affair, from “Theophilus’s Treatise on Organ
Building;” and we are equally at sea for any precedent for an early
Gothic organ. Late cases are here and there to be seen, and many
of them are handsome, but it was the builders of the Renaissance
Period who first erected those structures of carved wood, for the
abode of the noblest of instruments. For many years good cases
continued to be built; they never quite ceased erecting them in
France and Belgium; but I have nothing to say in favour of our
English cases for the last hundred years. We do better now, but I
look upon caseless organs, with their rows of painted pipes, as
something horrid. A good piano always has a good case; we do not
dream of buying, or the vendor of selling, a first-class instrument in a
paltry one; and why a really well-built and good-toned organ is put
into a plain deal varnished case, like a common cheap schoolroom
piano, is a puzzle to me. Father Smith appears to have had a pattern
case, which is excellent in outline, and suitable to all his organs,
large or small, except his chamber instruments, and Harris also
rarely departed from his one design, a very pretty one. The old
French builders appeared to have followed a few general rules, viz.,
that an organ should have an unequal number of towers, say three,
five, or seven; and if, as was usual, the Choir case stood in front, it
should have a smaller number of towers, say the Great case had
five, the Choir had three; that if the centre tower of the Great was the
tallest, the centre tower of the Choir should be the least, and vice
versâ; and very good rules these are. It was also their practice to
form the mouths of the pipes in the towers, different to those in the
flats, and the pipes in the towers stood on square blocks of wood
(ponts), whilst the pipes in the flats stood on plinths. These little
niceties add much to the appearance of an organ. Renatus Harris
used to finish his pipes in the French manner. I prefer oak to any
wood for case work. Polished ebonised wood with ormolu mouldings
(as at the Foundling) looks well, and good cabinet work has been
done in mahogany. Walnut and rosewood may do for chamber
instruments, but would have rather a harmonium look about them. If I
were building a drawing-room organ, I should certainly use oak, with
plenty of carving and no varnish; wax polish would perhaps be
advisable to tone down the new look, but with very fine sharp work
the wood should be left as it comes fresh from the carver’s hands. In
a cheap instrument plain deal with good varnish looks better than
painted wood, with or without stencilled patterns, and where the
large wood pipes are shown, they are best plain. The upper part of
the case being wider than the base (a very common arrangement in
old French instruments), is an improvement to its outline. Another
French usage, to support the large outer towers on giants, is good,
especially for their large cases; and “the culs-de-lampe,” or consoles
of the towers, are improved by sculptured heads, paniers of flowers,
or intricate open-work. I do not object to what I have heard called a
“covey” of plump cherubim. With respect to the mouldings, a little
departure from strict rules does not hurt, and it is best not to err on
the side of shallowness: bold projections and deep curves look well,
and circular towers should project rather more than half their
diameter; the cornices should certainly project boldly—recollect they
are wood, and rules for stone cornices need not be closely adhered
to, but they must not overhang each other (Chevaucher is the
French term), as that does not look well. Statues on the summits of
the towers I like to see, although of course they are a useless
expense; and there is a wide choice as to what they should be.
Angels with trumpets or harps are excellent. King David with his
harp, St. Cecilia with her organ, are very usual. Winged angels with
lutes are not uncommon on Flemish organs: the patron saint of the
church is correct. Pope Gregory, as the founder of the Catholic
chant; St. Ambrose, the writer of the “Te Deum;” Guido D’Arezzo, the
inventor of the gamut, and several others may be mentioned as fit
subjects for statuary work. Crowns and mitres for Church and State
are good terminals for an English organ, and the arms of the reigning
sovereign can well be introduced in the carving: for a good example,
see the old organ in St. Paul’s. The shades (claires voies) of an
organ should be well carved, and in some designs the introduction of
winged angel heads is very suitable: in general they should be left
plain; gilding clashes with bright tin, and offers no contrast with gilt
pipes. In the north of Europe the tops of the pipes are concealed by
the shades, but in Italy they are free, and it is an open question
which mode is the best. Either of these arrangements is better than
the tops of the pipes shewing above the case with fanciful crowns on
them. The northern mode saves a little in height, which sometimes is
an advantage. Carved open-work or wings at the sides of the organ,
though useless, are often picturesque; occasionally they hide large
wood pipes posted outside the case, which are, in general, additions
to the original contents, and then they are useful.
For effect, the wood-work should not fill the entire breadth of the
space in which the organ stands, but shew itself as a case, and not
as a screen to hide the internal arrangements. The case at Lucerne,
good as the work is, fails in this particular: it is a screen at the west
end of the church, to hide the organ, not a case for it. English organs
often err in the reverse manner, and look like square boxes. A
broader and shallower form is preferable, but English feeling is, I am
afraid, in favour of the square form. The case at Haarlem has been
quoted as spoiling the tone of the instrument, and on the other hand,
a French writer on the organ, C. M. Philbert, states, “Un artiste
habitant Paris nous disait, ces jours derniers, qu’en payant le prix
fixé pour les auditions particulières de l’orgue de Haarlem, on ne
payait pas trop cher, ne fût-ce que le seul plaisir d’en admirer la
magnificence extérieure.” I tried at Haarlem to detect if the tone were
smothered by the case, but could not in the least perceive any such
defect. The quality is very mellow, which is very pleasing to the ear,
and is without the harshness which now-a-days is called boldness of
tone. Towers boldly projecting, either half circular or pointed, are an
improvement to the design of a case. Flat towers, which in general
are flush with the flats, or only project slightly, although used in some
few cases, do not give that play of light and shade which is so
effective in a design. Where shutters, curtains, or blinds, are used,
projecting towers are in the way; but in Holland are to be seen small
cases with shutters, which follow all the ins-and-outs of cases much
broken in plan. They must be difficult to make and to keep from
warping, and when large must be troublesome to open or close.
Opinions are divided as to the usefulness of these appendages to an
organ, no doubt they are often most picturesque.
 CHAPTER IV.
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE PIPES.

Number of the Pipes.—Not all of the Same Height.—Two Tiers

of Pipes.—Oval and Circular Openings.—Pipes arranged in
Perspective.—Carved Panels.—Inverted Pipes.—Double
Pipes.—Projecting Mouths.—Fancy Mouldings on Pipes.—
Pipes, gilt—diapered—painted—tin—bronzed.—Tubes of
Reed Stops projecting horizontally.—Tuba at York.

HE usual number of pipes in each tower is in England

three, in France five, and in Germany seven (in the Tyrol,
flat towers with seven pipes are the rule); but to these
numbers there are many exceptions. Towers with two
stories of pipes are in use in Holland, Belgium, and
Germany, but I cannot call to mind any in England or in France. In
general the number of pipes in the upper story exceeds that of the
lower. A single pipe either forming a compartment, or projecting so
as to form a tower, is not a good feature, except when, as in some of
the North German organs, a thirty-two feet pipe is used as a tower.
In some flat towers, four pipes are inserted instead of five; but an
uneven number, I think, is more satisfactory to the eye. It does not
look well for all the pipes in a compartment to be of the same height,
and it is still worse when all the flats are alike: for this reason the
organ in Exeter Hall is ugly, and good as the case is in Rouen
Cathedral, it would be much improved if some gradation in the pipe
lengths were introduced into its four similar compartments.
In the flats, two tiers of pipes are common in English and Dutch
organs, and in Holland more often appear in large cases. Oval and
circular openings for pipes are used in England, and more rarely in
France: it is an artificial mode of arranging pipe work. There are a
few examples of pipes being arranged to form a perspective, which
may be looked upon as a fanciful conceit. Panels carved to give the
same effect are not quite so outré. In Holland and North Germany,
inverted pipes are to be met with: they in general stand on the wood
framing, but at Perpignan (France) there is a flat of inverted pipes
which hang from the case by their feet. I fancy that in general these
are shams, but an inverted pipe would not be liable to be choked
with dust. In Dutch fronts occasionally double pipes, or what may be
more correctly styled two pipes with their feet joined together, are
used: those that I have seen were dummies, as no means of
supplying them with wind was to be seen. Projecting mouths are a
great finish to large pipes. French builders are often very good at this
work; but it may be overdone, as in the new organ in Chester
Cathedral, where the mouths are certainly exaggerated. Old French
builders sometimes inserted a few pipes with various fancy
mouldings about them, brightened with paint. The organ of Gonesse
has some, and two are preserved as curiosities in the Museum at
Beauvais. Pipes with their surface hammered into facets are rare. At
Hertogenbosch, the centre pipes of the towers are so treated, and
are also plain gilt; but that in the central tower is parcel gilt. Belgian
and Dutch organs often have the mouths of their bright tin pipes gilt,
which has a good effect. I have no great liking for diapered (painted
or illuminated) pipes, even if it has taken a fortnight to paint each, as
has lately been done; it gives the idea that it is necessary to hide bad
workmanship, or poor metal. Coronals to the pipes, however
elaborate, had best be eschewed, although in caseless organs they
give a sort of finish to the pipes. But after all I have said against
painted pipes, one cannot help liking the bright appearance of a
small case, with well-coloured pipes, even if one doubts how it will
look after a few years, when the freshness has departed. Plain
gilding perhaps looks well longer than anything else. Tin pipes, when
dull, have a very neglected look; and nothing can look worse than
bronzed pipes. In Spain, it is the custom to place the Reed Stops so
that their tubes project horizontally, or at an angle from the case: this
A
throws out their sound. This arrangement is not common in
England, but might be adopted with good effect both for tone and
appearance. The Tuba at York, projecting from the west façade of
the organ, is most satisfactory in both respects; any arranging of
trumpets, like a fan or half-circle at the top of the case, is as well
avoided.

A
At Leeds, the pipes of the solo portion of the
Town-hall Organ are entirely placed horizontally,
and it is stated that this increases their power
from 20 to 30 per cent.