Energy and carbon content

Hydrogen is the fuel of choice for fuel cell vehicles. Hydrogen has to be highly compressed. The
2016 Toyota Mirai uses 700 bar or 70.7 MPa pressure for the 5 kg of hydrogen on board.
Significant additional vehicle volume is required for the storage components and required
ancillaries
The specific energy and the energy density of the Li-ion battery pack are approximately 76 times
and 23 times lower than gasoline, respectively. Thus, battery packs have to be relatively
large and heavy in order to store sufficient energy for EVs to compete with IC engine
vehicles..
Carbon emissions from fuel
 CO2 Emissions calculations
• The atomic mass unit of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are 12, 1, and 16,
respectively. Thus, the atomic weight of C8H18 is 114 atomic mass units
(amu), calculated as follows:

The relative difference of the molecular weights

means that :
for every 1 kg of C8H18 fuel consumed in a thermochemical
reaction,

352/ 114 ×1kg=3.09 kg of carbon dioxide is

produced.
MPGE
 Grid emission calculations
• Determine the carbon emissions from the electrical grid in
• gm CO2/kWh(electrical) if 35% of the electricity comes from coal and
40% comes from gas, with the balance being carbon-free nuclear,
hydroelectric, and renewables.
• Adjust higher by 20% to allow for fuel production and distribution and
electricity transmission and distribution.
• Representative power plant efficiency values are:
• η coal = 38% for coal plants and
• η gas =50% for gas plants.
• Carbon emissions for coal and gas are presented in table.
Pure Electric Vehicle (BEV)

The BEV transforms the chemical energy of the battery into mechanical energy using
an electric drive.
The electric drive features an inverter, electric motor, and controls.
The inverter converts the dc of the battery to the ac waveforms required to optimally
power the electric motor.
While the BEV is very efficient in onboard energy conversion, the battery range may
be limited due to the low battery energy density.
 Problem
• A battery electric vehicle has the following attributes:
• Coefficient of rolling resistance Cr = 0.0085 and vehicle mass of 2000
kg.
• Instantaneously at a vehicle speed of 60 km/h,
• Calculate:
• The rolling resistance and the power required to overcome the
resistance.
• Let g = 9.81 m/s2
 Rolling resistance power
•
 Rolling resistance power for train coach
•
 Drag calculations
•
Solution

No wind
With wind blowing
 Drag and Fuel consumption
•
 Example
• • Tesla S vehicle has an available
battery energy of 90 kWh.
• Let the efficiency of the
powertrain from the battery
to the transmission be 85%.
An estimate of the vehicle
range based on the vehicle
parameters of the Tesla Model
S is plotted as a function of
speed .
• The approximate range drops
from about 800 km at 70 km/h
to 360 km at 140 km/h.
 BEV range at constant speed (rough
• Tesla S vehicle has an available
estimate)
battery energy of 90 kWh.
• Let the efficiency of the
powertrain from the battery
to the transmission be 85%.
An estimate of the vehicle
range based on the vehicle
parameters of the Tesla Model
S is plotted as a function of
speed .
• The approximate range drops
from about 800 km at 70 km/h
to 360 km at 140 km/h.
Effect of HVAC load on range
•
Gradability
•
 Regeneration potential
• The Tesla Model S is traveling down a −6° slope at 120 km/h (33.33 m/s).
• Assuming calm conditions, how much regenerative power is available to
brake the vehicle while maintaining a constant speed?
 Computation of rated values
• The rated motor torque and power of the electric motor of the 2015
Nissan Leaf are 254 Nm and 80 kW respectively.
• Determine the rated speeds of the electric motor and vehicle.
 Nissan leaf calculations
The rated motor torque and power of the electric motor of the
2015 Nissan Leaf are 254 Nm and 80 kW respectively

•
 Example
• Estimate the 0 to 60 mph acceleration time and energy for the Nissan
Leaf. Ignore all road loads and the internal moment of inertia. Assume a
gear efficiency of 97%.
• Ans.: The vehicle speed v in m/s is given by

9.18 s for the acceleration time from zero to 60 mph compares reasonably to the simulation and
experimental values of approximately 10.8 s and 11.5 s, respectively.
 Nissan leaf calculations
The rated motor torque and power of the electric motor of the
2015 Nissan Leaf are 254 Nm and 80 kW respectively

•
Simplified drive cycle
Typical calculation for Nissan leaf
 Wheel radius calculation from specs.
• The tire of the Tesla Model S is specified as follows:
245/45YR19.
• The standard tire for the Tesla is 245 mm wide as
per the first numbers.
• The aspect ratio is 0.45, and so the tire height is the
width times the aspect ratio
• 245 mm × 0.45 = 110.3 mm.
• The wheel rim diameter, or the internal tire
diameter, is 19 inches (× 25.4 mm =
• 482.6 mm).
• The tire diameter is twice the height plus the rim,
or 2 × 110.3mm + 482.6 mm =
• 703.2 mm.
• The tire radius is half the diameter, r = 351.6 mm.
 Battery sizing example
•
Solution
 Battery sizing for PHEV
•
 We repeat the above exercise for an enhanced-lifetime
battery for use in a PHEV with a cycle lifetime index L =
Solution 3. A single string of batteries is assumed.
 Determining the Pack Voltage Range for a
BEV
• What is the voltage range for the 33.3 Ah Li-ion
cell when used in a BEV application with a DOD
of 0% to 100%?
• What is the battery pack voltage range if 192
cells are arranged in series-parallel with 2
strings of 96 each?
 Answer
The cell voltage is 4.18V at 0% DOD and is 2.5 V when fully discharged.
• The 192 cells arranged in series-parallel results in the equivalent of 96
cells in series.
• Thus, we simply multiply the cell voltage range of 2.5 V to 4.18 V by
96, yielding a pack voltage ranging from 240 V when fully discharged
to 401 V when fully charged.
 Fast Charging example
• 24 kWh battery pack can be fast charged from 0% to 80% SOC in 30
min. Determine the approximate charge current and power in order
to achieve this charge time.
• Charge reqd. 24x 0.8= 19.2 kWh (reqd in 30 minutes).
• Thus, the battery has to be recharged at an average rate of
approximately 2 x 19.2 kW = 38.4 kW net in order to recharge the
pack in 30 min.
• Nominal battery pack voltage is 360V.
• Average charge current is 38.4 kW/360 V or 107 A.
Determine the Cell/Pack Voltage for a Given Output\Input Power
• If the DOD is known, then the cell voltage is simply

as the no-load voltage Vb(nl) is a function of the DOD. The

current is positive for discharging and negative for
charging. If the battery input or output power Pb is known,
as often is the case, then the current and terminal voltage
are easily determined by solving the following quadratic
equation:
For Discharge

Fotr
For Charge
Example - Discharge

• A battery has 96 cells in series per string with two parallel strings.
Each cell has a no-load voltage of 4.18 V and an internal resistance of
2.8 mΩ.
• i) Determine the pack current and voltage under a 80 kW discharge if
the battery is fully charged.
• ii) Determine the discharge efficiency of the battery.
Answer
Example- Charge
• Determine the pack current and voltage under a 50 kW charge if the
battery is fully discharged.
• The cell voltage drops to 2.5 V when fully discharged. How efficient is
the charging of the battery at this power level?
Answer
 Cell Capacity calculation
• The usable battery capacity drops as the C rate increases. This is
basically due to the increased resistive losses at the higher discharge
rates.
• Note that the following approach to estimating the cell energy of a
battery works for the Li-ion cells but is not generally applicable to
other battery chemistries.
 Cell capacity calculation
• The capacity of the cell is approximately 33.3 Ah at C/3 with a rated
voltage of 3.75 V. Determine the capacity at 3C. Assume Rb = 2.8 mΩ.
Power density and efficiency
 Example – Sizing of fuel cell stack
•
Example: Sizing Fuel Cell System for Heavy GoodsTractor–Trailer
Combination
•
 Example
• Determine the fuel mass flow
rate, output power, and engine
efficiency for the 1997 Toyota
Prius engine at 80 Nm and 2000
rpm.

• Assume that the petrol used

has a specific energy of 42.6 kJ/g
and a density of 0.749 kg/L.
Answer
 Fuel economy of Series EV
• The electric drive is used to
propel the vehicle. The
Atkinson-cycle IC engine is
only used to recharge the
battery. A generating
efficiency of 85% is also
assumed for the engine
output through the
generator and inverter to
recharge the battery. The
engine is operated at its
optimum efficiency point in
order to supply the required
energy to the battery.