See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/337389513

Effects of employees' personality and attachment on job flow experience

relevant to organizational commitment and consumer-oriented behavior

Article in Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management · November 2019

DOI: 10.1016/j.jhtm.2019.09.010

CITATIONS READS

39 10,952

4 authors:

Myung Ja Kim Mark A. Bonn

Kyung Hee University Florida State University
106 PUBLICATIONS 5,395 CITATIONS 101 PUBLICATIONS 5,403 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Choong-Ki Lee Jinok Susanna Kim

Kyung Hee University Hanyang University
320 PUBLICATIONS 17,947 CITATIONS 20 PUBLICATIONS 261 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Myung Ja Kim on 20 November 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm

Effects of employees’ personality and attachment on job flow experience T

relevant to organizational commitment and consumer-oriented behavior
Myung Ja Kima, Mark Bonnb, Choong-Ki Leea,∗, Jinok Susanna Kimc
a
The College of Hotel & Tourism Management, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
b
Dedman School of Hospitality & Tourism Management, Florida State University, 1 Champions Way, Suite 4115, Tallahassee, FL, 32306-2541, USA
c
The Department of Airline Service, Sehan University, 33 Sehandae-gil, Sinpyeong-myeon, Dangjin-si, Chungcheongnam-do, 31746, Republic of Korea

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Although scholars have been interested in the relationships between various personality types and flow ex-
personality theory perience, research has neglected to examine consumer-oriented behavior from the standpoint of employee at-
Attachment theory tachment styles when placed within specific types of hospitality settings. To address this gap, a comprehensive
Job flow experience framework based on theories of personality and attachment was developed and tested to examine the effects that
Organization commitment
five personality types, in combination with job flow experience, organizational commitment, and consumer-
Consumer-oriented behavior
Casino industry
oriented behavior have upon frontline casino service employees, when moderated by anxiety and avoidance
attachment. Results reveal that employee personalities involving openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and
neuroticism have significant effects on job flow experience, which, in turn, positively influences employee or-
ganizational commitment and consumer-oriented behavior. Anxiety attachment moderates the relationships
between these five personalities and job flow experience. Avoidance attachment was found to moderate the
relationships between four of the five personality traits and job flow experience.

1. Introduction
For several decades, the high employee turnover rate in tourism and
hospitality industries has been a primary issue of focus because of the
high costs associated with decreased productivity and reduced effi-
ciency, as well as the costs incurred by having to recruit and train new
employees (Agrusa & Lema, 2007; Bonn & Forbringer, 1992; Fortino &
Ninemeier, 1996; Li, Kim, & Zhao, 2017; Stedham & Mitchell, 1996;
Wan & Chan, 2013). Turnover rates associated with the US hospitality
industry as a whole have been reported to range from an average of
30% for managers, up to 300% for front-line service employees (Fortino
& Ninemeier, 1996). Research conducted on specific U.S. hospitality
business segments such as the casino industry, reported employee
turnover rates to 70–80% (Agrusa & Lema, 2007). Studies documented
that casino employees defect their workplace due to low job satisfac-
tion, poor working conditions, and a general lack of motivation to work
(Stedham & Mitchell, 1996; Wan & Chan, 2013). Accordingly, building
and maintaining employee commitment and combating high employee
turnover rates has been an all-encompassing concern for the casino
industry (Li et al., 2017). In particular, the Korean casino industry is
recognized as being a leading contributor of revenue generation at-
tributed to gaming and related tourism expenditures, which in turn,
helps support salaries and wages through job creation and employment
(Korean Casino Association, 2016; Tourism & Leisure Industry Skills
Council, 2017).
Despite the importance of retaining service employees in the casino
industry, research addressing employee retention has not explored how
casino employees’ personalities and their associated attachment con-
tribute to predicting their behavior associated with turnover. To bridge
this gap, this study investigates whether personalities and attachments
of frontline casino employees can predict their job flow experience,
organizational commitment, and consumer oriented-behavior, by ap-
plying theories of personality and attachments, which will eventually
lead to decreasing turnover rate, operating costs, and increased con-
sumer satisfaction with the gaming experience.
Previous research confirms that a five-dimensional personality en-
compassing openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness,
and neuroticism can be successfully employed to describe the most
salient aspects of all human traits (Goldberg, 1990). These specific
personality tendencies, which significantly influence a person's
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, are inborn as well as developed
throughout one's lifespan (McCrae & Costa, 2008). Prior literature
supports these personality traits as having a significant impact upon
employee job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991, 1993; Hurtz &

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: silver@khu.ac.kr (M.J. Kim), mbonn@dedman.fsu.edu (M. Bonn), cklee@khu.ac.kr (C.-K. Lee), s2924@sehan.ac.kr (J.S. Kim).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2019.09.010
Received 3 April 2019; Received in revised form 11 August 2019; Accepted 30 September 2019
1447-6770/ © 2019 CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. Published by Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
M.J. Kim, et al.
Donovan, 2000) and influencing the consumers' perception of service
quality (Teng, Huang, & Tsai, 2007). Scholars also assert the im-
portance these personality traits play in portraying employee tech-
nology use (Buckner, Castille, & Sheets, 2012), job outcomes (Harris &
Fleming, 2007), absenteeism (Judge, Martocchio, & Thoresen, 1997),
engagement (Kim, Shin, & Swanger, 2009), and cross cultural validity
(Yoon, Schmidt, & Ilies, 2002).
Moreover, research has found the significant relationships between
personality traits and an individual's flow experience (Heller,
Bullerjahn, & Von Georgi, 2015; Huang, Huang, Chou, & Teng, 2017;
Ullén et al., 2012). Flow experience is “a state of consciousness where
people become totally immersed in an activity, and enjoy it intensely”
(Bakker, 2008, p. 400). Research reveals that individuals more often
experience a flow state during work than during discretionary time
periods (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The job flow experience is found to
be particularly related to active, low-stress job tasks (Fagerlind,
Gustavsson, Johansson, & Ekberg, 2013), and job performance (Bakker,
2008; Demerouti, 2006). Despite those numerous significant findings
related to the five personality types and employee job flow experience,
research addressing casino organizations and the relationships between
these personality types and employee flow experience has been ne-
glected.
Studies stating the significance of job flow experience upon em-
ployees’ organizational commitment are well-documented when ad-
dressing team performance (Aubé, Brunelle, & Rousseau, 2014), tea-
chers and students (Bakker, 2005), and job well-being (Ceja & Navarro,
2012; Rivkin, Diestel, & Schmidt, 2018). In addition, scholars have
verified the important linkage between job flow experience and con-
sumer-oriented behavior applied to social media environments
(Carlson, de Vries, Rahman, & Taylor, 2017), job characteristics and
satisfaction (Demerouti, 2006), and online financial service providers
(Ding, Hu, Verma, & Wardell, 2010).
Researchers have also provided evidence pertaining to the critical
impact of employees' consumer-oriented behavior in the hospitality
industry (Choi, Kim, Lee, & Lee, 2014; Kang & Hyun, 2011; Tajeddini &
Trueman, 2012). Although these studies within the tourism and hos-
pitality setting have documented the significant role of personality
types upon job flow experience, organizational commitment, and
Fig. 1. Proposed research model.
157
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170
consumer-oriented behavior, research on cause and effect relationships
within the context of frontline casino employees has yet to be ad-
dressed. Additionally, studies involving a number of disciplines have
further substantiated that individual personality traits are significantly
and differently associated with various degrees of anxiety and avoid-
ance attachment styles (Bakker, van Oudenhoven, & van der Zee, 2004;
Chotai, Jonasson, Hägglöf, & Adolfsson, 2005; Deniz, 2011; Jenkins-
Guarnieri, Wright, & Hudiburgh, 2012). Moreover, anxiety and avoid-
ance attachment styles are proven to play critical moderating roles in
social relationships for seeking/giving individual support (Lee, 2013;
Simpson, Rholes, & Nellig, 1992). However, little research has been
conducted with respect to the moderating role of attachment styles on
the five personality types of employees within the context of the hos-
pitality and tourism industries although the significant moderating ef-
fect of employees’ attachment styles on their personality types influ-
ences their behavior. Hence, this study investigates the moderating
effect of anxiety and avoidance attachment styles between the five
personality types of frontline casino service employees and their job
flow experience which in turn influences consumer-oriented service
behavior.
In particular, theories of personalities and attachments are key
factors to explain organizational behavior within hospitality and
tourism industry components representing hotels (Akgunduz, Alkan, &
Gök, 2018), restaurants (Crawford, Hubbard, O'Neill, & Guarino, 2009),
and casinos (Wu & Cheng, 2018). The importance of individual per-
sonalities and attachment has been well-substantiated in the hospitality
and tourism academic literature regarding consumer behaviors (Kim,
Bonn, Lee, & Hahn, 2018a; Kim, Lee, Petrick, & Hahn, 2018b). How-
ever, studies on the integrated theories (personality and attachment)
and employees' behaviors have been overlooked within these domains.
To address this gap, the objective of this study is to build and test a
comprehensive research model by applying personality and attachment
theories to explore frontline casino service employees' behavior. Ac-
cordingly this study examines the relationships among personality
types (antecedents), job flow experience and organizational commit-
ment (mediators), consumer oriented behavior (the dependent vari-
able), and attachment styles (moderators) in the Korean casino business
setting (see Fig. 1).
M.J. Kim, et al.
In sum, a dearth of research exists regarding personality traits of
frontline casino service employees and the moderating roles of at-
tachment styles even though theories of personality and attachment
play critical roles in the behavior of employees. Hence, our research
contributes to the relevant literature addressing casino front line em-
ployee turnover by developing a theoretical framework based person-
ality and attachment. Moreover, we expect that our research provides
useful insights for the casino industry with respect to recruitment of
frontline service employees to match job roles with their personality
traits and attachment styles, along with factors of commitment and
consumer-oriented behavior for increased retention.
2. Literature review
2.1. Casino industry and its employees
Casino industry revenues are greater than the revenues generated by
other hospitality industries; however, from the public health viewpoint,
problem gambling places some responsibility directly upon casino
business operations (Breen, Buultjens, & Hing, 2006; Io, 2016; Lam &
Lei, 2010; Lee, Lee, Bernhard, & Yoon, 2006; Lei & Lam, 2015; Luo,
Wong, & Xiao, 2019). Specifically, the casino industry has continued to
grow worldwide, which generally increases tourists and direct spending
to those specific locations in which they are built (Guchait, Abbott, Lee,
Back, & Manoharan, 2019). Nevertheless, frontline casino employees
are subject to the physically demanding nature of their jobs, low and
unpredictable wages due to seasonal fluctuations, and shift work that
leaves little time for non-work commitments, such as time for family,
friends, and personal health care (Li et al., 2017). As a result, the casino
industry turnover rate has been extremely high, attributed in part, to
intensive emotional labor situations involving extended hours as com-
pared to other hospitality businesses (e.g., restaurants, hotels, airlines)
(Agrusa & Lema, 2007; Stedham & Mitchell, 1996; Wan & Chan, 2013).
Thus, in the context of casino employees, their organizational com-
mitment and job satisfaction are important, which in turn lead to effects
upon customer oriented behavior (Song, Lee, Lee, & Song, 2015).
Consequently, to better retain frontline casino employees, this study
applies the theories of personality traits and attachment styles to
identify the effects that eventually contribute to benefits received by
the casino industry, its employees, and consumers participating in
gaming activities.
2.2. Personality theory
McDougal (1932) suggests that personality may be broadly analyzed
into distinguishable but inseparable factors, namely, intellect, char-
acter, temperament, and disposition, defined as the personality traits of
an individual's character based on personality theory. Since personality
is reflected in occupational choice and the type of travel and tourism
experience chosen, people select holidays, destinations, activities, and
associations having personalities similar to their own (Hurtz &
Donovan, 2000). One specific personality model known as the OCEAN
model (see Fig. 2) includes five dimensions representing openness (O),
conscientiousness (C), extraversion (E), agreeableness (A), and neuro-
ticism (N) (Goldberg et al., 2006; International Personality Item Pool,
2017; McCrae & Costa, 2003). These five personality traits provide “a
useful set of very broad dimensions that characterize individual dif-
ferences and can be measured with high reliability and impressive va-
lidity, providing a good answer to the question of personality structure”
(Digman, 1990, p. 436). Hospitality scholars have expressed some in-
terest in the application of the OCEAN personality traits regarding
consumer social media content creation (Yoo & Gretzel, 2011), emo-
tional responses of hotel guests (Jani & Han, 2015), tourists' Internet
search behavior (Jani, Jang, & Hwang, 2014), and burnout and en-
gagement involving restaurant employees (Kim et al., 2009).
158
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170
With respect to the relationship between personality traits and
employee absenteeism, research finds that conscientiousness and ex-
traversion can be used to accurately predict absenteeism, and that the
relationships between employees and their absence are partially
mediated through absence history (Judge et al., 1997). From a theo-
retical perspective, personalities transcend cultural differences: OCEAN
personality traits are enlightening workers' behaviors in South Korea
(hereafter Korea) as well as explaining the behaviors associated with
American employees (Yoon et al., 2002). When placed within the
context of financial services, these personality traits are also proven to
significantly influence outcomes of the service delivery, organizational
commitment, job satisfaction, and intent to leave (Harris & Fleming,
2007). The personality ‘conscientiousness’ is shown to be negatively
associated with Internet use problems, suggesting that some aspects of
these personality types may be useful in better understanding why
certain employees are predisposed to evolving problems (Buckner et al.,
2012). Drawing on the literature review above, we investigate the ef-
fects of these five personality types on job flow experience related to
organizational commitment and consumer-oriented behavior among
frontline casino service employees.
2.3. Attachment theory
Attachment theory is extended “to pertain to developmental
changes in the nature of children's attachments to parents and surrogate
figures during the years beyond infancy, and to the nature of other
affectional bonds throughout the life cycle” (Ainsworth, 1989, p. 709).
In the adult attachment context, attachment style can be defined as “the
propensity to establish affectional bonds with other people and to guide
behavior and perception in relationships” (Bowlby, 1977, p. 201). Adult
attachment styles (e.g., secure, anxious/ambivalent, avoidant) differ
significantly in the manner in which people experience loving affection,
and associate with the significant structures of one's self as well as with
social associations (Hazan & Shaver, 1987). Despite the importance of
casino employees' behavior being dependent on those particular per-
sonality traits (Hing & Breen, 2008), models addressing frontline casino
employee attachment styles are scare. Thus, this study introduces a new
model of anxiety and avoidance attachment styles for testing frontline
casino service employees' predispositions. “Four prototypic attachment
patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (po-
sitive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative)” as shown
in Fig. 3 (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991, p. 226). Attachment styles
are evaluated via multiple measures using self and friend report scores,
resulting in a new four-group model of attachment patterns
(Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991).
Attachment styles moderate spontaneous behavior: persons having a
secure style behave differently compared to persons having an avoidant
style when seeking/giving emotional support, physical contact, and
supportive comments (Simpson et al., 1992). Avoidance attachment
style is shown to have a negative effect upon bonding/bridging social
capital, while bonding/bridging social capital described by social media
users appear to be highest under low anxiety and low avoidance (Lee,
2013). In the tourism context, Kim, Lee, and Bonn (2017a) identify the
moderating role of anxiety attachment between travel consumers' mo-
tivations and flow experience in mobile social network sites. Two pre-
vious studies in particular found attachment as being a key moderator
between festival quality and behavioral intentions (Kim, Lee, & Lee,
2017b) and also between OCEAN personalities and expo attachment
(Kim et al., 2018a). As well, one additional study found international
event visitors’ behavioral intentions were moderated by their attach-
ment style (Kim et al., 2018b).
2.4. Job flow experience
Flow experience is defined as “the state in which people are so
M.J. Kim, et al.
Fig. 2. The five dimensional OCEAN personality trait model.
intensely involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the
experience itself is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost,
for the sheer sake of doing it” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 4). There is
the paradoxical situation of individuals having much more positive
feelings during work than during discretionary time periods
(Csikszentmihalyi & Lefevre, 1989). Job flow experience is enjoyment,
intrinsic motivation, and absorption that happen in circumstances in-
volving high challenges as well as with highly skilled employees
(Fagerlind et al., 2013). The balance over challenges and skills also
impacts educators' flow experience of absorption, intrinsic work moti-
vation, and work enjoyment (Bakker, 2005). Job motivation char-
acteristics for conscientious employees can predict flow experience,
whereas flow experience predicts in-role as well as extra-role perfor-
mance (Demerouti, 2006). Regarding a short-term ultimate experience
with their job, flow is utilized within the work setting of employees
(Bakker, 2008). Drawing upon this literature review, our current study
considers job flow experience as an important mediator between
frontline casino employees' personality traits and their organizational
commitment as well as between those casino employees’ personality
traits and their consumer-oriented behavior.
Fig. 3. The four attachment style categories.
159
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170
2.5. Consumer-oriented behavior
Consumer-oriented behavior is defined as “the ultimate aim of
service excellence in employees’ behavior towards consumers, and the
general nature has been characterized as more personalized, flexible,
and receptive to individual consumer demands” (Peccei & Rosenthal,
2001, p. 837). Consumer-oriented behavior implies specific behaviors
by service employees during service encounters, and such behavior
leads to highly satisfied consumers (Winsted, 2000). Consumer-oriented
behavior includes both positive and negative cues. Through the lens of
consumers, negative perceptions of service providers may represent
such examples as “acting arrogantly, getting annoyed with, or ignoring
consumers” (Mechinda & Patterson, 2011, p. 103). In contrast, positive
consumer-oriented behavior portrays the notion of “congeniality, and
relates to visual cues such as smiling, being happy, cheerful and en-
thusiastic” (Mechinda & Patterson, 2011, p. 103). Consumer orientation
can lead to consumer-oriented behaviors, and organizations with higher
levels of aggregate consumer-oriented behaviors are shown to have
higher sales revenues that may become more profitable (Grizzle,
Zablah, Brown, Mowen, & Lee, 2009).
M.J. Kim, et al.
In order to generate a positive consumption experience within the
luxury restaurant context, consumer-oriented behavior refers to a ser-
vice employee's ability to interpret and satisfy consumer moods (Kang &
Hyun, 2011). Consumer-oriented behavior is necessary in the lodging
industry, since frontline service employees and supervisors have to
meet current and future consumer wants in order to positively influence
consumer satisfaction (Tajeddini & Trueman, 2012). Consumer-or-
iented behavior is recognized as being a critical variable in hospitality
industries such as travel agencies, hotels, and restaurants (Choi et al.,
2014). Based upon this literature review, consumer-oriented behavior
for frontline casino service employees is deemed to be very important as
a key target variable in this large revenue-generating industry segment.
2.6. Hypotheses development
2.6.1. Relationships between five personalities and job flow experience
Personality traits predict employees’ engagement in their job re-
garding fast food restaurants, showing that conscientiousness is posi-
tively related to job involvement, while neuroticism demonstrates a
negative job involvement relationship (Kim et al., 2009). Personalities
are significantly associated with task flow state: the linkage of neuro-
ticism with flow inclination is negative, yet positive pertaining to the
linkage of conscientiousness with flow inclination (Ullén et al., 2012).
Significant correlations exist between personality traits and flow ex-
perience in settings regarding musical practices where it was found that
students having greater extraversion tendencies have more flow ex-
perience compared to their counterparts. In contrast, students with
greater neuroticism tendencies were found to exhibit a lesser flow state
(Heller et al., 2015). Personality traits can also significantly influence
the flow experiences of online gamers, which in turn lead to their in-
creased loyalty (Huang et al., 2017). Within the context of expo parti-
cipants, OCEAN personalities were found to play key roles to enhance
expo attachment (Kim et al., 2018a). Based upon this literature review,
we propose the following hypotheses regarding casino employees:
H1. OCEAN personality traits have directly significant effects on job
flow experience.
H1a. Openness has a significant effect on job flow experience.
H1b. Conscientiousness has a significant effect on job flow experience.
H1c. Extraversion has a significant effect on job flow experience.
H1d. Agreeableness has a significant effect on job flow experience.
H1e. Neuroticism has a significant effect on job flow experience.
2.6.2. Relationship between job flow experience and organizational
commitment
An employee's commitment to their organization can be best de-
termined by using a multi-dimensional approach that involves affective
(emotional attachment), continuance (costs associated with leaving),
and normative components (feelings of an obligation to remain) (Allen
& Meyer, 1990; Gonzalez & Denisi, 2009; Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993).
Research addressing organizational commitment to the casino industry
also includes understanding the employee's psychological affection to
an organization in combination with their stability and feelings of be-
longingness (Song et al., 2015). Flow experience in the work place in-
fluences an employee's well-being and better explains organizational
commitment and the psychological mechanisms in an employee's hap-
piness (Ceja & Navarro, 2012). Regarding teamwork, members with
higher flow experience have a higher team goal of commitment (Aubé
et al., 2014). Flow experience at work leads to affective commitment,
which in turn produces employee well-being (Rivkin et al., 2018).
Drawing upon the literature review above, this study posits the fol-
lowing hypothesis among casino employees:
H2. Job flow experience has a significant effect upon organizational
160
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170
commitment.
2.6.3. Relationship between job flow experience and consumer-oriented
behavior
Research conducted in the Netherlands documents that job flow
experience predicts an individuals' job performance regarding con-
scientious employees in various industries as well as with various work
positions (Demerouti, 2006). Within the context of online financial
services, employees’ flow experiences (i.e., perceived control, focused
attention, interactivity, and challenge) are shown to have positively
significant effects on consumer satisfaction (Ding et al., 2010). Flow
experiences have a significant impact on favorable consumer behavior
that benefits the brand and consumer involvement value in the online
situation (Kumar et al., 2010). In branded social media settings, en-
gineering flow experience generate consumer involvement value crea-
tion (Carlson et al., 2017), implying that job flow experience influences
consumer-oriented behavior. In association with the literature cited
above, we propose the following hypothesis with respect to casino
employees:
H3. Job flow experience has a significant effect on consumer-oriented
behavior.
2.6.4. Relationship between organizational commitment and consumer-
oriented behavior
Research indicates that service providers having a strong organi-
zational commitment tend to demonstrate positive interactions with
their patrons, resulting in business profits (MacKenzie, Podsakoff, &
Ahearne, 1998). Additional research findings show that the organiza-
tional commitment of hospital nurses positively influences consumer-
oriented behavior regarding in role- and extra-role consumer service
(Hsu, Chang, Huang, & Chiang, 2011). For frontline employees, the
more organizationally committed an employee is, the more-consumer
oriented the employee would be (Ifie, 2014). Casino employees' orga-
nizational commitment positively influences work satisfaction that
leads to consumer-orientation (Song et al., 2015), and it is assumed that
casino employees’ organizational commitment influences consumer-
oriented behavior. Thus, this study suggests the following hypothesis:
H4. Organizational commitment has a significant effect on consumer-
oriented behavior.
2.6.5. Moderating role of attachment styles
The levels of anxiety and avoidance attachment styles have different
roles pertaining to the five OCEAN personality traits, and particularly
when involving extraversion, neuroticism, and intercultural adjustment
(Bakker et al., 2004). The degrees of attachment styles of anxiety and
avoidance influence personality traits related to health outcomes as
well as personality pathology (Chotai et al., 2005). Anxious people tend
to be differentially affected by brand personalities, while the degree of
avoidance predicts the styles of brand personality (Swaminathan,
Stilley, & Ahluwalia, 2009). Secure attachment seems to be the most
important forecaster of openness, extraversion, agreeableness, and
neuroticism with decision making styles, whereas the most significant
predictor of conscientiousness is preoccupied attachment style (Deniz,
2011). Openness, extraversion, and agreeableness are diversely asso-
ciated with traits of interpersonal capability as well as with social
media depending on the attachment styles of anxiety and avoidance
(Jenkins-Guarnieri et al., 2012). Furthermore, the moderating role of
attachment styles has been substantiated in various ways, such as
through support seeking and giving (Simpson et al., 1992), social media
usage (Lee, 2013), travel-related social network sites (Kim et al.,
2017a), and OCEAN personalities in the expositions and conventions
environment (Kim et al., 2018a). In line with the preceding literature
review, we presume that attachment styles of anxiety and avoidance
M.J. Kim, et al.
moderate between these five personality traits of frontline casino ser-
vice employees and their job flow experience. Therefore, the following
hypotheses are proposed within the casino industry environment:
H5. Anxiety attachment significantly moderates the relationships
between personality types and job flow experience.
H6. Avoidance attachment significantly moderates the relationships
between personality types and job flow experience.
Drawing upon the hypotheses, this study proposes a comprehensive
research model presented in Fig. 1.
3. Methods
3.1. Study context
Kangwon Land (K-Land) casino in Korea has received much atten-
tion from hospitality researchers for various purposes such as esti-
mating perceived economic impact, provision of benefits to locals,
support for casino development (Lee & Back, 2006; Lee, Kang, Long, &
Reisinger, 2010; Lee, Kim, & Kang, 2003), and segmenting casino
gamblers based upon their motives for gaming (Lee et al., 2006). K-
Land was legalized under the “Special Law on the Development of
Abandoned Mine Areas” in 1995 for revitalizing the stagnated local
economy due to the decline of the coal industry in the southern part of
Gangwon Province, in order to improve the quality of life for local
residents (Ministry of Government Legislation, 2017). K-Land casino is
about a two and one-half hour drive just east of Seoul by automobile
(Kangwon Land, 2017). In Korea, 17 casinos are in operation, but K-
Land is the only casino that allows Korean nationals to engage in
gaming activities, whereas the other 16 casinos only allow foreign
tourists to participate in casino gambling. K-Land is Korea's leading
casino enterprise with 3 million annual visitors and 3672 employees
(Korean Casino Association, 2016). The K-land casino resort includes
200 table and video games, 1360 slot machines, three hotels (954
rooms), three condominiums (903 rooms), a convention center, golf
courses, golf clubs, and a major ski area.
3.2. Measurements
Following a comprehensive review of the previous literature, a list
of measurement items were generated for personality traits, job flow
experience, organizational commitment, consumer-oriented behavior,
and attachment styles of anxiety and avoidance. Personality traits were
operationalized using 25 items (five items each for openness, con-
scientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) adapted
from previous research (Goldberg et al., 2006; International Personality
Item Pool, 2017; Jani & Han, 2015; Kim et al., 2009, 2018a; Yoo &
Gretzel, 2011). Five items were used for job flow experience (Bakker,
2005, 2008; Csikszentmihalyi & Lefevre, 1989). Organizational com-
mitment was operationalized using five items (Allen & Meyer, 1990;
Gonzalez & Denisi, 2009; Meyer et al., 1993), while another five items
were used to assess consumer-oriented behavior (Choi et al., 2014;
Peccei & Rosenthal, 2001; Tajeddini & Trueman, 2012). To assess an-
xiety and avoidance attachments, four items for each were derived from
prior literature (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Hazan & Shaver,
1987; Kim et al., 2017a; Simpson et al., 1992). All 45 questions were
assessed on a 5-point Likert-type scale anchored by (1) strongly dis-
agree to (5) strongly agree. Additionally, socio-demographic questions
representing age, gender, educational level, marital status, and monthly
income were included as survey items.
All survey items were originally written in English and then trans-
lated into Korean by two professionals who are fluent in both lan-
guages. Three academic experts familiar with the study's theoretical
subject matter evaluated content validity for all survey questions. As a
result, some personality items were rephrased and three items (one
161
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170
each for job flow experience, organizational commitment, and con-
sumer-oriented behavior) were deleted because of overlapping
meaning. Also, two general questions were added to the survey in-
cluding current job position and length of time in the industry. A pre-
test was then conducted on 20 individuals who had worked as frontline
service providers in the casino industry. These procedures resulted in
rephrasing one item each for anxiety and avoidance attachments for the
final survey. A few items addressing personality traits and consumer-
oriented behavior were rephrased for clarity.
3.3. Data collection
The survey was conducted on-site at K-Land Casino using a con-
venience sampling method during the shift changes and breaks to
frontline casino service employees from May 1 to May 19, 2017. Two
field researchers explained the survey objectives to all potential re-
spondents prior to their agreement to complete all survey items. Of a
total of 400 self-administered surveys that were distributed to frontline
service employees, 365 surveys were ultimately collected. After elim-
inating 37 samples due to incomplete and/or patterned responses, a
total of 328 samples were used for the study. A general rule of thumb
regarding the necessary sample size for partial least squares-structural
equation modeling (PLS-SEM) is to use five observations per variable
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989). Accordingly, the research model with 45
variables would require around 225 observations, deeming the sample
size of the present data set acceptable.
Male respondents comprised 66.8% of the sample. A majority of
respondents (61.3%) were 30–39 years old, followed by ages between
20 and 29 years old (23.2%). About half of all respondents attended
universities (45.7%) and colleges (45.7%), respectively. The majority of
the sample (60.4%) were single, with 53.7% of monthly income be-
tween 2.00 and 3.99 million Korean won (KRW) (US $1 = 1118.30
KRW), followed by 32.3% of monthly income between 4.00 and 5.99
million KRW monthly (see Appendix A). Nearly 40% all subjects re-
ported working between one to five years, and almost half of all re-
spondents indicated they were staff (45.8%), or assistant managers
(45.4%).
3.4. Data analysis
PLS-SEM, using a component-based approach, was utilized to ana-
lyze the data (Chin, Marcolin, & Newsted, 2003). PLS-SEM has been
extensively used for theory confirmation and testing (Hair, Sarstedt,
Hopkins, & Kuppelwieser, 2014). PLS-SEM has been suggested to be
particularly more appropriate for complicated models, smaller sample
sizes, or multi-group analysis rather than using traditional SEMs based
on covariance (Hair, Sarstedt, Ringle, & Mena, 2012). In this respect,
this study needed a multi-group approach for high and low groups of
anxiety and avoidance attachments. In addition, four sub-groups of low
and high/low anxiety and avoidance are less than 200 cases each so
PLS-SEM is more appropriate rather than using a covariance-based
SEM. Therefore, SmartPLS 3.2.7 was applied to analyze the measure-
ment as well asstructural models in this study (Ringle, Wende, &
Becker, 2015).
Particularly, in order to test the moderating effect of attachment
styles, this study applied multi-group analysis (MGA) based on PLS-SEM
algorism (Hair et al., 2014). To compare the differences in the re-
lationships of OCEAN personality traits and job flow experience with
high and low levels of anxiety and avoidance groups, multi-group
analysis was used, as suggested by Chin et al. (2003) and Keil et al.
(2000, p. 315) as follows:
p1 p2
tij = ,
(n1 1) × SE12 + (n2 1) × SE22
×
1
n1
+
1
n2
n1 + n2 2
Where P1 is the path coefficient of the structural model of anxiety
M.J. Kim, et al.
attachment i, n1 is the sample size of the data set for anxiety attachment
i, SE1 is the standard error of the path in the structural model for an-
xiety attachment i, tij is the t statistic with n1 + n2 -2 degrees of
freedom, i represents the high anxiety attachment group, and j re-
presents the low anxiety attachment group (i.e., 1 = high attachment
and 2 = low attachment). The avoidance attachment groups are the
same as the anxiety attachment groups.
Since respondents were asked to rate all survey variables at once
with the same subjects, common method variance could be an issue,
thus precautions were undertaken using several procedural remedies to
address common method bias (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff,
2003). First, the survey introduction included a description of the
study's purpose, followed by a statement assuring all respondents
anonymity. Second, to decrease respondent apprehension, survey in-
structions noted that there was no right or wrong answers to the
questions. Third, the definition of each construct was clearly explained
at the beginning of the survey to ensure response validity. Fourth, the
questionnaire consisted of three parts: the first part included general
information, the second part included measurement items related to the
research model, and the third part included personal questions about
respondents' demographic characteristics.
Harman's single factor test was performed as a statistical test to
confirm if common method variance was present in the data set
(Harman, 1967). All self-reported survey items were entered into an
exploratory factor analysis (EFA). When a single factor emerges or one
factor accounts for more than 50% of the variance in the variables,
common method variance is present. The EFA results showed that 10
factors appeared (eigenvalues > 1), with the major factor accounting
for 23.3% of the variance, followed by 10.8%, 7.5%, 6.2%, 4.3%, 4.0%,
3.5%, 3.1%, 2.8%, and 2.4%. We further employed the marker variable
approach because the single-factor test has been found to have some
limitations (Lindell & Whitney, 2001). With this procedure, a PLS al-
gorithm was applied. We used a marker variable (organizational citi-
zenship behavior of employees) to estimate the correlations on every
theoretical construct in the PLS path model. The corrections between
the marker variable and all constructs in the PLS path model were
openness (0.29), conscientiousness (0.28), extraversion (0.21), agree-
ableness (0.26), neuroticism (−0.04), job flow experience (0.40), or-
ganizational commitment (0.39), consumer-oriented behavior (0.37),
anxiety (0.13), and avoidance (−0.07). As the common method var-
iance, the average of squared multiple corrections was 0.07 for the 10
theoretical constructs. Accordingly, both the traditional single-factor
test and the marker variable approach suggest that common method
bias is not an issue in this study (Podsakoff et al., 2003). In addition,
skewness statistics for all variables in the data set ranged from −0.327
to −0.004 and kurtosis statistics ranged from −0.764 to −0.006, thus,
meeting the requirement of normality as shown in Appendix B.
4. Results
4.1. Grouping check
The attachment style constructs were assessed using four questions
each for anxiety and avoidance (see Table 1). Cronbach's α of 0.837 was
obtained for anxiety attachment, while Cronbach's α of 0.834 was ob-
tained for avoidance attachment. The K-means cluster method was
applied to groupings because K-means algorithms allow users to specify
the number of clusters, when grouping cases have similar traits and the
sample size represents 200 or more cases (Hair, Black, Babin, &
Anderson, 2010). Based on anxiety and avoidance attachment scores,
the sample was separated into four groups representing high anxiety
(n = 181) and low anxiety respondents (n = 147) as well as high
avoidance (n = 114) and low avoidance respondents (n = 214). All
four groups have more than 100 cases, sufficiently satisfying the re-
quirements of their sample sizes as being acceptable for PLS multi-
group analysis.
162
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170
4.2. Measurement model
All factor loadings exceeded 0.70, except for two items from neu-
roticism and one item from consumer-oriented behavior (Table 1).
Table 2 demonstrates that all constructs were satisfactorily reliable
(Hair et al., 2010). Cronbach's α of each construct is greater than 0.7,
validating the reliability and satisfying internal consistency (Hair et al.,
2012). As shown in Table 2, the composite reliability scores were larger
than 0.70 and Average variance extracted (AVE) for all constructs were
larger than 0.50, indicating confirmation of convergent validity as re-
commended by Hair et al. (2014). The square root of each AVE for each
concept was indicated to be greater than each inter-construct correla-
tion coefficient, indicating confirmation of discriminant validity
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981). For example, the lowest value of the square
root of AVE is consumer-oriented behavior of 0.759, which is higher
than its corresponding construct correlations. Also, the highest corre-
lation is 0.562 between openness and agreeableness, which is lower
than their square root of the AVEs (i.e., openness of 0.786 and agree-
ableness of 0.75). In addition, standardized root-mean-square residual
(SRMR) was 0.082 that is lower than 0.1 which is a generally accep-
table level for model fit (Ringle et al., 2015).
4.3. Structural model
Using the PLS-SEM, we assessed five models of entire, high, and low
groups of anxiety and avoidance attachment (Ringle et al., 2015). As
shown in Fig. 4, from the entire group, the R2 of explained variance for
job flow experience (27.2%), organizational commitment (20.9%), and
consumer-oriented behavior (23.7%) were calculated to estimate the
predictive accuracy on the research model (Hair et al., 2010).
As for the entire model, with the exception of H1d, seven hypotheses
(H1a, H1b, H1c, H1e, H2, H3, and H4) were supported (see Fig. 4). Spe-
cifically, openness (γ = 0.199, p < 0.01), conscientiousness
(γ = 0.157, p < 0.05), extraversion (γ = 0.275, p < 0.001), and
neuroticism (γ = −0.201, p < 0.001) were found to significantly in-
fluence job flow experience. Also, job flow experience was found to
significantly affect organizational commitment (β = 0.457, p < 0.001)
as well as consumer-oriented behavior (β = 0.250, p < 0.001). Lastly,
consumer-oriented behavior was influenced by organizational com-
mitment (β = 0.319, p < 0.001). However, the association between
agreeableness and job flow experience was insignificant (γ = −0.041,
p > 0.05). Interestingly, the relationship between job flow experience
and organization commitment is the strongest in the research model,
implying that employees’ job flow experiences lead to increased orga-
nizational retention and a reduction of turnover rate.
To test the moderating roles of anxiety/avoidance attachment, H5
and H6 were also tested (Table 3). Comparing the models’ explained
variance of R2 from associated regression results identified differences
between two groups (Hair et al., 2012). Concerning job flow experi-
ence, the structural model of this research predicted a greater variance
for anxiety attachment (10.7%) and avoidance attachment (23.7%)
from the high groups compared with the low groups. To compare the
research models over the high and low attachment groups with respect
to anxiety and avoidance attachments, PLS-SEM was applied to perform
a multi-group analysis for the four proposed models (Chin et al., 2003;
Keil et al., 2000). Five path coefficients over the high and low anxiety
groups showed significant differences (see Table 3). Thus, H5 was fully
supported. In addition, four path coefficients between the high and low
avoidance attachment groups showed significant differences. On the
other hand, the relationship between agreeableness and job flow ex-
perience showed no significant difference. Thus, H6 was partially sup-
ported.
As for anxiety attachment, the magnitudes of the coefficients be-
tween conscientiousness and job flow experience (high
group = 0.157 > low group = 0.118) and extraversion and job flow
experience (high group = 0.410 > low group = 0.149) were
M.J. Kim, et al. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170

Table 1
Results of confirmatory factor analysis.
Construct Items Factor loading Mean SDa

Openness 1. I get excited at new ideas. 0.782 3.427 0.885

2. I enjoy thinking about a lot of things. 0.807 3.375 0.869
3. I enjoy hearing new ideas. 0.845 3.387 0.864
4. I enjoy looking for a deeper meaning. 0.724 3.418 0.805
5. I have a vivid imagination. 0.766 3.442 0.869
Conscientiousness 1. I tend to implement my plans. 0.702 3.448 0.807
2. I pay attention to detail. 0.837 3.466 0.838
3. I am always well prepared. 0.822 3.445 0.803
4. I tend to abide by my plans. 0.754 3.451 0.784
5. I do my work perfectly. 0.799 3.503 0.857
Extraversion 1. I talk to a lot of other people at parties. 0.818 3.268 0.909
2. I feel comfortable with people around me. 0.781 3.271 0.803
3. I tend to initiate conversations. 0.864 3.244 0.923
4. I make friends easily. 0.839 3.314 0.879
5. I do not mind being the center of attention. – –
Agreeableness 1. I sympathize with the feelings of others. 0.806 3.564 0.764
2. I am concerned about others. 0.720 3.463 0.797
3. I respect others. 0.756 3.573 0.790
4. I believe that others have good intentions. 0.750 3.482 0.809
5. I trust what people say to me. 0.763 3.512 0.797
Neuroticism 1. I get stressed out easily. 0.915 3.155 1.000
2. I worry about many things. 0.914 3.165 0.994
3. I fear the worst. 0.782 3.235 1.003
4. I am filled with doubts. – – –
5. I panic easily. – – –
Job flow 1. When I am working on my job, I feel totally captivated. 0.843 3.061 0.930
experience 2. When I am working on my job, time seems to pass very quickly. 0.848 3.485 1.076
3. When I am working on my job, I can forget all concerns. 0.871 3.271 1.070
4. Working on my job often makes me forget where I am. 0.767 3.317 1.090
Organizational commitment 1. My company is very important to me. 0.734 3.616 0.838
2. My company is very meaningful to me 0.837 3.485 0.857
3. My company says a lot about who I am 0.860 3.271 0.862
4. My company presents something about me 0.837 3.317 0.887
Consumer-oriented 1. I naturally know what consumers need. – –
behavior 2. I respond to consumer demands immediately. 0.709 3.460 0.745
3. The consumers' interest is always first for me. 0.821 3.220 0.821
4. Providing services that consumers want makes me happy. 0.845 3.415 0.808
Anxiety attachment 1. I often worry that my partner who is special to me (e.g., spouse, lover, close friend) doesn't really like me. 0.833 2.832 0.925
2. I often worry that my partner who is special to me (e.g., spouse, lover, close friend) will leave me. 0.860 2.845 0.940
3. I usually want more closeness with others than others want with me. 0.836 3.049 0.887
4. The thought of being left by others often enters my mind. 0.746 2.820 0.993
Avoidance attachment 1. I'm not comfortable when I should depend on other people. 0.778 3.095 0.955
2. I don't like people who get close to me. 0.849 2.793 0.961
3. I'm very uncomfortable when I am close to others. 0.816 2.756 0.984
4. I find it difficult to trust others completely. 0.851 2.948 0.964

Note: aStandard deviation.

Table 2
Reliability and discriminant validity.
Construct Correlation of the constructs

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

(1) Openness 0.786

(2) Conscientiousness 0.472 0.784
(3) Extraversion 0.462 0.435 0.826
(4) Agreeableness 0.562 0.494 0.480 0.759
(5) Neuroticism −0.011 0.021 −0.003 0.030 0.872
(6) Job flow experience 0.377 0.345 0.415 0.273 −0.202 0.833
(7) Organizational commitment 0.335 0.254 0.220 0.234 −0.073 0.457 0.818
(8) Consumer-oriented behavior 0.427 0.377 0.301 0.300 0.121 0.396 0.433 0.794
Cronbach's alpha (α) 0.845 0.844 0.846 0.818 0.851 0.853 0.836 0.708
Composite reliability 0.890 0.888 0.896 0.872 0.905 0.901 0.890 0.836
Average variance extracted (AVE) 0.618 0.615 0.683 0.577 0.761 0.694 0.670 0.630
Cross-validated predictive relevance (Q2) 0.170 0.127 0.138

Note: All boldfaced diagonal elements appearing in the correlation of the constructs matrix indicate the square roots of AVEs.

significantly larger in the high group compared to their counterparts in group = −0.138), and neuroticism and job flow experience (high
the low group. Conversely, the absolute coefficients between openness group = −0.159 < low group = −0.367) were greater in the low
and job flow experience (high group = 0.126 < low group = 0.249), group than in the high group. As for avoidance attachment, the mag-
agreeableness and job flow experience (high group = 0.019 < low nitudes of the coefficients between conscientiousness and job flow

163
M.J. Kim, et al. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170

Fig. 4. Path analysis results of the entire group.

experience (high group = 0.259 > low group = 0.066) and extraver-
sion and job flow experience (high group = 0.394 > low
group = 0.136) were larger in the high group compared to their low
group counterparts. Conversely, the absolute coefficients between
openness and job flow experience (high group = 0.105 < low
group = 0.220) and neuroticism and job flow experience (high
group = −0.195 < low group = −0.316) were larger in the low
group than in the high group. The magnitudes of the coefficients of
agreeableness and job flow experience (high group = 0.057 > low
group = −0.055) was not significant. The difference between extra-
version and job flow experience is the greatest in both attachment styles
representing anxiety and avoidance.
4.4. Mediating effects
Additional analysis on the mediating roles of job flow experience
and organizational commitment was conducted on the research model.
That is, the mediating effects on eleven relationships between OCEAN
and organizational commitment, OCEAN and consumer-oriented be-
havior, and job flow experience and consumer-oriented behavior were
investigated. As shown in Appendix C, openness had significantly po-
sitive indirect effects on organizational commitment (γ = 0.090,
p < 0.05) and on consumer-oriented behavior (γ = 0.078, p < 0.05).
Conscientiousness had significantly positive indirect effects on organi-
zational commitment (γ = 0.072, p < 0.05) and on consumer-oriented
behavior (γ = 0.062, p < 0.05). Extraversion had significantly positive
indirect effects on organizational commitment (γ = 0.126, p < 0.001)
and on consumer-oriented behavior (γ = 0.109, p < 0.001). Also,
neuroticism had significantly negative indirect effects on organizational
commitment (γ = −0.092, p < 0.001) and on consumer-oriented be-
havior (γ = −0.079, p < 0.001). Furthermore, job follow experience
had a positively significant indirect effect on consumer-oriented beha-
vior (β = 0.146, p < 0.001).

Table 3
Comparison between high and low attachment groups of anxiety and avoidance.
H5 Path (Anxiety attachment) High group (A) Low group (B) t-value (A-B) p value (A-B) Test of hypothesis

n.s.
H5a Openness → Job flow experience 0.126 0.249** −11.916 < 0.001 Supported
H5b Conscientiousness → Job flow experience 0.157n.s. 0.118n.s. 4.042 < 0.001 Supported
H5c Extraversion → Job flow experience 0.410*** 0.149n.s. 28.622 < 0.001 Supported
H5d Agreeableness → Job flow experience 0.019n.s. - 0.138n.s. −12.110 < 0.001 Supported
H5e Neuroticism → Job flow experience - 0.156n.s. - 0.367*** −25.732 < 0.001 Supported
R2: Coefficient of determination (variance explained)
The high anxiety group: Job flow experience (38.2%).
The low anxiety group: Job flow experience (27.5%).

H6 Path (Avoidance attachment) High group (A) Low group (B) t-value (A-B) p value (A-B) Test of hypothesis

n.s.
H6a Openness → Job flow experience 0.105 0.220** −11.001 < 0.001 Supported
H6b Conscientiousness → Job flow experience 0.259* 0.066n.s. 18.181 < 0.001 Supported
H6c Extraversion → Job flow experience 0.394*** 0.136n.s. 26.635 < 0.001 Supported
H6d Agreeableness → Job flow experience 0.057n.s. - 0.055n.s. 0.201 n.s. Not-supported
H8e Neuroticism → Job flow experience - 0.195n.s. - 0.316*** −12.878 < 0.001 Supported
R2: Coefficient of determination (variance explained)
The high avoidance group: Job flow experience (46.8%).
The low avoidance group: Job flow experience (23.1%).

Note: ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05; n.s. = non-significant.

164
M.J. Kim, et al.
Table 4
Managerial implications for increasing consumer-oriented behavior for frontline service employees working within the casino setting.
Four levels of attachment Five personality traits (OCEAN)
styles
High level of anxiety Positively greater influence of conscientiousness
on job flow experience (H5b)
Positively greater influence of extraversion on job
flow experience (H5c)
Low level of anxiety Positively greater influence of openness on job
flow experience (H5a)
Positively greater influence of agreeableness on
job flow experience (H5d)
Negatively greater influence of neuroticism on job
flow experience (H5e)
High level of avoidance Positively greater influence of conscientiousness
on job flow experience (H6b)
Positively greater influence of extraversion on job
flow experience (H6c)
Low level of avoidance Positively greater influence of openness on job
flow experience (H6a)
Negatively greater influence of neuroticism on job
flow experience (H6e)
5. Discussion and conclusion
5.1. Discussions
The casino industry has long had high turnover rates, and in par-
ticular, with frontline service employees when compared with other
major industries (Agrusa & Lema, 2007; Fortino & Ninemeier, 1996; Li
et al., 2017; Stedham & Mitchell, 1996; Wan & Chan, 2013). None-
theless, prior studies have neglected to focus upon theories of person-
ality and attachment to predict frontline casino employees’ behavior to
alleviate high turnover rate. To address this gap, a comprehensive, in-
tegrated framework was developed to examine the relationships among
five personality traits (i.e., OCEAN), job flow experience, organizational
commitment, and consumer-oriented behavior, together with the
moderating roles of anxiety and avoidance attachment styles involving
frontline casino service employees. Findings provide insights to hospi-
tality researchers and practitioners based on these theories.
Results reveal that frontline casino employees’ personality traits
(i.e., openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and neuroticism) have
significant effects on their job flow experience, which in turn positively
influences frontline casino service employees’ organizational commit-
ment and consumer-oriented behavior. Results further indicate that
organizational commitment has an impact upon casino employee be-
havior. The insignificant relationship between agreeableness and job
flow experience may suggest that those employees having agreeable
personalities are more likely to be too lenient when addressing de-
mands and needs of co-workers and guests for them to receive flow
experience as a casino service provider. Moreover, anxiety attachment
style significantly moderates the relationships between five personality
traits and job flow experience. On the other hand, avoidance attach-
ment style moderates significantly between four personality traits and
job flow experience, with the exception being agreeableness and job
flow experience.
5.2. Theoretical contributions
This research has several theoretical implications to the literature
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170
Managerial implications based on this study's findings of frontline gaming service employees
(referred to hereafter in Table 4 as ‘employees’)
When employees are likely to have a high level of anxiety attachment, gambling companies
should implement job training programs that encourage competence, self-discipline, and
deliberation in order to develop employees' conscientiousness.
When employees are likely to have a high level of anxiety attachment, hospitality companies
could encourage developing personality traits such as gregariousness, excitement-seeking, and
assertiveness for employees' extraversion through human resource programs.
When employees are likely to have a low level of anxiety attachment, casino organizations
should create job training programs designed to inspire fantasy, aesthetics, and values related
to the openness personality of employees'.
For employees having low levels of anxiety attachment, casino businesses should attempt to
boost their altruism, modesty, and tendermindedness by offering personnel education
programs.
When employees are likely to demonstrate a low level of anxiety attachment, companies could
design a calm, secure, and even-tempered atmosphere to relieve employees' neuroticism traits
in combination with offering social activities sponsored by the company.
If employees are likely to exhibit a high level of avoidance attachment, casino operations
could encourage hardworking, dependable, and organized traits for employees'
conscientiousness using specially designed internal training programs.
For employees likely to have a high level of avoidance attachment, casinos could enhance
social activities involving adventure elements including outgoing, warm aspects for
employees' extraversion.
For employees likely to have a low level of avoidance attachment, organizations could create
seminars and workshops emphasizing group role-playing to develop curiosity and imagination
personality traits.
If employees are likely to have a low level of avoidance attachment, companies could design
and implement a stress-free ambience to enhance self-esteem, sociability, and autonomy to
address employees' neuroticism.
addressing the research topic. In particular, this study gives insights to
hospitality academics and literature to understand? how the theoretical
relationships between employees' personalities as independent vari-
ables and attachments as moderating variables are significant in the
study area as follows. A theoretical model was developed to examine
five personality traits and employee flow experience of frontline casino
employees within the hospitality domain based on the fundamental
theories of personality and attachment which contributes to alleviating
high turnover rate of casino businesses. This study contributes to the
current hospitality literature by revealing that the five OCEAN per-
sonality traits could influence the behavior of frontline casino em-
ployees through job flow experience and organizational commitment.
This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by exploring
the moderating role of attachment styles on personality traits and job
flow experience among frontline casino service employees within the
hospitality and tourism literature. Most importantly, only a few studies
within the hospitality and tourism context have examined the linkages
among five personalities and job flow experience with the moderating
role of attachment styles. Hence, with theoretical reasoning, this study
presents a new theoretical framework for frontline employees’ person-
ality traits, work flow experience, and attachment styles specific to the
casino domain, which is distinctively different from previous literature.
Specifically, results reveal that frontline casino service employees’
openness, conscientiousness, and extraversion have positively sig-
nificant effects on job flow experience, extending those previous studies
addressing the relationships between personality traits and flow ex-
perience of musical practices (Heller et al., 2015). This finding de-
monstrates that neuroticism has a negatively significant impact upon
frontline casino service employee job flow experience, extending the
prior literature on the relationship between neuroticism and emotional
engagement involving restaurant workers (Kim et al., 2009). This study
documents that job flow experience influences organizational commit-
ment and consumer-oriented behavior, extending prior research ad-
dressing the association between flow experience and organizational
commitment in other service industry studies (Rivkin et al., 2018), and
for flow experience and consumer engagement values when examining
social media users (Carlson et al., 2017). Results indicate that
165
M.J. Kim, et al.
consumer-oriented behavior is influenced by casino employee organi-
zational commitment, which is consistent with previous findings ad-
dressing research on nurses in the healthcare industry (Hsu et al.,
2011). Contrary to our expectations, agreeableness has no significant
impact on job flow experience, which implies that casino employees
having high agreeableness trait are more likely interested in inter-
personal aspects than in job involvement.
Another theoretical contribution relates to identifying the moder-
ating roles of anxiety and avoidance attachment styles on effects be-
tween frontline casino service employee personalities and job flow ex-
perience. While conscientiousness and extraversion among those
employees having high anxiety levels experience a greater impact on
job flow, openness, agreeableness, and neuroticism (negative direction)
related to employees having low anxiety levels are impacted much
more on job flow experience, extending prior personality trait and an-
xiety research on intercultural adjustment (Bakker et al., 2004), deci-
sion making style (Deniz, 2011), and interpersonal competency and
Facebook use (Jenkins-Guarnieri et al., 2012). Despite having high le-
vels of anxiety, these employees tend to experience job flow due to
tendencies related to hard work (conscientiousness) and/or sociability
(extraversion). In contrast, these results provide a new knowledge that
if casino employees demonstrate low anxiety, they are more likely to
experience job flow even though they are predisposed to traits re-
garding intellectual curiosity (openness), tendermindedness (agree-
ableness), and less vulnerability (neuroticism).
Moreover, openness and neuroticism (negative direction) for em-
ployees with low avoidance attachment were found to demonstrate
greater impact on job flow experience. On the other hand, con-
scientiousness and extraversion in employees having high avoidance
exhibit greater impacts on job flow experience, extending prior research
involving personality traits and attachment styles on adolescents' tem-
perament and character (Chotai et al., 2005), expo visitors (Kim et al.,
2018a), and brand personality and attachment (Swaminathan et al.,
2009). Findings offer new information that if casino employees de-
monstrate positive effects upon others (low avoidance), they tend to
experience job flow when they are attentiveness to inner feelings
(openness) or are less impulsive (low neuroticism). However, em-
ployees experiencing high avoidance levels (negativeness to others) are
more likely to achieve job flow experience if they are goal-directed
(conscientiousness) or if they are seeking adventure (extraversion). In
sum, the findings of this study contribute to employees’ personality
traits and attachment styles that have explained various theoretical
reasoning on the causes and effects, extending the theories of person-
ality and attachment on human relational behavior (Bakker et al., 2004;
Chotai et al., 2005; Deniz, 2011; Jenkins-Guarnieri et al., 2012; Kim
et al., 2018a; Swaminathan et al., 2009).
5.3. Managerial contributions
With regard to the relationships between personalities and job flow
experience related to organizational commitment and consumer or-
iented behavior, this study's findings offer several managerial implica-
tions. The effects of personality traits on job flow experience of em-
ployees provide opportunities and challenges for hospitality businesses
to improve organizational commitment and consumer-oriented service
behavior of their employees. This finding helps to maximize employee
retention by mitigating high turnover rate which leads to enhanced
service quality. Human resource managers working in the hospitality
industry should observe and consider personality traits of their em-
ployees as they especially relate to openness, conscientiousness, extra-
version, and neuroticism (negative direction) to increase opportunities
for job flow experience.
Specifically, the significant effects of openness, conscientiousness,
and extraversion on job flow experience suggest that companies
might endeavor to offer frontline casino service employees a job
ambience having intellectual curiosity (openness), dutifulness
166
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170
(conscientiousness), and sociability (extraversion). The negative and
significant effect of neuroticism on job flow experience implies that
management should provide less stressful work environments and em-
phasize ‘comfort in the workplace’ to their employees. That is, busi-
nesses should provide a work environment that expresses a feeling of
security. The highly positive impact of job flow experience on organi-
zational commitment advocates that casino companies should design
and implement an employee work environment that stimulates em-
ployees and enhances their loyalty to the organization. The positive
impact of flow experience on consumer-oriented behavior suggests that
casino operations should stimulate their employees to become com-
pletely involved and engaged in their job for better guest-oriented
service behavior. Given the strong relationship between organizational
commitment and consumer-oriented behavior, casino organizations
must implement effective policies to boost frontline service employees'
attachment for companies, eventually attaining long-term consumer
satisfaction and company profit.
Given the moderating effects of attachment styles, this work also
offers several practical implications as follows. That is, casino managers
should implement training programs designed to improve personality
traits and attachment styles of their frontline employees in order to
increase overall employee job flow experience. This study's findings
help service providers to understand the effects of employee personality
and attachment upon behavior toward guests, which may eventually
increase business profits.
Moreover, based on these study results, casino organizations should
understand the five OCEAN personality types, in combination with job
flow experience, and attachment styles. In other words, the three lin-
kages significantly lead to frontline employee's commitment to their
organizations which can reduce turnover and increase retention, re-
sulting in better consumer services, potentially increased revenues. The
significance of understanding frontline casino service employees' per-
sonality traits when they are examined using different anxiety levels
(five paths) and avoidance (four paths), greatly assist in enhancing job
flow experience. These results suggest that gaming enterprises should
identify frontline casino service employees' personalities and attach-
ment styles, and then assign them to the most appropriate jobs de-
pending upon their associations of personalities and attachment styles.
Specifically, gambling businesses can evaluate potential frontline ser-
vice employees' personality traits and attachment styles before hiring
them, which helps casino companies to decrease operating expenses
(labor costs), resulting in increased consumer satisfaction.
Regarding the moderating effects of anxiety between these five
personality types and job flow experience, human resource managers
should consider developing various training programs based upon on
employees’ personality traits and anxiety levels, rather than providing
one generic program having uniform content. It is recommended that
training programs should encompass a variety of personalities offering
various spectrums of imagination (openness), high self-discipline
(conscientiousness), excitement-seeking (extraversion), altruism
(agreeableness), and low vulnerability (neuroticism) combined with
demonstrating negative self-tendencies (high anxiety) or positive ten-
dencies (low anxiety). Furthermore, the moderating role of avoidance
suggests that casino companies should consider assigning frontline
service employees to positions based upon their four personality traits
with high or low avoidance attachment levels to increase the positive
relations between frontline service employees and patrons, reducing
negative effects on consumer-oriented service behavior.
In consideration of these fundamental theories addressing person-
ality, flow, and attachment, organizations may wish to consider re-
cruiting and selecting frontline service employees based upon their
personality traits and attachment styles to best align job demands with
their personality types. Table 4 provides further managerial implica-
tions for the hospitality industry. Depending on frontline service service
employee personalities and job flow experience relevant to high and
low levels of anxiety and avoidance, appropriate employee job
M.J. Kim, et al. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170

placement could increase consumer-oriented service behavior, con-
tributing to increased industry revenues and improved guest satisfac-
tion.
5.4. Limitations and future research directions
This research has several limitations that should be noted to im-
prove further studies related to this study. This study conducted re-
search to one casino company and thus, future researchers may
implement research to other geographic locations to test the current
research framework as cross-sectional research. Moreover, future stu-
dies could test the research model on multi-group analysis according to
length of period employeed with the current casino. Furthermore, fu-
ture research may need to identify frontline casino service employees’
individual personality traits and attachment styles affecting the asso-
ciations among employer-employee well-being, consumer satisfaction,
and organizational performance.

Appendix D. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2019.09.010.

Appendix A

Demographic characteristics of respondents.

Characteristics N(328) %(100)

Gender
Male 219 66.8
Female 109 33.2
Age
20–29 76 23.2
30–39 201 61.3
40–49 48 14.6
Over 50 3 0.9
Education
Middle/high school 17 5.2
College 150 45.7
University 150 45.7
Graduate school 11 3.4
Marital status
Single 198 60.4
Married 121 36.9
Other 9 2.7
Monthly income
Less than 2 million Korean won 40 12.2
2.00–3.99 million Korean won 176 53.7
4.00–5.99 million Korean won 106 32.3
More than 6.00 million Korean won 6 1.8
Career period
Less than 1 year 30 9.1
More than 1 year - 5 years or less 130 39.6
More than 5 years–10 years or less 75 22.9
More than 10 years 93 28.4
Position
Staff 150 45.8
Assistant manager 149 45.4
Manager 29 8.8

Appendix B

Assessment of normality

Variable Skewness c.r.a Kurtosis c.r.

Openness1 −0.228 −1.685 −0.217 −0.802

Openness2 −0.327 −2.418 0.117 0.434
Openness3 −0.149 −1.100 −0.116 −0.429
Openness4 0.092 0.684 −0.462 −1.707
Openness5 −0.172 −1.269 −0.471 −1.742
Conscientiousness1 −0.146 −1.079 0.162 0.599
Conscientiousness2 −0.113 −0.833 −0.002 −0.006
Conscientiousness3 −0.051 −0.38 −0.143 −0.530
Conscientiousness4 −0.029 −0.212 −0.045 −0.167
Conscientiousness5 −0.024 −0.178 −0.224 −0.827
Extraversion1 −0.041 −0.300 −0.280 −1.036
Extraversion2 −0.102 −0.752 0.119 0.439
Extraversion3 −0.127 −0.937 −0.305 −1.128
Extraversion4 −0.005 −0.039 −0.093 −0.343
Agreeableness1 −0.154 −1.142 −0.324 −1.198
Agreeableness2 −0.153 −1.129 −0.121 −0.447
Agreeableness3 −0.316 −2.338 0.230 0.852

167
M.J. Kim, et al. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170

Agreeableness4 −0.219 −1.616 −0.166 −0.613

Agreeableness5 −0.420 −3.108 0.479 1.772
Neuroticism1 −0.241 −1.784 −0.644 −2.381
Neuroticism2 −0.240 −1.776 −0.644 −2.380
Neuroticism3 −0.300 −2.220 −0.544 −2.011
Job flow experience1 0.062 0.456 −0.302 −1.117
Job flow experience2 0.016 0.119 −0.677 −2.502
Job flow experience3 0.084 0.622 −0.764 −2.825
Job flow experience4 0.097 0.717 −0.636 −2.350
Organizational commitment1 −0.306 −2.264 −0.006 −0.022
Organizational commitment2 −0.172 −1.271 −0.236 −0.874
Organizational commitment3 −0.063 −0.468 −0.373 −1.380
Organizational commitment4 −0.004 −0.031 −0.374 −1.384
Consumer-oriented behavior2 −0.131 −0.967 −0.112 −0.415
Consumer-oriented behavior3 0.141 1.046 −0.286 −1.058
Consumer-oriented behavior4 0.086 0.639 −0.130 −0.481

Note: aCritical ratio.

Appendix C

Direct, indirect, and total effects.

Path Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect Effect size (f2)*

Openness → Job flow experience 0.199** 0.199** 0.032

Openness → Organizational commitment 0.090* 0.090*
Openness → Consumer-oriented behavior 0.078* 0.078*
Conscientiousness → Job flow experience 0.157* 0.157* 0.023
Conscientiousness → Organizational commitment 0.072* 0.072*
Conscientiousness → Consumer-oriented behavior 0.062* 0.062*
Extraversion → Job flow experience 0.275*** 0.275*** 0.071
Extraversion → Organizational commitment 0.126*** 0.126***
Extraversion → Consumer-oriented behavior 0.109*** 0.109***
Agreeableness → Job flow experience - 0.041ns - 0.041ns 0.001
Agreeableness → Organizational commitment - 0.019 ns - 0.019 ns
Agreeableness → Consumer-oriented behavior - 0.016ns - 0.016ns
Neuroticism → Job flow experience - 0.201*** - 0.201*** 0.055
Neuroticism → Organizational commitment - 0.092*** - 0.092***
Neuroticism → Consumer-oriented behavior - 0.079*** - 0.079***
Job flow experience → Organizational commitment 0.457*** 0.457*** 0.264
Job flow experience → Consumer-oriented behavior 0.250*** 0.146*** 0.396*** 0.065
Organizational commitment → Consumer-oriented behavior 0.319*** 0.319*** 0.032

Note:*The effect size (f2) of 0.02 is small, 0.15 is medium, and 0.35 is large (Hair et al., 2014; Henseler, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2014).

References
Agrusa, J., & Lema, J. D. (2007). An examination of Mississippi gulf coast casino man-
agement styles with implications for employee turnover. UNLV Gaming Research and
Review Journal, 11(1), 13–26.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44(4),
709–716.
Akgunduz, Y., Alkan, C., & Gök, Ö. A. (2018). Perceived organizational support, employee
creativity and proactive personality: The mediating effect of meaning of work.
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 34, 105–114.
Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1990). The measurement and antecedent of affective con-
tinuance and normative commitment to the organization journal of occupational
psychology. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 1–18.
Aubé, C., Brunelle, E., & Rousseau, V. (2014). Flow experience and team performance:
The role of team goal commitment and information exchange. Motivation and
Emotion, 38(1), 120–130.
Bakker, A. B. (2005). Flow among music teachers and their students: The crossover of
peak experiences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66(1), 26–44.
Bakker, A. B. (2008). The work-related flow inventory: Construction and initial validation
of the WOLF. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72(3), 400–414.
Bakker, W., van Oudenhoven, J. P., & van der Zee, K. I. (2004). Attachment styles, per-
sonality, and Dutch emigrants' intercultural adjustment. European Journal of
Personality, 18(5), 387–404.
Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job
performance. Personnel Psychology, 44(1), 1–26.
Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1993). Autonomy as a moderator of the relationships
between the Big Five personality dimensions and job performance. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 78(1), 111–118.
Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test
of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(2), 226–244.
Bonn, M. A., & Forbringer, L. R. (1992). Reducing turnover in the hospitality industry: An
overview of recruitment, selection and retention. International Journal of Hospitality
Management, 11(1), 47–63.
Bowlby, J. (1977). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. I. Aetiology and psy-
chopathology in the light of attachment theory. An expanded version of the Fiftieth
Maudsley Lecture, delivered before the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 19 November
1976. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130(3), 201–210.
Breen, H., Buultjens, J., & Hing, N. (2006). Implementing responsible gambling practices
in a regional area. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 13(1), 23–43.
Buckner, J. E., Castille, C. M., & Sheets, T. L. (2012). The five factor model of personality
and employees' excessive use of technology. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(5),
1947–1953.
Carlson, J., de Vries, N. J., Rahman, M. M., & Taylor, A. (2017). Go with the flow:
Engineering flow experiences for customer engagement value creation in branded
social media environments. Journal of Brand Management, 24(4), 334–348.
Ceja, L., & Navarro, J. (2012). “Suddenly I get into the zone”: Examining discontinuities
and nonlinear changes in flow experiences at work. Human Relations, 65(9),
1101–1127.
Chin, W. W., Marcolin, B. L., & Newsted, P. R. (2003). A partial least squares latent
variable modeling approach for measuring interaction effects: Results from a Monte
Carlo simulation study and electronic-mail emotion/adoption study. Information
Systems Research, 14(2), 189–217.

168
M.J. Kim, et al.
Choi, C. H., Kim, T. T., Lee, G., & Lee, S. K. (2014). Testing the stressor-strain-outcome
model of customer-related social stressors in predicting emotional exhaustion, cus-
tomer orientation and service recovery performance. International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 36, 272–285.
Chotai, J., Jonasson, M., Hägglöf, B., & Adolfsson, R. (2005). Adolescent attachment
styles and their relation to the temperament and character traits of personality in a
general population. European Psychiatry, 20(3), 251–259.
Crawford, A., Hubbard, S. S., O'Neill, M., & Guarino, A. (2009). Mediating effects: A study
of the work environment and personality in the quick-service restaurant setting.
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 16(1), 24–31.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal performance. New York:
Harper and Row.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Lefevre, J. (1989). Optimal experience in work and leisure.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(5), 815–822.
Demerouti, E. (2006). Job characteristics, flow, and performance: The moderating role of
conscientiousness. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11(3), 266–280.
Deniz, M. E. (2011). An investigation of decision making styles and the five-factor per-
sonality traits with respect to attachment styles. Educational Sciences: Theory and
Practice, 11(1), 105–113.
Digman, J. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual
Review of Psychology, 41(1), 417–440.
Ding, D. X., Hu, P. J. H., Verma, R., & Wardell, D. G. (2010). The impact of service system
design and flow experience on customer satisfaction in online financial services.
Journal of Service Research, 13(1), 96–110.
Fagerlind, A. C., Gustavsson, M., Johansson, G., & Ekberg, K. (2013). Experience of work-
related flow: Does high decision latitude enhance benefits gained from job resources?
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(2), 161–170.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable vari-
ables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research,
18(3), 382–388.
Fortino, P., & Ninemeier, J. (1996). Industry in the dark about turnover rate. Lodging,
22(4), 25.
Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative “description of personality”: The big-five factor
structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(6), 1216–1229.
Goldberg, L. R., Johnson, J. A., Eber, H. W., Hogan, R., Ashton, M. C., Cloninger, C. R.,
et al. (2006). The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain
personality measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(1), 84–96.
Gonzalez, J. A., & Denisi, A. S. (2009). Cross-level effects of demography and diversity
climate on organizational attachment and firm effectiveness. Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 30(1), 21–40.
Grizzle, J. W., Zablah, A. R., Brown, T. J., Mowen, J. C., & Lee, J. M. (2009). Employee
customer orientation in context: How the environment moderates the influence of
customer orientation on performance outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(5),
1227–1242.
Guchait, P., Abbott, J. L., Lee, C. K., Back, K. J., & Manoharan, A. (2019). The influence of
perceived forgiveness climate on service recovery performance: The mediating effect
of psychological safety and organizational fairness. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Management, 40(June), 94–102.
Hair, J. F. J., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis
(7th ed.). Upper Saddle River NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hair, J. F., Sarstedt, M., Hopkins, L., & Kuppelwieser, V. G. (2014). Partial least squares
structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). European Business Review, 26(2), 106–121.
Hair, J. F., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., & Mena, J. A. (2012). An assessment of the use of
partial least squares structural equation modeling in marketing research. Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(3), 414–433.
Harman, D. (1967). A single factor test of common method variance. Journal of
Psychology, 35, 359–378.
Harris, E. G., & Fleming, D. E. (2007). Examining employee—service personality con-
gruence: The role of the five-factor model and influences on job outcomes. Services
Marketing Quarterly, 28(3), 97–115.
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524.
Heller, K., Bullerjahn, C., & Von Georgi, R. (2015). The relationship between personality
traits, flow-experience, and different aspects of practice behavior of amateur vocal
students. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(DEC), 1–15.
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2014). A new criterion for assessing dis-
criminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115–135.
Hing, N., & Breen, H. (2008). Working in Australian gaming venues, and shiftwork.
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 15(1), 8–14.
Hsu, C. P., Chang, C. W., Huang, H. C., & Chiang, C. Y. (2011). The relationships among
social capital, organisational commitment and customer-oriented prosocial behaviour
of hospital nurses. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 20(9–10), 1383–1392.
Huang, H. C., Huang, L. S., Chou, Y. J., & Teng, C. I. (2017). Influence of temperament
and character on online gamer loyalty: Perspectives from personality and flow the-
ories. Computers in Human Behavior, 70, 398–406.
Hurtz, G. M., & Donovan, J. J. (2000). Personality and job performance: The big five
revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(6), 869–879.
Ifie, K. (2014). Customer orientation of frontline employees and organizational com-
mitment. Service Industries Journal, 34(8), 699–714.
International Personality Item Pool. (2017). Big-five factor markers. Retrieved June 8,
2017, from http://ipip.ori.org/newBigFive5broadKey.htm.
Io, M. U. (2016). Exploring the impact of hedonic activities on casino-hotel visitors' po-
sitive emotions and satisfaction. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 26,
27–35.
Jani, D., & Han, H. (2015). Influence of environmental stimuli on hotel customer
169
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170
emotional loyalty response: Testing the moderating effect of the big five personality
factors. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 44, 48–57.
Jani, D., Jang, J. H., & Hwang, Y. H. (2014). Big five factors of personality and tourists'
Internet search behavior. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19(5), 600–615.
Jenkins-Guarnieri, M. A., Wright, S. L., & Hudiburgh, L. M. (2012). The relationships
among attachment style, personality traits, interpersonal competency, and Facebook
use. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 294–301.
Judge, T. A., Martocchio, J. J., & Thoresen, C. J. (1997). Five-factor model of personality
and employee absence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(5), 745–755.
Kang, J., & Hyun, S. S. (2011). Effective communication styles for the customer-oriented
service employee: Inducing dedicational behaviors in luxury restaurant patrons.
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31, 772–785.
Kangwon Land. (2017). Kangwon Land casino. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from http://
www.high1.com/eng/casinoInfo/html.high1.
Keil, M., Tan, B. C. Y., Wei, K. K. K., Saarinen, T., Tuunainen, A., & Wassenaar, A. (2000).
A cross-cultural study on escalation of commitment behavior in software projects.
MIS Quarterly, 24(2), 299–325.
Kim, M. J., Bonn, M., Lee, C., & Hahn, S. S. (2018a). Effects of personality traits on visitors
attending an exposition : The moderating role of anxiety attachment. Asia Pacific
Journal of Tourism Research, 23(5), 502–519.
Kim, M. J., Lee, C. K., & Bonn, M. (2017a). Obtaining a better understanding about travel-
related purchase intentions among senior users of mobile social network sites.
International Journal of Information Management, 37(5), 484–496.
Kim, S., Lee, Y. K., & Lee, C. K. (2017b). The moderating effect of place attachment on the
relationship between festival quality and behavioral intentions. Asia Pacific Journal of
Tourism Research, 22(1), 49–63.
Kim, M. J., Lee, C. K., Petrick, J. F., & Hahn, S. S. (2018b). Factors affecting international
event visitors' behavioral intentions: The moderating role of attachment avoidance.
Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 35(8), 1–16.
Kim, H. J., Shin, K. H., & Swanger, N. (2009). Burnout and engagement: A comparative
analysis using the big five personality dimensions. International Journal of Hospitality
Management, 28(1), 96–104.
Korean Casino Association (2016). Statistics of casino visitors, revenues, and employees.
Korean Casino Association.
Kumar, V., Aksoy, L., Donkers, B., Venkatesan, R., Wiesel, T., & Tillmanns, S. (2010).
Undervalued or overvalued customers: Capturing total customer engagement value.
Journal of Service Research, 13(3), 297–310.
Lam, C. C. C., & Lei, W. S. C. (2010). Hotel occupancy rate in a gambling destination: A
longitudinal study of the Macao hotel industry 2004-2007. Journal of Hospitality and
Tourism Management, 17(1), 34–43.
Lee, D. Y. (2013). The role of attachment style in building social capital from a social
networking site: The interplay of anxiety and avoidance. Computers in Human
Behavior, 29(4), 1499–1509.
Lee, C. K., & Back, K. J. (2006). Examining structural relationships among perceived
impact, benefit, and support for casino development based on 4 year longitudinal
data. Tourism Management, 27(3), 466–480.
Lee, C. K., Kang, S. K., Long, P., & Reisinger, Y. (2010). Residents' perceptions of casino
impacts: A comparative study. Tourism Management, 31(2), 189–201.
Lee, C. K., Kim, S. S., & Kang, S. (2003). Perceptions of casino impacts - a Korean long-
itudinal study. Tourism Management, 24(1), 45–55.
Lee, C. K., Lee, Y. K., Bernhard, B. J., & Yoon, Y. S. (2006). Segmenting casino gamblers by
motivation: A cluster analysis of Korean gamblers. Tourism Management, 27(5),
856–866.
Lei, W. S., & Lam, C. C. (2015). Determinants of hotel occupancy rate in a Chinese gaming
destination. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 22, 1–9.
Li, J. J., Kim, W. G., & Zhao, X. R. (2017). Multilevel model of management support and
casino employee turnover intention. Tourism Management, 59, 193–204.
Lindell, M. K., & Whitney, D. J. (2001). Accounting for common method variance in cross-
sectional research designs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 114–121.
Luo, J., Wong, I. A., & Xiao, H. (2019). Understanding leisure gaming and urban com-
munity development in China. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 39,
87–96.
MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Ahearne, M. (1998). Some possible antecedents and
consequences of in-role and extra-role salesperson performance. Journal of Marketing,
62(3), 87–98.
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (2003). Personality in adulthood: A five-factor theory per-
spective (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (2008). The five factor theory of personality. Handbook of
Personality: Theory and Research, 159–181.
McDougal, W. (1932). Of the words character and personality. Journal of Personality, 1(1),
3–16.
Mechinda, P., & Patterson, P. G. (2011). The impact of service climate and service pro-
vider personality on employees' customer-oriented behavior in a high-contact setting.
Journal of Services Marketing, 25(2), 101–113.
Meyer, J. P., Allen, N. J., & Smith, C. A. (1993). Commitment to organizations and oc-
cupations: Extension and test of a three-component conceptualization. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 78(4), 538–551.
Ministry of Government Legislation. (2017). Special law on the development of aban-
doned mine areas. Retrieved June 18, 2017, from http://www.law.go.kr/lsInfoP.do?
lsiSeq=192321&efYd=20170615#0000.
Peccei, R., & Rosenthal, P. (2001). Delivering customer-oriented behaviour through
empowerment: An empirical test of HRM assumptions. Journal of Management Studies,
38(6), 831–857.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method
biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended
remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.
M.J. Kim, et al.
Ringle, C. M., Wende, S., & Becker, J. M. (2015). SmartPLS 3.2.8. Retrieved June 10,
2019, from http://www.smartpls.com.
Rivkin, W., Diestel, S., & Schmidt, K. H. (2018). Which daily experiences can foster well-
being at work? A diary study on the interplay between flow experiences, affective
commitment, and self-control demands. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,
23(1), 99–111.
Simpson, J. A., Rholes, W. S., & Nelligan, J. S. (1992). Support seeking and support giving
within couples in an anxiety-provoking situation: The role of attachment styles.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(3), 434–446.
Song, H. J., Lee, H. M., Lee, C. K., & Song, S. J. (2015). The role of CSR and responsible
gambling in casino employees' organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and
customer orientation. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 20(4), 455–471.
Stedham, Y., & Mitchell, M. C. (1996). Voluntary turnover among non-supervisory casino
employees. Journal of Gambling Studies, 12(3), 269–290.
Swaminathan, V., Stilley, K. M., & Ahluwalia, R. (2009). When brand personality matters:
The moderating role of attachment styles. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(6),
985–1002.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using multivariate statistics (2nd ed.). New York:
Harper and Row.
Tajeddini, K., & Trueman, M. (2012). Managing Swiss hospitality: How cultural ante-
cedents of innovation and customer-oriented value systems can influence perfor-
mance in the hotel industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(4),
1119–1129.
Teng, C. I., Huang, K. W., & Tsai, I. L. (2007). Effects of personality on service quality in
business transactions. Service Industries Journal, 27(7), 849–863.
Tourism & Leisure Industry Skills Council (2017). Report on the human resources of tourism
and leisure industry in 2017Seoul Korea: Tourism & Leisure Industry Skills Council.
Ullén, F., de Manzano, Ö., Almeida, R., Magnusson, P. K. E., Pedersen, N. L., Nakamura,
J., et al. (2012). Proneness for psychological flow in everyday life: Associations with
personality and intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(2), 167–172.
Wan, Y. K. P., & Chan, S. H. J. (2013). Casino employees' perceptions of their quality of
work life. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 34(1), 348–358.
Winsted, K. F. (2000). Service behaviors that lead to satisfied customers. European Journal
of Marketing, 344(3), 399–417.
Wu, H. C., & Cheng, C. C. (2018). Relationships between technology attachment, ex-
periential relationship quality, experiential risk and experiential sharing intentions in
a smart hotel. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 37, 42–58.
Yoo, K. H., & Gretzel, U. (2011). Influence of personality on travel-related consumer-
generated media creation. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(2), 609–621.
Yoon, K., Schmidt, F., & Ilies, R. (2002). Cross-cultural construct validity of the five-factor
model of personality among Korean employees. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
33(3), 217–235.
Myung Ja Kim, Ph.D. Kim is an assistant professor in the
College of Hotel & Tourism Management at Kyung Hee
University in Seoul, Korea. Her research focuses on in-
formation and communication technology (ICT), open in-
novation, crowdfunding in visitor economy sectors, eco-
friendly dining for sustainability, and Korean Peninsula
tourism development with Silk Road railway applied by big
data analytics. She has published over 30 scholarly inter-
national journal articles (i.e., SSCI journals) and has been
recently awarded several research grants regarding ICTs.
170
View publication stats
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 41 (2019) 156–170
Mark Bonn, Ph.D. is the Robert H. Dedman Professor in
Services Management in the Dedman School of Hospitality
& Tourism Management, Florida State University. His re-
search addresses supply chain management, sustainability,
organizational behavior, social media, generational ana-
lysis, destination management, strategy, market segmenta-
tion, wine tourism, and international food and beverage. He
is the only academic researcher to have been elected to the
Florida Tourism Hall of Fame (2008) for his numerous
contributions to Florida's tourism industry. He has pub-
lished over 100 research papers in journals that include:
International Journal of Hospitality Management, Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism Research, International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, Journal of Travel Research, Cornell Quarterly, and
Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management.
Choong-Ki Lee, Ph.D. is a professor in the College of Hotel
and Tourism Management at Kyung Hee University, Seoul,
South Korea. His research includes valuation of ecotourism
resources, forecasting tourism demand, the economic im-
pact of tourism, motivation of mega-events, and resident
perceptions toward casino development. He has published
over 120 papers in internationally reputed journals. He
currently serves on the editorial boards of Tourism
Management, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, Asia
Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, and International
Gambling Studies.
Jinok Kim, Ph.D. is an assistant professor in the
Department of Airline Service at Sehan University, South
Korea. Her current research interests are health and well-
ness tourism, and quality of life. Her research focuses on
psychological health, restorative components of environ-
ments aspects of health tourism behavior, and health
tourism development impacts.