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FOOD MICROBIOLOGY
AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Safe and Sustainable Food Production
FOOD MICROBIOLOGY
AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Safe and Sustainable Food Production

Edited by
Guadalupe Virginia Nevárez-Moorillón
Arely Prado-Barragán
José Luis Martínez-Hernández
Cristóbal Noé Aguilar
Apple Academic Press Inc. Apple Academic Press, Inc.
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Title: Food microbiology and biotechnology : safe and sustainable food production / edited by
Guadalupe Virginia Nevárez-Moorillón, Arely Prado-Barragán, José Luis Martínez-Hernández,
Cristóbal Noé Aguilar.
Names: Nevárez-Moorillón, Guadalupe Virginia, editor. | Prado-Barragán, Arely, editor. |
Martínez-Hernández, José Luis, editor. | Aguilar, Cristóbal Noé, editor.
Description: Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20200197606 | Canadiana (ebook) 20200197630 | ISBN 9781771888387
(hardcover) | ISBN 9780429322341 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Food—Microbiology. | LCSH: Food—Biotechnology.
Classification: LCC QR115 .F66 2020 | DDC 664.001/579—dc23

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About the Editors

Guadalupe Virginia Nevárez-Moorillón, PhD

Professor, School of Chemical Sciences,
Autonomous University of Chihuahua, Mexico
Guadalupe Virginia Nevárez-Moorillón, PhD, is a bacteriological chemist.
She has been full-time Professor at the School of Chemical Sciences,
Autonomous University of Chihuahua, Mexico, for the last 30 years. She
is a member of the National Outstanding Researchers System of Mexico
(Level II) and has been granted the National Award on Food Science and
Technology. Her research interests include environmental microbiology as
well as predictive microbiology applied to food systems, the role of lactic
acid bacteria in traditional fermented foods, and antimicrobial properties of
spices, such as clove and oregano. Dr. Nevarez-Moorillón is a member of the
Institute of Food Technologists and the American Society for Microbiology
and has served as Vice-President and President for the Mexican Association
of Food Sciences and the Mexican Association for Food Protection. During
the last 20 years, Dr. Nevárez-Moorillón has published numerous scientific
articles and has reviewed manuscripts and research proposals for research
publishers and organizations. She graduated as a bacteriological chemist
from the Autonomous University of Chihuahua and took her PhD in Biology
from the University of North Texas, doing research on bioremediation of
contaminated soil.

Arely Prado-Barragán, PhD

Research Professor, Autonomous Metropolitan University,
Iztapalapa Campus, Mexico
Arely Prado-Barragán, PhD, is Research Professor at Autonomous Metro-
politan University, Iztapalapa Campus (UAMI), Mexico, where she is a
member of the research group in solid-state fermentation of the Depart-
ment of Biotechnology. She has been a member of the National Outstanding
Researchers System of Mexico since 1999 and of the Mexican Academy of
Sciences since 2016. Dr. Prado-Barragán conducted two research stays—at
the University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, and at the University of
Provence in Marseille, France. She has published several articles in indexed
vi About the Editors

journals, four books, several chapters, and two lab-teaching manuals. Her
current research includes metabolites production by fermentative processes,
valorization of agroindustry byproducts, and characterization and applica-
tion of bioactive molecules in pharmaceutical and food industries. She has
been leader of national and international projects such as the “Biotransfor-
mation of by-products from fruit and vegetables processing industry into
valuable bioproducts,” sponsored by the European Union. She is a member
of the Institute of Food Technologists, Mexican Society of Biotechnology
and Bioengineering, Mexican Association of Food Science, and the Mexican
Academy of Research and Teaching in Chemical Engineering, she is the
current President of the program the Science Behind Food. Dr. Prado-
Barragán earned her BSc degree in Food Engineering at UAMI, and her
PhM and PhD degrees from the Department of Applied Biochemistry and
Food Science at the University of Nottingham, England.

José Luis Martínez-Hernández, PhD

Research Scientist and Full Professor, School of Chemistry,
Autonomous University of Coahuila (UAdeC), Mexico
José Luis Martínez-Hernández, PhD, is Research Scientist and Full Professor
at the School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila (UAdeC),
Mexico. He is a research fellow of the nanobioscience group and food
science and technology group. He has experience of more than 25 years and
is recognized for developing different fermentative processes for obtaining
fungal enzymes and metabolites applied in the food and agroindustry and
for his leadership experience in the areas of biotechnology, nanobiosci-
ence processes, micro- and nano-immobilization, and enzyme technology.
His experience focuses on the screening of fungal strains and the analysis,
evaluation, and development of fermentative processes for the production
of secondary metabolites, enzymes, and biomolecules for agricultural or
industrial products. Dr. Martínez-Hernández earned his MSc in biotech-
nology and his PhD in technical sciences with a focus on bioprocesses and
biotechnology from the Superior Polytechnical Institute Jose A. Echeverria
in Havana, Cuba. Recently he was director of the office of technological
innovation and training in the School of Chemistry at UAdeC, as well as
head of the PhD program in food science and technology. He is the Head of
the Graduate Studies Depatment, at UAdeC. He has participated actively in
the Mexican Association of Food Science (AMECA) and Mexican Society
of Biotechnology and Bioengineering (SMBB).
About the Editors vii

Cristóbal Noé Aguilar, PhD

Dean of Research and Graduate Studies at the Autonomous
University of Coahuila, México
Cristóbal Noé Aguilar, PhD, is Full Professor and Dean of the School of
Chemistry at the Autonomous University of Coahuila, México. Dr. Aguilar
has published more than 270 papers in indexed journals, more than 50
articles in Mexican journals, and 350 contributions to scientific meetings.
He has also published many books and chapters. Professor Aguilar is a
member of the National System of Researchers of Mexico (SNI) and
has received several prizes and awards for his work, including including
an Outstanding Researcher Award 2019 (International Bioprocessing
Association, IBA-IFIBiop 2019); Prize of Science, Technology and
Innovation Coahuila 2019; National Prize of Research 2010 of the
Mexican Academy of Sciences; the Prize-2008 of the Mexican Society
of Biotechnology and Bioengineering; National Prize AgroBio-2005;
and the Mexican Prize in Food Science and Technology, CONACYT-
Coca Cola México 2003. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of
Science, the Mexican Association for Food Science & Biotechnology,
the International Bioprocessing Association (IFIBiop), and several other
scientific societies and associations. Dr. Aguilar has developed many
research projects, including several international exchange projects. His
research areas are the design of bioprocesses for bioproducts production
(of importance in the horicultural/food/pharma/environmental sectors)
and fermentation and & enzymatic technologies. He is associate editor
of Heliyon and Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, and member of
several editorial boards of international scientific journals.
Contents

Contributors ................................................................................................... xi
Abbreviations............................................................................................... xvii
Preface........................................................................................................ xxiii
Introduction ............................................................................................... xxvii

Part I: Food Microbiology ........................................................................1

1. Hurdle Technologies for the Control of Microbial Growth in Food .........3
Addí Rhode Navarro-Cruz, Raúl Ávila-Sosa, Obdulia Vera-López, and
Carlos Enrique Ochoa-Velasco
2. Production of Microbiologically Safe Fruits and Vegetables....................45
Santos García and Norma Heredia
3. Sustainable Production of Innocuous Seafood...........................................61
Facundo Joaquín Márquez-Rocha, Carlos Alfonso Álvarez-González,
Jenny Fabiola López-Hernández, and Guadalupe Virginia Nevárez-Moorillón
4. Microbiological Quality and Food Safety Challenges in the
Meat Industry ...............................................................................................85
Daniela Sánchez-Aldana, Tomas Galicia-García, and Martha Yarely Leal-Ramos
5. Fermentation as a Preservation Strategy in Foods..................................103
María Georgina Venegas-Ortega, Víctor Emmanuel Luján-Torres,
Adriana Carolina Flores-Gallegos, José Luis Martinez-Hernández, and
Guadalupe Virginia Nevárez-Moorillón
6. Food Preservation Using Plant-Derived Compounds .............................123
Sofia Del Rosario Romero-Ramos, Diana B. Muñiz-Márquez,
Pedro Aguilar-Zárate, and Jorge E. Wong-Paz
7. Lactic Acid Bacteria in Preservation and Functional Foods ..................137
Ivan Salmerón, Samuel B. Pérez-Vega, Néstor Gutiérrez-Méndez, and
Ildebrando Pérez-Reyes
8. Fermented Milks: Quality Foods with Potential for Human Health.....163
Blanca Estela García-Caballero, Olga Miriam Rutiaga-Quiñones,
Silvia Marina González-Herrera, Cristóbal Noé Aguilar,
Adriana Carolina Flores-Gallegos, and Raúl Rodríguez Herrera
9. Training in Food Safety Practices and Food Manufacturing for
Safe Food Production .................................................................................193
José Rafael Linares-Morales, Arely Prado-Barragán, and
Guadalupe Virginia Nevárez-Moorillón
x Contents

Part II: Food Biotechnology..................................................................207

10. Production, Recovery, and Application of Invertases and Lipases........209
Deicy Yaneth López Acuña, José D. García-García, Anna Iliná,
Mónica L. Chávez González, Ayerim Hernández-Almanza,
Rebeca Galindo Betancourt, Cristóbal Noé Aguilar, and
José Luis Martínez-Hernández
11. Recent Advances in the Bioconversion of 2-Phenylethanol Through
Biotechnological Processes for Using as a Natural Food Additive .........231
Itza Nallely Cordero-Soto, Sergio Huerta-Ochoa, Marwen Moussa,
Luz Araceli Ochoa-Martínez, Nicolás Oscar Soto-Cruz, and
Olga Miriam Rutiaga-Quiñones
12. Natural Antimicrobials from Vegetable By-Products:
Extraction, Bioactivity, and Stability........................................................249
Ricardo Gómez-García, D. A. Campos, A. Vilas-Boas, A. R. Madureira,
and M. Pintado
13. Fermentative Bioprocesses for Detoxification of Agri-Food Wastes
for Production of Bioactive Compounds ..................................................287
Liliana Londoño-Hernandez, Mónica L. Chávez-González,
Juan Alberto Ascacio-Valdés, Héctor A. Ruiz, Cristina Ramírez Toro,
and Cristóbal Noé Aguilar
14. Lipids as Components for Formulation of Functional Foods:
Recent Trends..............................................................................................319
Leticia Xochitl Lopez-Martinez, José Juan Buenrostro-Figueroa,
Edwin Rojo-Gutiérrez, Hugo Sergio García-Galindo,
and Ramiro Baeza-Jiménez
15. Milk-Clotting Enzymes: S. elaeagnifolium as an Alternative Source ........ 355
Néstor Gutiérrez-Méndez, José Alberto López-Díaz, Dely Rubi Chávez-Garay,
Martha Yarely Leal-Ramos, and Antonio García-Triana
16. Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Nutritional and
Functional Properties .................................................................................377
Gerardo Manuel González-González, Jesus Antonio Morlett-Chávez,
Adriana Carolina Flores-Gallegos, Juan Alberto Ascacio-Valdés,
Sandra Cecilia Esparza-González, and Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera
17. Biomass Fractionation to Bio-Based Products in
Terms of Biorefinery Concept....................................................................395
Marcela Sofía Pino, Lorena Pedraza Segura, Rolando Acosta,
María Evangelina Vallejos, Elisa Zanuso, Rosa M. Rodríguez-Jasso,
Héctor Toribio Cuaya, Javier Larragoiti Kuri, María Cristina Area,
Debora Nabarlatz, and Héctor A. Ruiz

Index.....................................................................................................................429
Contributors

Rolando Acosta
Chemical Engineering School, Industrial University of Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia

Deicy Yaneth López Acuña

Nanobioscience Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo Campus, 25280 Coahuila, México

Cristóbal Noé Aguilar

Research Group of Bioprocesses and Bioproducts, Department of Food Research,
School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280 Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Pedro Aguilar-Zárate
Master Program in Engineering, Technological Institute of Ciudad Valles,
National Technological Institute of Mexico 79010, Ciudad Valles, S.L.P., México

Carlos Alfonso Álvarez-González

Academic Division of Biological Sciences, Autonomous University Juarez of Tabasco, 86150
Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico

María Cristina Area

Institute of Materials of Misiones (IMAM), 3300, Posadas, Misiones, Argentina

Juan Alberto Ascacio-Valdez

Research Group of Bioprocesses and Bioproducts, Department of Food Research, School of Chemistry,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280 Saltillo, Coahuila, México

Raúl Ávila-Sosa
Department of Biochemistry and Food, School of Chemistry, Meritorious Autonomous
University of Puebla, 72420 Puebla, Puebla, México
Ramiro Baeza-Jiménez
Food and Development Research Center, 33089, Delicias, Chihuahua, Mexico

Rebeca Galindo Betancourt

Reseach Center for Applied Chemistry, 25294 Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

José Juan Buenrostro-Figueroa

Food and Development Research Center, 33089, Delicias, Chihuahua, Mexico

D. A. Campos
Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina – Laboratório
Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital 172, 4200-374 Porto, Portugal
Dely Rubi Chávez-Garay
School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico

Mónica L. Chávez-González
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry,
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, 25280, Coahuila, México
xii Contributors

Itza Nallely Cordero-Soto

National Technological Institute of Mexico, Technological Institute of Durango Department of
Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 34080, Durango, Mexico
Héctor Toribio Cuaya
Ibero-American University, 01219 CDMX, Mexico
Sandra Cecilia Esparza-González
School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25000 Saltillo, Coahuila, México

Adriana Carolina Flores-Gallegos

Research Group of Bioprocesses and Bioproducts, Department of Food Research, School of Chemistry,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280 Saltillo, Coahuila, México

Tomas Galicia-García
School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico

Santos García
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Biology,
Autonomous University of Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, 66455 Mexico

Blanca Estela García-Caballero

Research Group of Bioprocesses and Bioproducts, Department of Food Research, School of Chemistry,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280 Saltillo, Coahuila, México

Hugo Sergio García-Galindo

UNIDA, Technological Institute of Veracruz, National Technological Institute of Mexico 91897,
Veracruz, Veracruz, Mexico

José D. García-García
Nanobioscience Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo Campus, 25280 Coahuila, México

Antonio García-Triana
School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico
Ricardo Gómez-García
Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina – Laboratório
Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital 172, 4200-374 Porto, Portugal
Gerardo Manuel González-González
Department of Food Research, School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280
Saltillo, Coahuila, México

Silvia Marina González-Herrera

National Technological Institute of Mexico, Technological Institute of Durango Department of
Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 34080, Durango, México

Néstor Gutiérrez-Méndez
School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico

Norma Heredia
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Biology,
Autonomous University of Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, 66455 Mexico
Ayerim Hernández-Almanza
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo Campus, 25280 Coahuila, México
Contributors xiii

Sergio Huerta-Ochoa
Autonomous Metropolitan University, Iztapalapa Campus, 09340 CDMX, Mexico

Anna Iliná
Nanobioscience Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo Campus, 25280 Coahuila, México

Javier Larragoiti Kuri

Ibero-American University, 01219 CDMX, Mexico

Martha Yareli Leal-Ramos

School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico

José Rafael Linares-Morales

School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico

Liliana Londoño-Hernández
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry,
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, 25280, Coahuila, México

José Alberto López-Díaz

Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Autonomous University of Ciudad Juarez, Ciudad Juárez,
Chihuahua, México

Jenny Fabiola López-Hernández

Academic Division of Biological Sciences, Autonomous University Juarez of Tabasco, 86150
Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico
Leticia Xóchitl López-Martínez
CONACYT - Food and Development Research Center, 80110, Culiacán, Sinaloa, México

Víctor Emmanuel Lujan-Torres

School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico

A. R. Madureira
Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina – Laboratório
Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital 172, 4200-374 Porto, Portugal
Facundo Joaquín Márquez-Rocha
Regional Center for Cleaner Production, National Polytechnical Institute, Tabasco Business Center, 86691
Cunduacan, Tabasco, Mexico
José Luis Martinez-Hernández
Nanobioscience Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo Campus, 25280 Coahuila, México

Jesús Antonio Morlett-Chávez

Department of Food Research, School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280
Saltillo, Coahuila, México

Marwen Moussa
UMR 782 Genetic and Microbiology of Food Processes (GMPA), AgroParisTech, INRA,
Université Paris-Saclay, F-78850, Thiverval-Grignon, France
Diana B. Muñíz-Márquez
Master Program in Engineering, Technological Institute of Ciudad Valles,
National Technological Institute of Mexico 79010, Ciudad Valles, S.L.P., México

Debora Nabarlatz
Chemical Engineering School, Industrial University of Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia
xiv Contributors

Addi Rhode Navarro-Cruz

Department of Biochemistry and Food, School of Chemistry, Meritorious Autonomous
University of Puebla, 72420 Puebla, Puebla, México

Guadalupe Virginia Nevárez-Moorillón

School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico
Luz Araceli Ochoa-Martínez
National Technological Institute of Mexico, Technological Institute of
Durango Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 34080, Durango, Mexico

Carlos Enrique Ochoa-Velasco

Department of Biochemistry and Food, School of Chemistry, Meritorious Autonomous
University of Puebla, 72420 Puebla, Puebla, México
Ildebrando Pérez-Reyes
School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico

Samuel B. Pérez-Vega
School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico

Marcela Sofía Pino

Biorefinery Group, Food Research Department, Faculty of Chemistry Sciences,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280, Saltillo, Coahuila, México

M. Pintado
Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina – Laboratório
Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital 172, 4200-374 Porto, Portugal

Arely Prado-Barragán
Autonomous Metropolitan University, Iztapalapa Campus, 09340 CDMX, Mexico

Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera
Department of Food Research, School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
Rosa M. Rodríguez-Jasso
Biorefinery Group, Food Research Department, Faculty of Chemistry Sciences,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280, Saltillo, Coahuila, México, and Cluster of Bioalcoholes,
Mexican Centre for Innovation in Bioenergy (Cemie-Bio), México
Edwin Rojo-Gutiérrez
Food and Development Research Center, 33089, Delicias, Chihuahua, Mexico

Sofia del Rosario Romero-Ramos

Master Program in Engineering, Technological Institute of Ciudad Valles,
National Technological Institute of Mexico 79010, Ciudad Valles, S.L.P., México

Héctor A. Ruiz
Biorefinery Group, Food Research Department, Faculty of Chemistry Sciences,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280, Saltillo, Coahuila, México, and Cluster of Bioalcoholes,
Mexican Centre for Innovation in Bioenergy (Cemie-Bio), México
Olga Miriam Rutiaga-Quiñones
National Technological Institute of Mexico, Technological Institute of Durango
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 34080, Durango, México
Iván Salmerón
School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico
Contributors xv

Daniela Sánchez-Aldana
School of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, 31125 Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico

Lorena Pedraza Segura

Ibero-American University, 01219 CDMX, Mexico

Nicolás Oscar Soto-Cruz

National Technological Institute of Mexico, Technological Institute of Durango
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, 34080, Durango, México

Cristina Ramírez Toro

School of Food Engineering, Universidad del Valle, Cali, 25360, Valle del Cauca, Colombia

María Evangelina Vallejos

Institute of Materials of Misiones (IMAM), 3300, Posadas, Misiones, Argentina

María Georgina Venegas-Ortega

Research Group of Bioprocesses and Bioproducts, Department of Food Research, School of Chemistry,
Autonomous University of Coahuila, 25280 Saltillo, Coahuila, México

Obdulia Vera-López
Department of Biochemistry and Food, School of Chemistry, Meritorious Autonomous
University of Puebla, 72420 Puebla, Puebla, México

A. Vilas-Boas
Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina – Laboratório
Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital 172, 4200-374 Porto, Portugal
Jorge E. Wong-Paz
Master Program in Engineering, Technological Institute of Ciudad Valles,
National Technological Institute of Mexico 79010, Ciudad Valles, S.L.P., México

Elisa Zanuso
CEB-Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
Abbreviations

AA arachidonic acid
ACE angiotensin-converting enzyme
ALA a-linolenic acid
APs aspartic proteases
Aw water activity
BBP bio-based polymer
BCs bioactive compounds
BHA butylated hydroxyl anisole
BHT butylated hydroxyl toluene
BioN6 bio-nylon 6
BioPCL synthesize polymers such as poly-e-caprolactone
BioPE bio-polyethylene
BioPET bio-polyethylene terephthalate
BioPO bio-polyolefins
BioPP bio-polypropylene
BioPVC bio-poly vinyl chloride
C carbon
CB cocoa butter
CBA cocoa butter alternatives
CBE CB equivalents
CBEX CB extenders
CBI CB improvers
CBR CB replacers
CBS CB substitutes
CCK cholecystokinin
CCP critical control points
CD Crohn’s disease
CDC Center for Disease Control and Prevention
CDL compounds derived from lignin
CEDA Central de Abasto
ClO2 chlorine dioxide
CM chicken manure
CO2 carbon dioxide
COFEPRIS Comisión Federal Para la Protección Contra Riesgos Sanitarios
xviii Abbreviations

CP control points
CPs cysteine proteases
Da Dalton
DAEC diffuse-adhering E. coli
DAG diacylglycerols
DHA docosahexaenoic acid
DMD Duchenne muscular dystrophy
DP degrees of polymerization
DW dry weight
EAE enzymatic assisted extraction
EGEC enteroaggregative E. coli
EHEC enterohemorrhagic E. coli
EIEC enteroinvasive E. coli
EN enteral nutrition
EOLs essential oils
EPA Environment Protection Agency
EPEC enteropathogenic E. coli
ETEC enterotoxigenic E. coli
EU European Union
FA formaldehyde
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FAs fatty acids
FCM fermented chicken manure
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FFAs free fatty acids
FO fish oil
FOS fructo-oligosaccharides
FOSHU Food for Specified Health Uses
FSMA Food Safety Modernization Act
FW fresh weight
GAE gallic acid equivalents
GAP glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
GFSI global food safety initiatives
GHP good hygienic practices
GIT gastrointestinal tract
GMOs genetically modified microorganisms
GMP good manufacturing practices
GRAS generally recognized as safe
H2O2 hydrogen peroxide
HACCP hazard analysis and critical control point
Abbreviations xix

HCN hydrogen cyanide

HHP high hydrostatic pressure
HMF human milk fat
HMF hydroxymethylfurfural
HPHT high pressure, high temperature
HSPs heat shock proteins
HTPEF high temperature pulsed electric field
HUS hemolytic uremic syndrome
IBDs inflammatory bowel disease
ILCNC International Lipid Classification and Nomenclature
Committee
ISPR in situ product removal techniques
IZSPLV Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale of Piemonte, Liguria,
and Valle d’Aosta
KAB knowledge-attitude-behavior
LA linoleic acid
LaA lauric acid
LAB lactic acid bacteria
LC liquid culture
LCFA long-chain fatty acids
LC-PUFAs long-chain unsaturated fatty acids
LCTs long-chain triacylglycerols
LDH lactate dehydrogenase
LE lipid emulsions
LF liquid fraction
MAE microwave-assisted extraction
MAF mango seed almond fat
MCA/PA milk-clotting activity to proteolytic activity
MCFA medium-chain fatty acids
MCTs medium-chain triacylglycerols
MDF medium density fiberboard
MFG milk-fat globules
MFGM milk-fat globules membrane
MNP magnetic nanoparticles
MUFA monounsaturated fatty acid
MW microwaves
NAD nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide
NEC necrotizing enterocolitis
NLC nanostructured lipid carriers
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
xx Abbreviations

OA oleic acid
OFMSW organic fraction of municipal solid wastes
OO olive oil
PA palmitic acid
PDO protected designation of origin
PEF pulsed electric field
PHAs polyhydroxyalkanoates
PKC protein kinase C
PL phospholipids
PMF palm oil mid fraction
PN parenteral nutrition
PO palm oil
POP palmitic, oleic, palmitic
POS palmitic, oleic, stearic
PROFEPA procuraduria federal de protección al ambiente
PS polystyrene
PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acids
QPS qualified presumption of safety
RF radiofrequency
RTE ready to eat
SAF surface adhesion fermentation
SCFA short-chain fatty acids
SDS sodium dodecylsulfate
SEMARNAT Secretaría De Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales
SF submerged fermentation
SFA saturated fatty acid
SFE supercritical fluid extraction
SL structured lipids
SLN solid lipid nanoparticles
SLP solid lipid particle
SO soybean oil
SOS stearic, oleic, stearic
SPs serine proteases
SSC solid-state culture
SSF solid-state fermentation
SSOP sanitation standard operating procedures
STEC Shiga toxin producer E. coli
STP sodium tripolyphosphate
TAG triacylglycerols
Abbreviations xxi

TPA tetradecanephorbol 13-acetate

UAE ultrasound-assisted extraction
UC ulcerative colitis
UF ultrafiltration
USDA-FSIS United States of Agriculture’s Food Safety and Inspection
Service
VTEC verotoxic E. coli
XOS xylooligosaccharides
Preface

Food Microbiology and Biotechnology: Safe and Sustainable Food Produc-

tion is a modern book published by Apple Academic Press, presenting
original research contributions and scientific advances in the field of food
microbiology and food biotechnology. Chapters cover broad research areas
and offer original and novel highlights in microbiology and biotechnology
and other related sciences. The book was born after several working meet-
ings of the editors, where the needs of students, teachers, and researchers
were analyzed in detail. An important characteristic of the editors is that they
are all professors and scientists of several Mexican universities, and they
have more than 20 years of experience in teaching and research, therefore,
understanding the requirements and needs, both for updating and for the
depth. The training is part of the context and the reality faced by the courses
of microbiology and food biotechnology; so the book was born.
The book explores the most important advances in food microbiology
and biotechnology, making special emphasis on the challenges that the
industry faces in the era of sustainable development and food security
problems. At least five of the seventeen sustainable development goals
are related to safe food production, clean water, industrial innovation,
and responsible consumption; they all are related to food production,
innocuous food for all, reduction of food loss and waste, and reuse of
food residues. These challenges are at the end, related to food micro-
biology and food biotechnology. A detailed and up-to-date revision is
a useful tool in teaching and research related to sustainable agriculture
and food production. This book demonstrates the potential and actual
developments across the innovative advances in food microbiology and
biotechnology.
Important advances are currently developed in food microbiology and
biotechnology, which are solving challenges and opening up numerous
opportunities for the food industry. The targeted use of microbiological
and biotechnological methods can, among other strategies, support the
increment of quantity and quality reducing the number of nutritional and
technological problems associated to the food industry as well the use of
inconvenient ingredients. Omic research studies and targeted breeding also
greatly facilitate the progress in food microbiology and biotechnology
xxiv Preface

contributing significantly to saving resources, optimizing harvest yields,

and producing better foods. One of the most important challenges of the
world population, which grows as never before, is the food production and
supply in a sustainable and complex framework attending severe require-
ments of quality and nutritional demands. The necessity of new healthy
food represents highly challenging issues for the food industry.
Current developments in food microbiology cover the relationship
between the production, processing, service, and consumption of foods
and beverages with the bacteriology, mycology, virology, parasitology,
and immunology. The modern food scenario requires knowing the inci-
dence and types of food and beverage microorganisms, microbial interac-
tions, microbial ecology of foods, intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting
microbial survival and growth in foods, and food spoilage; the microorgan-
isms involved in food and beverage fermentation (including probiotics and
starter cultures); food safety, indices of the sanitary quality of foods, micro-
biological quality assurance, biocontrol, microbiological aspects of food
preservation and novel preservation techniques, predictive microbiology,
and microbial risk assessment; foodborne microorganisms of public health
significance and microbiological aspects of foodborne diseases of micro-
bial origin; methods for microbiological and immunological examinations
of foods, as well as rapid, automated and molecular methods when validated
in food systems; and the biochemistry, physiology, and molecular biology of
microorganisms as they directly relate to food spoilage, foodborne disease,
and food fermentations.
The food biotechnology field contributes enormously to the production of
nutritious food and already has a long tradition in the food sector. People have
used the catalytic properties of microorganisms and their enzymes in food
production more or less consciously for thousands of years. The economic
importance of food biotechnology becomes particularly evident when one
looks at food products produced with the biotechnological method, permit-
ting that biotechnology has become a major factor in the food processing
industry. Food biotechnology employs state-of-the-art methods that make a
significant contribution to making food safer, more tolerable and palatable.
This book is the sum of several works about the topics of food microbiology
and biotechnology divided into two important areas: (i) food microbiology
and (ii) food biotechnology. The book includes relevant information about
food bioprocesses, fermentation, food microbiology, functional foods,
nutraceuticals, and extraction of natural products, nano- and micro-technology,
innovative processes/bioprocesses for utilization of by-products, alternative
processes requiring less energy or water, among other topics. Due to its qualified
Preface xxv

and innovative content, there is no doubt it will be an important reference for

food technology research, for undergraduate and graduate students, and also
for professionals in the food industry.
We are sure that the topics covered by the book will be of great interest
and support for readers, because they have been particularly focused to meet
the demands and needs of students, teachers, and researchers of science and
technology in the areas of biotechnology and food microbiology.
We deeply thank all the authors who responded enthusiastically to the
call issued by contributing original and novel documents. Finally, we also
appreciate the facilities granted by the institutions for which we work,
the Autonomous University of Chihuahua, the Autonomous Metropolitan
University, and the Autonomous University of Coahuila.

Guadalupe Virginia Nevárez-Moorillón, PhD

Arely Prado-Barragán, PhD
José Luis Martínez-Hernández, PhD
Cristóbal Noé Aguilar, PhD
Introduction
GUADALUPE VIRGINIA NEVÁREZ-MOORILLÓN,1
DANIELA SÁNCHEZ-ALDANA,1 JOSÉ L. MARTÍNEZ-HERNÁNDEZ,2
ARELY PRADO-BARRAGÁN,3 AND CRISTÓBAL NOÉ AGUILAR1
1
Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de
Chihuahua, 31125, Chihuahua, México
Food Research Department, School of Chemistry,
2

Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, 25280, Saltillo, México

3
Department of Biotechnology, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana,
Iztapalapa, México City, 09340, México

Since ancient times, human societies have been closely related to the ability
to acquire enough food, in such a way that not only the basic survival needs
were met, but also the conservation of the same for its total disposition at
any time and place and be able to devote time to the arts, crafts, and sciences.
The development of one of the oldest activities of the human being, agri-
culture, is closely linked to the ability to preserve food, first by techniques
developed over the centuries by observation type trial and error, and more
recently by the application growing science and engineering.
The basis of these advances is our knowledge of food microbiology
and biotechnology. Long before the description of the living animals for
the first time, many of the conditions that controlled microbial spoilage had
been identified empirically. However, it was the emergence of the science
of microbiology and biotechnology that promoted the preservation of food
from an art to a science, allowing food to be processed, distributed and
marketed with a high degree of confidence concerning product quality and
safety. Thus, the food microbiology and biotechnology have been an impor-
tant part of the discipline since its early days.
The scopes of food microbiology and biotechnology are highly inclu-
sive since it interacts with all subdisciplines among which we can find, the
xxviii Introduction

public health microbiology, microbial genetics, fermentation technologies,

microbial physiology, and biochemistry. Also, food microbiologists/biotech-
nologists have been at the forefront of many microbiological concepts and
advances.
The development of biofilms and the ability to detect low numbers of
metabolically stressed microbes from highly complex matrices are two areas
where food microbiologists are providing critical ideas in the behavior of
microbiological systems. In addition, new research topics have been raised
because of the unique challenge, in the face of food microbiologists, such as
predictive microbiology, probiotics, microbial risk assessments, and natural
antimicrobials.
This book has been prepared to offer updated and detailed scientific
information on Food Microbiology. The book is organized into 10 main
sections or chapters, five of which focus on the two fundamental aspects of
the subject: food and microorganisms.
Each section consists of detailed information, from the generalities to the
particular aspects of each topic of relevance, including basic microbiology,
safety, food, pathogenic microorganisms, food preservation, sanitation and
hygiene procedures, etc.
The microbial diversity found in foods is described from the classifica-
tion by kingdoms and the main groups of microorganisms present in them.
Although the main topic discussed is about microbial food pathogens, the
book also covers another important aspect of food microbiology, such as
food ecosystems and measures to prevent and control food, diseases trans-
mitted by food consumption, etc.
Uncontrolled and unwanted microbial growth destroys large quantities
of food, causing significant losses both economically and with respect to
nutrient content. Besides, the consumption of food contaminated with partic-
ular microorganisms or microbial products can also cause serious illnesses,
such as food-mediated infections and food poisoning. Every minute, there
are around 50,000 cases of gastrointestinal diseases, and many individuals,
especially children, die of these infections. The most important preventive
measures are for the development and continued application of effective
interventions to improve overall food safety.
Food biotechnology is undoubtedly one of the key technological areas in
contemporary food industry development. The term food biotechnology is
considered as the set of techniques that use living organisms or substances
from them to develop or modify a food product, improve plants or animals,
or to develop microorganisms for food production.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
space will not permit. An idea, however, can be obtained of the
various forms of screw propellers patented in England before 1850
from the plate facing page 118, to which we have already called
attention.
The lower illustration facing page 120, which is taken from a
contemporary aquatint, shows the Archimedes on her voyage from
London to Portsmouth in the year 1839, when she attained a speed
of eight knots against both wind and tide. Facing page 122 is
reproduced a model of her stern framing before being planked up.
As a further test of this screw idea Wimshurst, who had built the
Archimedes, launched the Novelty in 1839, a much larger vessel
than her predecessor. The Novelty will be seen in the next
illustration, and in her we see the “screw” vanishing and becoming
more assimilated to the modern propeller. Originally the corkscrew
shape entitled it to be called a screw; but the evolution of time and
experience has now considerably altered this. It will be noticed that
in the Archimedes the screw is a little distance away from the stern-
post, but as seen in the Novelty the propeller is put right close up
against it. This Novelty was the first cargo steamer fitted with a
screw, and made her inaugural trading voyage from London to
Constantinople and back with entire success. She is interesting also
as having been the first ship to be fitted with an iron mast. This
material was employed for the mizen, the other masts were of wood;
her rig was that of a barque. For some years after the introduction of
the screw, and so long as sails were still retained as auxiliaries, there
had to be some means of overcoming the resistance of the screw
when not in use and the ship was proceeding under sail power. This
was done either by fixing the blades so that they caused the
minimum drag, or by lifting the screw into a well. The Novelty lifted
hers on deck over the quarter by means of davits. This arrangement
will also be seen in the illustration. This idea is now obsolete, since
sails are but rarely employed as auxiliaries.
 STERN OF THE “ARCHIMEDES.”
From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

THE “NOVELTY” (1839).

From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Now the introduction of the propeller was not so simple an event

as the reader might imagine. Ordinarily, one is tempted to argue that
it was merely a case of putting the power aft instead of at either side,
as in the use of the paddle-wheels. But, in fact, the introduction of
the screw opened up a new set of problems connected with ship
design. In the early days the design of a ship’s stern, both in the
sailing ship and the steamer, was badly neglected. Later on the
improved lines of the clipper sailing ships certainly did much to
improve matters. I referred at the beginning of the previous chapter
to the manner in which a vessel going ahead moves the water in
which she floats, and how the eddies round the stern impede her
advance. Now when a propeller revolves, much of its power is, even
nowadays, wasted by what is called “slip”—that is to say, by the
yielding of the water so that the screw does not progress to the full
extent of its “pitch.” (The “pitch” of a propeller is the amount of
distance which is represented by one whole turn of the thread. We
could measure, for instance, the “pitch” of a corkscrew by the
distance which it would penetrate in a cork.) Even after years of
experiments and improvements the wake at the end of a steamship
tends to reduce the speed of the water past the propeller, but when
first the screw experiments were conducted the design of the
afterbody of a ship’s hull was so carelessly considered that the “slip”
of the propeller was considerable. There is also to be taken into
account the fact that by the rounding in of the “stream lines” at the
stern the vessel receives a pressure which helps her forward. When,
however, a propeller is added to a ship and set in motion it disturbs
this helping-forward movement, and in a ship fitted with only a single
screw this disturbance is even greater than in a twin-screw steamer,
because the latter has her propellers placed well out, away from the
hull. We need not here pursue the subject further; it is enough now
to show that every improvement in the steamship began a new
chapter of problems, introduced difficulties that could never have
been anticipated, which time and patience alone can solve
satisfactorily.
And so we come to the construction of the Great Britain, of which
the model is illustrated opposite page 126. Let us recollect that it was
only in 1836 that the little six-ton launch Francis Smith had been
built, and that it was only three years later that the Archimedes
showed by her successful voyages that the screw method of
propulsion was no fanciful, impracticable theory. In this same year,
1839, there began to be built a still more wonderful screw steamer.
The Great Western Steamship Company had already been so
satisfied with the Great Western that they believed that a far larger
ship would be even still more profitable. Therefore, Brunel was again
consulted, and he reported that already the furthest limit of long
ships built of wood was reached. There was no alternative but to
construct her of iron, for the reasons that I explained some time
since. Iron had already been used in ship-building for barges and
also for steamboats, but on no large scale. Aaron Manby, in
conjunction with Charles Napier, had built the first iron steamboat as
far back as 1821. This ship had been conveyed in sections from
Horseley, where she was made, to the Surrey Canal Dock, and there
put together. After being tried on the Thames on May 9th, 1822, she
steamed away the next month with Napier in command, and Manby
as engineer, arriving in Paris on the eleventh of the same month.
She was thus not merely the first iron steamship, but the first iron
ship that ever put to sea. For the next twenty years she continued to
ply on the Seine. Napier was the financier of the attempt to promote
iron steamers on the French river, but by 1827 the slump in the
steamboat had taken an acute form, and he was left a comparatively
poor man. But in 1832 the Lady Lansdowne was built by John Laird
of Birkenhead for the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, and
she was the first iron steamer constructed with the intention of
performing sea-service. She was a paddle-boat, and measured 133
feet long, 17 feet wide, with a tonnage of 148 and a nominal horse-
power of 90. Later still the Robert F. Stockton, to which we have
alluded, was also of iron.
But the Great Britain was to be 322 feet long, with a beam of
50½ feet, and a displacement of 3,618 tons, with a cargo capacity of
1,200 tons, able to carry also 1,000 tons of coal, and 260
passengers. To build such a big lump of a boat as this was to be a
very grave undertaking indeed. In fact, no contractor could be found
who would undertake the construction of the ship or her engines.
She was something out of the unknown; there were no data upon
which to base calculations. Brunel, therefore, made out the designs
and the Great Western Company with great daring proceeded to lay
down plans for building her themselves at Bristol. This was in 1839.
It was intended to give her the usual paddle-wheel engines, but the
Archimedes arrived at this port, and the success of her screw
propulsion caused Brunel to modify his designs so that the Great
Britain should become not only the largest iron ship ever built, but
the largest screw steamer.
It was originally intended to name her the Mammoth, but she had
better been called the White Elephant, for all the use she was
afterwards to her owners. Her rig was like nothing afloat, and the
vocabulary of nautical terms contains no adequate description. From
our illustration it will be seen that she had six masts. On all except
the second she carried fore-and-aft canvas, but this second mast
carried two yards and square sails. Forward she had a bowsprit and
triangular headsails. In sail area alone she carried 1,700 yards of
canvas, and in length the hull was 100 feet in excess of the largest
line-of-battleship afloat. She was actually floated on July 19th, 1843,
but it was not until December of the following year that she was able
to enter the river, owing to the delay in the alteration of the dock. In
the meantime her engines had been put aboard, and on July 26th,
1845, after trips to London and Liverpool, she left the latter port with
sixty passengers, and 600 tons of cargo for the Atlantic run. She
arrived in New York after a fifteen days’ passage, with an average
speed of 9¼ knots. On the homeward voyage her best day’s run was
287 miles. The illustration facing page 126 is from a model of her six-
bladed propeller, with which originally she was fitted; but on one of
her voyages she had the misfortune to break this and proceeded to
Liverpool under her canvas. A new propeller was then fitted which
had but four blades, but later on she again resorted to the original
number. She continued her Atlantic voyages until 1846, when she
ran ashore off the Irish coast in Dundrum Bay during the month of
September, and remained for eleven months exposed to the terrible
wintry weather; but Brunel had a wooden breakwater, loaded with
stones, constructed round her, and she was eventually re-floated
and taken to Liverpool, and though her bottom was naturally
considerably damaged, yet the mere fact that she had been able to
survive at all showed that confidence might be placed in iron as a
material for ship-building. But by this time her owners had had
enough of her, and she was sold for less than one quarter of the
£100,000 she had cost. After alterations to her rig and her engines,
she was employed in the Australian trade. She was next relieved of
her engines, and turned into a sailing vessel, and then used as a
coal-hulk off the Falkland Islands. Finally she was broken up at
Barrow.

THE “GREAT BRITAIN” (1843).

From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
 PROPELLER OF THE “GREAT BRITAIN.”
From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

But apart from her size, the Great Britain possessed other novel
features which are worthy of notice. We have already remarked that
as the length of ships increased, so did the longitudinal strain, and
new methods had to be devised in order to overcome this. The Great
Britain was specially strengthened longitudinally, and furthermore
she was divided into five water-tight compartments. The original
purpose of transverse bulkheads was that if a vessel were holed by
collision or grounding, or—in the case of naval vessels—pierced by
shell, she might yet remain afloat. Nowadays they do more than this,
for, when carried up to the strong deck, they add to the longitudinal
strength of the ship. The Great Britain also possessed another
novelty, in bilge keels, which extended for about one-third of her
length. The object of these, which are so well-known a feature of
modern steamships, was to lessen rolling. Her bulwarks consisted of
iron rails with netting running round the ship. Here, again, was a new
departure. In the older ships the heavy wooden bulwarks were a relic
of the days when the guns were sheltered behind them; but from the
view of seaworthiness they were really a false safety. If a heavy sea
were shipped, the water was held in and not allowed to get away
easily; in the case of the Great Britain the water could escape just as
quickly as it came aboard.
Facing page 128 will be seen a reproduction of a model of the
Great Britain’s engines, as originally placed in her before she ran
ashore. Steam was generated in a double-ended boiler. The nominal
horse-power was 1,000, but twice that amount could be obtained,
and a speed of over 12 knots. There were four direct-acting cylinders
—of which two will be seen in the foreground of the illustration—
placed as low down in the ship as possible. The early engines which
were used for the screw did not drive the latter directly, and on
reference to the illustration it will be seen that in the centre of the
crank shaft was a drum, which was connected with another drum just
below it on the propeller shaft by means of four chains.
When referring to the side-lever engines in a former chapter, I
drew attention to the fact that in spite of their virtues they had the
great drawback of taking up a great deal of space. The second
illustration facing page 128 represents an attempt to overcome this
disadvantage. As will be seen on examining the lower part of the
engines, the lever has now become very small in size. It will be
noticed that there are two inverted cylinders, whose piston-rods are
connected by a cross-head, the latter being guided by lever parallel
movement, and from it the power was conveyed by means of a
connecting rod to the crank on the paddle-wheel shaft. The
connecting rod can be seen between the two cylinders in the
illustration. These engines were made in 1843 for the Helen
McGregor, a paddle-steamer engaged in the Hull-Hamburg trade.
She was of 573 tons, and was one of the largest ships of her class.
ENGINES OF THE “GREAT BRITAIN.”
From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
 ENGINES OF THE “HELEN McGREGOR.”
From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

It was not until 1852 that the Cunard Company were so

thoroughly convinced of the capabilities of either iron ship-building or
the screw propeller as to give both a trial. Four iron screw steamers
were then built, and these were the first owned by this line which
were fitted with accommodation for emigrants. The next year six
more iron screw steamers were added, and connection formed with
the chief ports of the Mediterranean; and when the Crimean War
broke out a number of the Cunard ships were employed as
transports. But from one reason and another the screw propeller had
not found general favour among passengers. The vibration it caused,
its unpleasant “racing” in bad weather, and the new motion as
compared to that of the old paddle-wheel, allied to the usual
obstinate temperament, showed that the earlier type had still to be
retained for a while. Following on the medieval custom, the stern of
these early steamships was still regarded as the place of honour,
and the saloon passengers were accordingly placed abaft the
machinery, which was amidships. Thus placed, the traveller was
doubtfully privileged, for the close proximity of the propeller made life
on shipboard exceedingly trying to the nerves, and there were many
who, having voyaged in the old ocean-going sailing ships, looked
back with mixed feelings to the longer but less nerve-racking
journeys. The strain on the early screw engine was very
considerable when the vessel was pitching fore and aft into the
Atlantic seas. Being of comparatively small size, its movements in
such circumstances were far more lively than in a modern, lengthy
liner, which is able to stretch over a longer span. Consequently, as
the bow came down into the sea and the stern rose out, the propeller
was much more prone to race wildly, and the gearing, such as we
saw in the engines of the Great Britain, was not infrequently unable
to endure the terrible strain to which it was put. It was for this reason
that the screw engines were afterwards made direct-acting.
The Cunard Company decided to build their next ship of iron, but
with paddle-wheels. This was the Persia, launched in 1856, a vessel
of 3,300 tons burthen, with accommodation for 250 passengers. But
she was even surpassed by the Scotia, which was built in 1862, and
is interesting as being the last and the finest paddle-ship which was
ever made for their Atlantic service. An illustration of this vessel will
be found opposite page 130. She was fitted with the greatest luxury
of the time, to carry 275 cabin passengers, had seven water-tight
compartments, and a double bottom, so that even if she should have
had the bad luck to run ashore she would still most probably be able
to endure. Nowadays most steamships are fitted with this excellent
arrangement, which was first adopted in the Great Eastern, through
the ingenuity of Brunel, to which we shall refer presently. But the
Scotia turned out to be also a fast boat, and materially altered the
time spent in crossing the Atlantic; she lowered the record to just two
hours under the nine days. Her engines were of the familiar side-
lever type, and were the finest examples of their kind that were ever
made. The cylinders were 100 feet in diameter, and steam at 20 lb.
pressure was supplied by eight boilers with forty furnaces, the speed
attained being 13½ knots per hour; her daily coal consumption was
159 tons. She could carry 1,800 tons of coal, and was exceedingly
strongly constructed. We can obtain some idea of those paddle-
wheels shown in the illustration when we remark that they were no
less than 40 feet in diameter. She was afterwards turned into a
“telegraph” ship for use in cable-laying, and her paddles changed for
twin screws. It was not until about 1896 that her water-tight
bulkheads were put to practical use; for as the result of an explosion
on board of vapour from spirit her bow was blown out of her, and the
water began to rush in. Her collision bulkhead was also damaged,
but happily the second bulkhead saved the ship from foundering.

THE “SCOTIA” (1862).

From a Painting. By Permission of the Cunard Steamship Co.
 THE “PACIFIC” (1853).
From a Painting in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Turning our attention away from the North Atlantic for a while, we
shall be able to see that steamships on other routes were now fast
passing from the olden types, when designers and builders were
working with only a minimum of data on which to base their
achievements. We have already referred to the highly important
knowledge which was gradually being obtained concerning the
relations between the hull of a ship and the water in which she is
floated. One of the greatest authorities on this subject about the
middle of the last century was John Scott Russell, who worked out a
theory regarding the resistance of the ship passing through the
water. He it was who contended that the hull should only move the
water out of the way sufficiently to allow the widest section of the
ship to pass through, and to do this in such a manner as should
cause the least amount of friction and disturbance of the water, so
that, when the ship was gone by, the particles of water should be
restored to their original quietude. It is important to bear in mind that
the design of a ship must be made with regard to the speed which it
is intended to get out of her. Thus, it is now a well-known principle
that to give a ship highly powerful engines so that she is forced
beyond her proper speed only makes the waves diverge from the
sides and waste themselves instead of travelling with the vessel and
giving it a forward impetus.
The model of the hull in the illustration facing page 134
represents the steamship Victoria, which was built in 1852 of iron,
and designed by those two great geniuses Brunel and Scott Russell
for the Australian Royal Mail Steam Navigation Company. Even the
least practised eye on looking at her lines can see that she
possessed speed, and it was this ship that gained the £500 prize
offered by the Colonies for the fastest voyage to Australia, her time
from Gravesend to Adelaide being sixty days, including two days’
delay at St. Vincent. The Victoria was designed as embodying the
wave-line theory and for a speed of ten knots. It is not necessary to
examine this model many moments before one realises how
unmistakably the clumsy, ponderous hulls so characteristic of earlier
years were now being replaced by sweet, graceful, non-resisting
features. The hull of the Victoria was separated into a dozen water-
tight compartments and displaced 3,000 tons, her length being 261
feet, with a breadth of 38 feet, or approximately seven beams to the
length. She had a two-bladed screw, and when this was not in use,
and the Victoria proceeded under sail-power alone, the propeller was
fixed vertically. Thus arranged, the ship could sail 5½ knots, but it is
interesting to remark that when the screw was allowed to revolve
freely the speed of the ship was increased another couple of knots.
 MAUDSLAY’S OSCILLATING ENGINE.
From the Original in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

ENGINES OF THE “CANDIA.”

From the Drawing in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
 It was in this ship that a type of engine was fitted to which, so far,
we have not referred. This was the oscillating kind, and was destined
to become pretty well universal in paddle-ships, though not without
serious opposition at one time. This type had been patented as far
back as 1827, by Joseph Maudslay, and in the Aaron Manby,
already mentioned, the machinery was of an oscillating nature, for
which Manby had obtained a patent in 1821, but even farther back
still—in 1785—William Murdoch had proposed the use of oscillating
cylinders. It is only fair to Maudslay to say that he had independently
worked out this arrangement, and so afforded yet another instance
of the possibility, which I have enunciated before, of different
inventors working at the same set of problems and bringing about a
similar method of solution. In the accompanying illustration is shown
Maudslay’s original oscillating engine. In this type the cylinders,
instead of being fixed, oscillate, and the necessity of the connecting
rod is dispensed with, for the cylinder is placed immediately
underneath the crank shaft, as a reference to the illustration will
show. Each cylinder is mounted on trunnions in the same manner as
a cannon, being placed at a point about the middle of the cylinder’s
length, so that it can swing, or oscillate, in such a way as to
correspond with the arc which the crank makes in its movement.
Thus there are both weight and valuable space saved. In the
instance before us the condenser is placed between the two
cylinders; the central trunnions communicate with the condenser,
and the outside trunnions with the steam pipe. But Maudslay’s
engines did not at that time find the appreciation which had been
hoped for, and it was not until 1838, when they were re-introduced
by John Penn, that they received their full favour. We shall return to
the oscillating type when we come to consider the Great Eastern.
But we may remark that the interesting steamship illustrated
opposite page 130 was also provided with the oscillating pattern.
This is the packet steamer Pacific, which was built in 1853 for the
Mediterranean service, and is another example of a vessel
constructed on the wave-line system. She was built of iron, and had
nine water-tight compartments.
The Pacific was interesting in another feature, in that she
generated her steam in four tubular boilers, each of which had five
furnaces. Briefly the evolution of the boiler had been on this wise: As
originally fitted in the Clermont and Comet it was simply a water-tank
set in brickwork, and was nearly full of water, with the fire outside, or,
to use the expression generally employed, “externally fired.” In those
days the pressure of the steam was not greater than the pressure of
the air, which we saw to be 15 lb. to the square inch. Then came a
modification of this in which the furnace was placed inside the boiler,
the advantage being that, with the water all round, the latter could be
the more readily heated. This developed into the marine “box” boiler,
with internal flat-sided flues and furnaces. This type continued to be
fairly universal until about 1845, but the utmost pressure of steam
which these were capable of enduring was not above 35 lb. or
thereabouts. But tubes instead of the flat flues began to be
introduced about the year 1850, owing to the suggestion of the Earl
of Dundonald, and these were to be of about double the diameter of
those which had been common to locomotives for the previous
twenty years. The pressure was soon raised considerably, but there
was a strong prejudice against using high pressures at sea, and the
idea was not encouraged.

THE “VICTORIA” (1852).

From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
 THE “HIMALAYA” (1853).
From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

COASTING CARGO STEAMER (1855).

From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

In the same year that the Pacific took the water was launched
the Himalaya, of which a beautiful little model is here illustrated. She
was built for the P. and O. Line. This fine ship-rigged steamship was
constructed of iron at Blackwall in 1853, and in the following year
was bought by the British Government and steamed away from
Plymouth with soldiers for the Crimea. She was of 4,690 tons
displacement, and in that year made a record run from Gibraltar at
an average speed of 13½ knots. Originally she had been built for
carrying both cargo and passengers, but now she is, or was, ending
her sphere of usefulness as a coal hulk at Devonport. Her coal
“endurance”—she could carry 1,200 tons—made her a valuable
asset, and her six water-tight bulkheads rendered her still more
efficient. As will be seen from the illustration, she had a single
propeller, and this was driven by yet another type of engine, which
we have now to consider. We refer to the vertical trunk engine. We
shall be able to understand this better if we examine the illustration
facing page 132, which reproduces a drawing of a similar type of
engines installed in the P. and O. Candia, built a year later than the
Himalaya. In the trunk engine the piston-rod was done away with, so
that the connecting rod is attached directly to the piston within a
trunk or tube. This trunk passes through a steam-tight stuffing-box in
the cylinder cover, and is made wide enough to allow of the lateral
vibrations of the connecting rod inside. As long as steam pressures
did not exceed 35 lb. this proved to be satisfactory; but the friction of
the stuffing-boxes when they became of large dimensions was a
serious drawback. The Candia, for which these engines were made,
was a screw ship, and the cylinders were placed in a fore-and-aft
position. By means of this type of engine, employing trunks, the
height required was greatly lessened, and it was not necessary, as
will have been noticed was essential in the case of the Great
Britain’s engines, that part of them should come up through the deck.
Thus, the trunk type meant a saving of valuable space. Between the
cylinders were arranged the condensers, which were of the jet type.
We may stop to remind the reader that the condenser had been the
invention of Watt, who had improved on the Newcomen engine not
merely by covering over the top of the cylinder, but by condensing
the exhausted steam in a separate vessel, called a condenser. This
condensation he brought about by means of a jet of cold water, and
the same principle was still employed in the Candia. Condensation
having taken place, the water thus formed, together with any air
which has got in, is then drawn off by the air-pumps, which will be
seen in the illustration to be worked from an intermediate crank. It
will be remarked on glancing at the left of the picture that the
Candia’s crank shaft was connected with the propeller shaft by
means of spur gearing, which doubled the speed of the screw, and
so of the ship, but yet allowed the actual engines to run
comparatively slowly. This toothed wheel idea was a better method
than that employed in the Great Britain’s engines, though it was only
just one stage better. There was a rooted objection in the early days
of the screw to running the engines at a great speed, and thus it was
only by some such means of gearing that the propeller was made to
revolve quickly. In the course of time, when a wider experience and
knowledge of engineering matters had been obtained, the gearing
was done away with and the engines became direct-acting, and so
there ensued far less friction, an absence of complication, and less
expense caused by gearing. At the same time the power obtained by
the newer method became more direct.
A customary apparatus nowadays adopted for steamships is the
surface condenser, and in the effort to increase the steam pressures
this has been a potent factor. But it had already been tried by Watt,
by David Napier, and re-introduced by Samuel Hall in 1831. The
surface condenser consists of a number of brass tubes about three
quarters of an inch in diameter, through which a stream of cold water
circulates. This necessarily keeps the pipes cool, and thus
condenses the exhaust steam which is thrown on to them from the
cylinder; it is practically a kind of tubular boiler. Instead of the jet, as
in the older form of condenser, it is the outside of the pipes which
performs the office, and the air-pump does its work as before. The
condensed steam is now available for feeding the boiler, and after
being filtered the feed pump draws it into a heater and thence it is
led into the boiler once more. If the reader will now turn to the
illustration facing page 132 once more, he will see in the right hand
of the picture that in the Candia the feed and bilge pumps were
worked by small beams from an eccentric.
By being able to use this water for the boilers a great economy
was effected, but in some of the P. and O. liners the boilers suffered
rather badly, since an injurious chemical action was set up owing to
the continuous return of the same water backwards and forwards
from the condenser. Nowadays the problems connected with the
condenser have been fully mastered, and the advantage of being
able to use distilled water is obvious; for one of the surest and
quickest methods of bringing about ruin is to use sea-water for the
boiler, over which it will lay a thick crust of salt.