REVIEWING RELATED LITERATURE

Reviewing related literature is the systematic examination of existing publications like books,
articles, and studies relevant to a research topic, aiming to understand the field's knowledge, uncover
literature gaps, situate the research, and refine questions or hypotheses. It's crucial for developing
theories, methodologies, and identifying areas for new contributions.

Citations are formal references to the work of others from which you have borrowed ideas, data, or actual
words.

Two (2) Types of Citations

1. In-text Citations. In-text citations are brief references within the body of your text that direct
readers to the more detailed entries in the reference list or bibliography. They typically include
the author's last name and the year of publication, and for direct quotes, a page number may also
be included. In-text citations provide immediate source acknowledgment without interrupting the
flow of the writing.

Examples: Single author: (Susada, 2020), Two authors: (Susada & Mendez, 2020), and Three or
more authors: (Susada et al., 2020).

Two (2) Types of In-text Citations

A. Direct Quotation. Direct quotation involves the exact replication of words from a source text
into your own writing, enclosed within quotation marks. This method is used when the
original wording is considered perfect, powerful, or essential for conveying the original
author's idea with precision.
Examples:
a. According to Santos (2020), "Learning is not a passive process, but an active and
dynamic engagement with information" (p. 45).
b. "Learning is not a passive process, but an active and dynamic engagement with
information" (Santos, 2020, p. 45).

A block quotation is a direct quotation that is separated from the rest of the text in a
manuscript and formatted as a distinct block of text. Block quotations are used when quoting
a passage that is typically longer than a threshold of 40 words or more.

B. Indirect Quotation. Indirect quotation often referred to as paraphrasing or summarizing,

involves rephrasing or condensing the ideas from a source text into your own words. Unlike
direct quotation, which reproduces the exact words from a source with quotation marks,
indirect quotation requires you to interpret and restate the original content, maintaining the
original meaning but integrating it seamlessly into your writing style.
Examples:
 a. Gonzales (2020) emphasizes the transformative potential of digital technology in
education, arguing that it not only changes the tools teachers use but also fundamentally
alters the teaching and learning process itself.
b. The transformative potential of digital technology in education, which not only changes
the tools teachers use but also fundamentally alters the teaching and learning process
itself (Gonzales, 2020)
2. Reference Citations. Reference citations, often listed in a reference list or bibliography at the end
of a document, provide full details of every source cited in-text. These entries allow readers to
locate and further explore the cited sources.

Types of Reference Citation According to Sources

A. Journal Article
Format: Author's Last Name, Initials. (Year). Title of the article. Title of the Journal,
Volume(Issue), page range. DOI
Example: Susada, B. (2020). Exploring new trends in journal article writing. Journal of
Writing Research, 8(3), 123-145. https://doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyy
B. Books
Format: Author's Last Name, Initials. (Year). Title of the book. Publisher.
Example: Susada, B. (2018). Understanding the basics. Academic Press.
C. Book Chapter
Format: Chapter Author's Last Name, Initials. (Year). Title of the chapter. In Editor's Initials.
Editor's Last Name (Ed.), Title of the book (pp. page range of chapter). Publisher.
Example: Susada, B., Susada, J.M., Mendez, M.L.S., & Mantog, J. (2019). The chapter of
understanding. J. Cervantes & M. Armingol, Exploring the depths of research, 101-120.
Scholarly Publishing.
D. Online Newspaper / Magazine
Format: Author's Last Name, Initials. (Year Month Day). Title of the article. Title of the
Newspaper or Magazine. URL
Example: Susada, B. (2021 April 15). The rise of online learning. The Education Today
Magazine. https://www.educationtoday.com/rise-of-online-learning
E. Web Pages
Format: Author's Last Name, Initials. (Year Month Day). Title of the web page. URL
Example: Susada, B. (2020, June 8). The importance of APA style.
http://www.apastyle.org/importance-of-apa-style
F. Online Reports
Format: Author's Last Name, Initials or Authoring Organization. (Year Month Day). Title of
the report. URL
Example: World Health Organization. (2019 March 14). Global health and aging.
https://www.who.int/ageing/global_health/en/
Roles of Literature Review in Quantitative Research in Education

1. Foundation for Research Question/Hypothesis. A thorough literature review illuminates gaps in

existing research, providing a solid foundation for formulating specific, relevant research
questions or hypotheses. This ensures that the study addresses unexplored areas or unresolved
questions in educational theory and practice, thereby contributing new knowledge to the field.
2. Contextualization of the Study. By situating a study within the broader scholarly landscape, the
literature review demonstrates its relevance and significance. This contextualization helps
articulate how the research builds upon, diverges from, or fills gaps in existing knowledge,
emphasizing the study's potential contribution to educational theory and policy.
3. Guidance on Methodology. A comprehensive review of existing literature provides insights into
methodological approaches that have been effective in similar studies. This guidance is
invaluable for selecting the most appropriate research design, data collection techniques, and
analysis methods, ensuring the study's methodological rigor and the reliability of its findings.
4. Benchmark for Results. Literature reviews offer benchmarks for evaluating new findings. By
comparing and contrasting new research results with existing knowledge, scholars can better
interpret their findings, assess their implications, and position them within the ongoing academic
discourse.
5. Theoretical Frameworks. Identifying and defining theoretical frameworks within the literature
review process is crucial for grounding the study in established knowledge. These frameworks
guide the conceptualization of research variables and their interrelationships, ensuring the study's
theoretical coherence and relevance.
6. Rationale for the Study. The literature review justifies the need for the study by highlighting how
it addresses a gap, challenges existing assumptions, or contributes new insights. This rationale is
essential for articulating the value of the research within the field of education.
7. Avoiding Duplication. By thoroughly reviewing existing studies, researchers ensure that their
work adds new knowledge to the field rather than replicating what has already been done. This
not only avoids redundancy but also promotes the advancement of the field through novel
contributions.
8. Identifying Variables and Hypotheses. Through the literature review, researchers can identify key
variables and develop testable hypotheses based on theoretical considerations and findings from
previous studies. This step is critical for designing a focused and coherent study.
9. Ethical Considerations. It can also highlight ethical considerations and challenges encountered in
previous studies, guiding researchers in adopting ethical practices in their own work.

Roles of Literature Review in Qualitative Research in Education

1. Establish the Research Context. It situates the study within the broader academic discourse,
providing background information and highlighting the significance of the research topic or issue.
2. Identify Gaps in Existing Knowledge. By reviewing what is already known, the literature review
helps to uncover areas that have been underexplored or not addressed from the perspective the
current study intends to take.
 3. Inform Research Design. The review helps in shaping the research questions and may guide the
selection of appropriate qualitative methodologies (e.g., ethnography, case studies, grounded
theory) by highlighting what approaches have been useful in similar contexts.
4. Theoretical Frameworks. It aids in identifying and refining theoretical frameworks that will guide
the analysis and interpretation of data. This involves understanding concepts, theories, and
models that are relevant to the study's focus.
5. Enhance Reflexivity. Through engaging with the literature, researchers can become more aware of
their own biases and assumptions, fostering a reflexive approach to the study's design, data
collection, and analysis.
6. Guide Data Analysis. Insights from the literature can inform the development of coding schemes
or analytical frameworks, helping researchers to interpret their data in relation to existing
knowledge.
7. Support Findings. The literature review allows researchers to compare their findings with existing
studies, providing a basis for discussing how the new research contributes to or diverges from
established knowledge.
8. Theoretical Contribution. It enables researchers to articulate how their findings contribute to
theoretical discussions and debates within their field, potentially offering new insights or
extending current theories.
9. Ethical Considerations. Literature can inform researchers about ethical considerations and
dilemmas encountered in similar studies, guiding them in ethical decision-making in their own
research.
10. Demonstrate Scholarly Rigor. A thorough literature review demonstrates engagement with the
academic community and establishes the credibility of the research by showing that the study is
grounded in existing scholarship.

Different Writing Styles in Writing Review of Related Literature for Research in Education

1.Narrative Literature Review

Description: This type is particularly beneficial for offering a comprehensive overview of
educational theories and practices. It's ideal for exploring the historical evolution of educational
paradigms, curricular developments, or pedagogical methods, weaving together significant
studies and theories to tell the story of educational advancements and challenges.
Use: Use when you aim to provide a broad overview of a topic, trace the development of theories
and practices over time, or when introducing a new perspective in well-established areas. It's
ideal for exploratory research or setting the stage for more detailed investigations.
2. Systematic Literature Review
Description: Given its structured approach, this review type is invaluable for synthesizing
research on specific educational interventions or outcomes, such as the effectiveness of
technology in the classroom or strategies for inclusive education. It helps in drawing evidence-
based conclusions that can inform policy and practice in education.
Use: Opt for this when your goal is to summarize findings from a body of research with a high
degree of rigor and replicability, especially to inform policy or practice. It's suitable when you
need to aggregate empirical evidence on the effectiveness of educational interventions or
outcomes.
3. Thematic Literature Review
Description: This approach is suitable for fields within education that encompass a wide range
of methodologies and theories, such as educational psychology or multicultural education. By
organizing the literature around key themes or concepts, it provides insights into the diverse
perspectives and debates within these areas.
Use: Choose this for studies that aim to examine a broad topic with diverse methodologies and
theoretical approaches. It’s useful when you want to organize literature around key themes or
issues within a field, such as different aspects of learner engagement or educational equity.
4. Theoretical Literature Review
Description: Essential for advancing educational theories, this type of review critically analyzes
and compares existing theoretical frameworks, identifies gaps, and proposes areas for future
theoretical development. It’s crucial for studies aiming to conceptualize new educational models
or critique existing ones.
Use: This is appropriate when your research focuses on conceptual or theoretical issues, aiming to
critique, build upon, or propose new theories. Use it to explore the theoretical foundations of
educational phenomena or to propose new conceptual models.
5. Methodological Literature Review
Description: This review is pivotal for evaluating and comparing the research methodologies
prevalent in educational research. Whether discussing the merits of qualitative versus quantitative
approaches in educational settings or highlighting innovative data collection techniques, it
enhances methodological rigor and creativity in the field.
Use: Select this type when the focus is on examining and comparing the strengths and
weaknesses of research methods used in the field. It’s beneficial for studies aiming to critique
existing research practices or suggest new methodologies in educational research.
6. Integrative Literature Review
Description: By synthesizing findings from both theoretical and empirical educational studies,
this review type can generate new frameworks that integrate knowledge across different
disciplines. It’s especially relevant for interdisciplinary educational research topics, such as the
intersection of education with technology, psychology, or sociology.
Use: Ideal for interdisciplinary research or when aiming to synthesize theoretical and empirical
findings to propose new frameworks. Use it when addressing complex issues that span multiple
disciplines or when trying to integrate insights from different areas of education.
7. Critical Literature Review
Description: This review offers a critical examination of existing educational research,
challenging assumptions and conclusions. It’s particularly useful in contentious areas of
education, such as debates on standardized testing, school choice, or teaching methods, providing
a deeper understanding of the issues at hand.
Use: Employ this when you intend to critically assess the literature, highlighting biases,
contradictions, or debates within the field. It’s best used in areas where there is significant
contention or where you aim to challenge conventional wisdom or assumptions.
8. Scoping Review
Description: Useful for emerging topics in education like digital learning environments or the
impact of social media on learning, a scoping review assesses the breadth and depth of the
 literature, identifying key concepts and gaps. It sets the stage for more detailed investigations into
nascent areas of interest.
Use: This is suitable for preliminary assessments of the literature to determine the scope and
nature of research on an emerging topic. Use it to identify key concepts, knowledge gaps, and the
extent of research coverage before undertaking a more detailed systematic review.
9. Meta-analysis
Description: When there are numerous quantitative studies on educational topics, such as the
impact of homework on academic achievement or the effectiveness of early childhood
interventions, meta-analysis combines these studies to offer a comprehensive statistical overview.
This review type is instrumental in evidence-based educational policy and practice, providing
robust conclusions drawn from aggregated data.
Use: Use when there are numerous quantitative studies on a particular educational intervention or
phenomenon, and you aim to statistically analyze these to draw comprehensive conclusions. It’s
most appropriate for topics where methodological similarities between studies allow for their
results to be aggregated.

THE ROLE OF THEORY IN RESEARCH

In the context of research, a theory is a systematic and coherent explanation of phenomena,

patterns, or relationships that is based on a body of evidence.

Functions of Theory in Research

1. Explanation. A theory provides a logical explanation of the relationships between variables. It

helps to understand why certain events happen and predicts the conditions under which these
events occur.
2. Prediction. By establishing relationships between variables, a theory can predict future
occurrences or behaviors under specified conditions. These predictions can then be tested through
empirical research.
3. Organization. It organizes existing knowledge by connecting facts and observations that might
seem unrelated. A theory can integrate disparate pieces of information into a coherent whole,
making it easier to understand the larger picture.
4. Guidance for Research. Theories guide research by suggesting hypotheses to test. These
hypotheses are specific, testable statements derived from the broader theoretical framework.
Testing these hypotheses helps to validate or refine the theory.
5. Foundation for Further Theory Development. A theory is not static; it evolves over time based on
new evidence. It provides a foundation upon which further research can build, either by supporting
the theory, challenging it, or suggesting modifications.

TOOLS OF RESEARCH

Tools of research refer to the diverse methods, techniques, instruments, and strategies used to collect data
related to educational phenomena.
Types of Data Gathering Tools

1. Surveys and Questionnaires. Surveys and questionnaires are popular for collecting quantitative
data from a large number of respondents. They can be distributed online, by mail, in person, or
over the phone. This method allows researchers to gather data on attitudes, opinions, behaviors,
or specific characteristics of the study population.
2. Interviews. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, ranging from formal,
standardized questioning to more open-ended conversations. They are a key tool for qualitative
research, providing deep insights into people's experiences, feelings, and perceptions.
3. Observations. Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people, occurrences at a
particular event, or processes in their natural setting. Observational data can be either quantitative
(structured) or qualitative (unstructured), depending on the study's needs.
4. Focus Groups Discussion. Focus groups discussion gathers a small, diverse group of people who
are part of the study's target population to discuss and provide feedback on specific topics,
products, or services. This method is particularly useful for exploratory research and gathering
qualitative data.
5. Experiments. Experimental research involves manipulating one variable to determine if it causes
a change in another variable. This method is widely used in scientific and psychological studies to
establish causal relationships between variables.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Quantitative research is a systematic investigation that primarily focuses on quantifying the collection and
analysis of data. This approach is often used to predict, control, and confirm phenomena using statistical,
mathematical, or computational techniques.

In quantitative research, a population refers to the entire set of individuals, items, or data points that are of
interest for a particular study, encompassing all subjects that fit within the defined criteria of the
investigation. It represents the total group about which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions. A
sample, on the other hand, is a subset of this population, selected through various methods to represent
the larger group as accurately as possible. Samples are utilized because it is often impractical or
impossible to study the entire population due to constraints such as cost, time, and accessibility. The
process of selecting a sample and analyzing it allows researchers to make inferences and predictions
about the population from which it was drawn.

Sampling is a process used in quantitative research to select a group of subjects (a sample) for study from
a larger group (a population). Since it's usually impractical to study the whole population, researchers
draw conclusions about the population based on a well-chosen sample.

Sampling Error occurs due to the differences between the sample and the entire population. The aim is to
minimize sampling error to ensure the sample accurately represents the population.

Computing Sample Size

Slovin’s Formula
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
where, 𝑛 is the sample size, 𝑁 is the total population size, and 𝑒 is the margin of error (in
decimal)

Types of Sampling Techniques

A. Probability or Random Sampling. Probability or random sampling involves selecting participants

in such a way that each member of the population has a known and non-zero chance of being
selected. This approach is characterized by random selection, allowing for the calculation of the
odds of any given individual being chosen, which supports the generalization of the results to the
broader population. The main types of probability sampling include:
a. Simple Random Sampling. Every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected which is accomplished by either fish bowl method or by the use of table of
random numbers.
b. Systematic Sampling. Every nth member of the population is selected, following a
random start. The interval of respondents is determined by dividing the number of the
population by the sample size.
c. Stratified Sampling. The population is divided into strata (subgroups) based on certain
characteristics, and members are randomly selected from each stratum. This sampling
usually followed by simple random sampling in the selection of the actual respondents.
d. Cluster Sampling. The population is divided into clusters (groups), and entire clusters are
randomly selected.
B. Non-probability or Non-random Sampling. Non-probability or non-random sampling does not
involve random selection. Instead, participants are chosen based on factors such as convenience,
judgment by the researcher, or other non-random criteria, making it difficult to determine the
probability of any individual member being chosen. This can limit the ability to generalize
findings. Types of non-probability sampling include:
a. Convenience Sampling. Participants are selected based on their availability or ease of
access.
b. Judgmental or Purposive Sampling. Participants are chosen based on the researcher’s
judgment about who would be most beneficial for the study.
c. Snowball Sampling. Existing study participants recruit future participants from among
their acquaintances.
d. Quota Sampling. The researcher selects individuals to meet a specific quota related to
demographic characteristics or other criteria.

Validity and Reliability in Research

Validity refers to how well the instrument measures what it is intended to measure. Types of validity
include:
 a. Content Validity. The extent to which the instrument covers all relevant content areas for the
construct being measured. Aiken’s V Coefficient is the right statistical tool to compute for the
content validity.
b. Construct Validity. The degree to which the instrument accurately measures the theoretical
construct it is supposed to measure. Factor analysis is the right statistical tool in establishing the
construct validity.
c. Criterion Validity. The effectiveness of the instrument in predicting or correlating with a known
variable or outcome. Correlation analysis is the statistical tool necessary in establishing the
criterion validity.

Reliability assesses the consistency of the instrument over time. A reliable instrument yields the same
results under consistent conditions. Methods to test reliability include:
a. Test-retest Reliability. Test-retest reliability measures the consistency of a test or measurement
instrument over time. It involves administering the same test to the same group of respondents at
two different points in time and then correlating the scores. Correlation analysis is the statistical
tool necessary in establishing the test-retest reliability.
b. Internal Reliability. Internal reliability, which evaluates whether items on a test measure the same
construct or characteristic by examining the correlations between different items on the same test
under the assumption that all items should be measuring the same underlying construct, is
commonly assessed using Cronbach's alpha as a statistic.
c. Inter-rater Reliability. Inter-rater reliability measures the extent to which different raters or
observers give consistent estimates or ratings on a particular measure. It's crucial in studies where
the data collection involves subjective judgment or assessment, such as coding open-ended
responses or evaluating performance. Inter-rater reliability is assessed by having multiple raters
score a set of items and then calculating the degree of agreement among their ratings. Methods to
assess inter-rater reliability include Cohen's kappa, which adjusts for the agreement occurring by
chance.

Statistical Test/s Appropriate for a Research Question

Choosing the right statistical test is pivotal for analyzing data correctly. The choice depends on the
research question, the level of measurement of the data, and the distribution of the data. Here are some
common scenarios:

a. Frequency and Percentage. The most common statistical tools in answering problem related to
the profile of respondents.
Example statement of the problem: What is the profile of respondents in terms of (a) gender, (b)
educational attainment, (c) economic status, and (d) marital status?
b. Mean. The mean, or average, is a fundamental statistical measure used to describe the central
tendency of a dataset.
Example statement of the problem: What is the level of pre-test scores of the experimental group
and control group?
c. Test of Differences (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA). Used to compare means between two or more groups.
For example, a t-test is used for comparing two groups, while ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is
 used for three or more groups. However, if there is already a difference of pre-test scores and you
are testing the difference of the post-test scores, then Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) is the
right statistical tool to use.
Example statement of the problem: Is there any significant difference on the post-test scores
between the control group and experimental group?
d. Test of Relationships (e.g., correlation, regression). Used to examine the relationship between
variables. Correlation tests (like Pearson's r) assess the strength and direction of the relationship
between two continuous variables. Regression analysis predicts the value of a dependent variable
based on the value of one or more independent variables.
Example statement of the problem: Is there any significant relationship on the post-test scores
between the control group and experimental group?