CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION

The transportation by road is the only road which gives maximum service to one and all. This
mode had also the maximum flexibility for travel and with reference to route, direction, time
and speed of travel. It is possible to provide door to door service only by road transport.
Concrete pavement a larger number of advantages such as a long life span negligible
maintenance, user and environmental friendly and lower-cost. Keeping in this view the whole
life-cycle cost analysis for the black topping and which topping have been done based on
various condition such as type of laying as single lane, two lane, four lane different traffic
namely deterioration of road three categories.

The highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed

materials above the natural soil subgrade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied
vehicle loads to the subgrade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of
acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, Favourable light reflecting characteristic,
and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to
wheel load are Suffice, Nightly reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the
sub low grade. Two types of pavements are generally recognised as serving this purpose,
namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This gives an overview on pavement types,
layers and their function cost analysis.

Various grades of concrete under a similar condition of traffic and design concrete road are
found to more suitable than bituminous road. Since the whole life-cycle cost comes out to be
lower in the range of 30% to 50% but for road having traffic less than 400cv/day and the
road is in good condition, the difference between whole Life Cost of the road is very less.
The initial cost of concrete overlay is 15% to 60% more than flexible overlay.

To design the road is stretch as a flexible pavement by using different flexible methods like
group index method, C.B.R. method as per IRC: 37 – 2001, Triaxial method, California
resistance value method, and as a rigid pavement as per IRC: for the collected design upon a

1
given black cotton soil subgrade and to estimates the construction cost of designed pavement
by each method. To propose a suitable or best methods to a given condition or problem.

The main objective of this study is to develop a strategy to select the most cost if efficient
pavement design method to carry out for a sections of a highway network and also to identify
the cost analysis of different pavement design method.

1.1 PAVEMENT

The highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed

materials above the natural soil subgrade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied
vehicle loads to the subgrade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of
acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, Favourable light reflecting characteristic,
and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to
wheel load are Suffice, Nightly reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the
sub low grade. Two types of pavements are generally recognised as serving this purpose,
namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements.

1.1.1 OBJECTIVES AND REQUIREMENTS OF PAVEMENTS:

 The surface of a pavement should be stable and non-yielding, to allow the heavy
wheel loads of the road traffic to move with least possible rolling resistance.
 The road should be even along the longitudinal profile to enable the fast vehicle move
safely and comfortably at the design speed.
 A pavement layer is considered more effective or superior, if it is able to distribute the
wheel load stress through a larger area per unit depth of the layer.
 The elastic deformation of the pavement should be within the permissible limits, so
that the pavement can sustain a large number of repeated load applications during the
design life.
 It is always desirable to construct the pavement well above the maximum level of the
ground water to keep the sub-grade relatively dry even during monsoons. At high
moisture contents, the soil becomes weaker and soft and starts yielding under heavy
wheel loads, thus increasing the tractive

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1.1.2 TYPES OF PAVEMENT

 Flexible - Pavements with a bitumen bonded surfacing and the road base.

 Flexible composite - The surfacing and upper road base our bituminous on a lower road
base of cement bonded material.

 Rigid - Pavements with a concrete surface slab which can be unreinforced, joint
reinforced or continuously reinforced.

 Rigid composite - Continuously reinforced concrete slab with a bituminous overlay.

1.1.3 PAVEMENT MATERIAL

 SOIL:-
Pavements are conglomeration of materials. These materials, their associated
properties, and their interactions determine the properties of the resultant pavement.
Thus, a good under - standing of these materials, how they are characterised, and how
they perform is fundamental to understanding pavement. The materials which are used in
construction of Highway are of intense interest to the highway engineer. This requires
not only a through understanding of the soil and aggregate properties which effect
pavement stability and durability, but also the binding materials which may be added to
improve these pavement features.

 SUB GRADE SOIL:-

Side is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived
naturally from the disintegration of rocks or decay of vegetation that can be excavated
readily with power equipment in the field or disintegrated by gen whole the mechanical
means in the laboratory. The supporting soil beneath the pavement and its special under
courses is called sub grade. Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called natural sub

3
 grade. Compacted sub grade is the soil contacted by controlled movement of the heavy
compactors.

 GRAVEL:-
These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36 mm with little or
no fines contributing to cohesion of materials.

 MOORUM:-

These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement

rock.

 SILTS:-
These are finer than sand, brighter in colour as compared to clay, and exhibit
little cohesion. When a lump of silty soil mixed with water, alternately squeezed and
tapped Shiny surface makes its appearance, thus dilatency is a specific property of soil.

 CLAYS:-
These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength
when dry and show no dialtency. Black cotton soil and other expensive clay exhibit
swelling and shrinkage properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between
fingers leaves strain, which is not observed for silts.

1.2. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Flexible pavement will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain to grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure. The wheel load acting on the
pavement will be distributed to the wider area, and the stress decreases with the depth.
Taking advantage of this stress distribution characteristic, flexible pavements normally has
many layers. Hence the design of flexible payment uses the concept of layered system. Based
on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in the number of layers and the top layer has to

4
be of the best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition to wear and tear.
The lower layer will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low quality material can be
used.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Flexible payments are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either in the
form of surface treatment (such as bituminous surface treatment generally found on the low
volume road is available) or, asphalt concrete surface courses, flexible payment layer reflect
the deformation of lower layer on to the surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub
grade then it will be transferred to the surface layer). In the case of flexible payment, the
design is based on overall performance of flexible payment, and the stresses produced should
be keep well below the allowable stresses of each payment layer.

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 .2.1 TYPE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

The following type of construction had been used in flexible payment:

1. Conventional layered flexible payment.

2. Full depth asphalt pavement.
3. Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).
4. Conventional flexible payments are layered system with high-quality expensive materials
are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials are placed
in the lower layers.
5. Full depth asphalt pavement are constructed by placing bituminous layer directly on the
soil subgrade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local material are not
available.
6. Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing Dense/open graded aggregate
layers in the between two asphalts layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is
placed above the subgrade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on the
soil subgrade and protect from surface water.

2.2 LAYERS IN THE FLEXIBLE PAYMENT

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 SEAL COAT:-
Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to waterproof the surface and
to provide skid resistance.

 TACK COAT:-
Tack coat is very light application of the asphalt, usually asphalt
emulsion diluted with water, it provide a bonding between two layer of binder course and
must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

 PRIME COAT:-
Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an
absorbent surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provide bonding
between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrate into the layer below plugs and
voids, and forms a watertight surface.

 SURFACE COURSE:-
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads
and are generally contains superior quality materials. They are is usually constructed with
dense graded asphalt concrete (AC). The function and the requirements of layer are:

 It provides characteristic such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. it will prevent the
entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub bass
and subgrade.
 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and is skid
resistance riding surface.

It must be waterproof to protect the entire base and subgrade from the weaking effect
of water.

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 BINDER COURSE:-
This layer provides the bulk of asphalt concrete structure. it’s
chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course the binder course is generally consist of
aggregate having layers asphalt and they do not require quality as high as the surface course,
so replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course results in the more economical
design.

 BASE COURSE:-
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the
surface of binder course and it provides additional load distribution and contribute to the
subsurface drainage it may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated
or a stabilised materials

 SUB BASE COURSE:-

The sub base course is the layer of material beneath the base
course and the primary function are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and
reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub grade in the pavement structure if the base course
is open graded, then the sub base course with the more fine can serve as a filler between
subgrade and the base course. A sub base course is not always needed or used. For
example, a pavement constructed over our high quality, estate subgrade may not need the
additional feature offered by a sub base course. In such situation, sub base course maybe
not be provide.

 SUBGRADE:-
The topsoil or subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the
stresses from the layer above. It is essential that at no time soil subgrade is overstressed. It
would be contacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

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 2.3 FAILURE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

The major flexible payment failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and the thermal cracking.
The fatigue cracking of flexible payment is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of
the asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load repetition to the
tensile strain and the relation can be determined in the laboratory fatigue test asphaltic
concrete specimen. Rutting occurs only on flexible payment as indicated by the permanent
information of rut depth along the wheel load path. Two design method have been used to
control rutting:

1. To limit the vertical compressive strain on the top of subgrade and

2. To limit to tolerable amount (12 mm normally). Thermal cracking includes both low-
temperature cracking and thermal fatigue cracking.

 FORMATION OF CRACKS:-

CRACKS ON FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

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 .3 RIGID PAVEMENT

Rigid pavement are those which possess not worthy flexural strength or flexural rigidity .The
stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the lower layers as in the case of flexural
pavement layers. The rigid pavements are made of Portland cement concrete-either plain,
reinforced or pre-stressed concrete. The plain cement concrete slabs are expected to take-up
about 40kg/cm2. The rigid pavement has the slab action and is capable of transmitting the
wheel load stresses through a wider area below. The rigid pavement does not get deformed to
the shape of the lower surface as it can bridge the minor variations of lower layers. The
cement concrete pavement slab can very well serve as a wearing surface as well as effective
base course. Therefore usually the rigid pavement structure consist of a cement concrete slab,
below which a granular base or sub-base may be provided. The rigid pavements are usually
designed and the stresses are analysed using the elastic theory

RIGID PAVEMENT

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In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an
elastic plate resting on a viscous medium (Figure 19:4). Rigid pavements are constructed by
Portland cement (PCC) and should be analysed by plate theory instead of layer theory,
assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation. Plate theory is a simplified version
of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate which is plane before
loading and to remain plane after loading Bending of the slab due to wheel load and
temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.

3.1 TYPES OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:

 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with
closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for
load transfer across joints. They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement although reinforcements do not improve the structural
capacity significantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. Dowel
bars are required for load transfer. Reinforcement’s help to keep the slab together even after
cracks.

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement Complete elimination of joints are achieved by

reinforcement.

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 3.2 FAILURE OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

Fatigue cracking has long been considered as the major, or only criterion for rigid pavement
design. The
Allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends on the stress ratio
between flexural
Tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture. Of late, pumping is identified as an important
failure criterion.
Pumping is the ejection of soil slurry through the joints and cracks of cement concrete
pavement, caused during
The downward movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads. Other major types of distress
in rigid pavements
Include faulting, spelling, and deterioration.

Failure of rigid pavement

1.3.3 JOINTS IN RIGID PAVEMENT

Joints are purposefully placed discontinuities in a rigid pavement surface course. The most
common types of pavement joints, defined by their function, are contraction, expansion,

isolation and construction.

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 Joints In Rigid Pavement

 CONTRACTION JOINTS:-

A contraction joint is a sawed, formed, or tooled groove in a concrete slab that creates a
weakened vertical plane. It regulates the location of the cracking caused by dimensional
changes in the slab. Unregulated cracks can grow and result in an unacceptably rough
surface as well as water infiltration into the base, sub base and subgrade, which can enable
other types of pavement distress. Contraction joints are the most common type of joint in
concrete pavements, thus the generic term "joint" generally refers to a contraction joint.

Contraction Joints in rigid pavement

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 EXPANSION JOINTS:-

An expansion joint is placed at a specific location to allow the pavement to expand without
damaging adjacent structures or the pavement itself. However, expansion joint are not
typically used today because their progressive closure tends to cause contraction joints to
progressively open.

 ISOLATION JOINTS:-

It is used to lessen compressive stresses that develop at t- and unsymmetrical intersections,

ramps, bridges, building foundations, drainage inlets, manholes, and anywhere differential
movement between the pavement and a structure (or another existing pavement) may take
place they are typically filled with a joint filler material to prevent water and dirt infiltration.

Isolation Joints in rigid pavement

 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS:-

It is a joint between slabs that results when concrete is placed at different times. This type of
joint can be further broken down into transverse and longitudinal construction joints
longitudinal construction joints also allow slab warping without appreciable separation or
cracking of the slabs.

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 CHAPTER - 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Flexible pavements are preferred over cement concrete roads as they have a great advantage
that these can be strengthened and improved in stages with the growth of traffic and also their
surfaces can be milled and recycled for rehabilitation. The flexible pavements are less
expensive also with regard to initial investment and maintenance. Although rigid pavement is
expensive but have less maintenance and having good design period. The economic part is
carried out for the design pavement of a section by using the results obtained by design
method and their corresponding component layer thickness

Saurabh Jain, Dr. Y. P. Joshi, S. S. Goliya: This paper discusses about the design methods
that are traditionally being followed and examines the "Design of rigid and flexible
pavements by various methods & their cost analysis by each method"

D. S. V. Prasad and G. V. R. Prasada Raju: This paper investigates the performance of

flexible pavement on expansive soil sub grade using gravel/ flyash as sub base course with
waste tyre rubber as a reinforcing material. It was observed that from the laboratory test
results of direct shear and CBR, the gravel sub base shows better performance as compared to
flyash sub base with different percentages of waste tyre rubber as reinforcing material. Cyclic
load tests are also carried out in the laboratory by placing a circular metal plate on the model
flexible pavements. It was observed that the maximum load carrying capacity associated with
less value of rebound deflection is obtained for gravel reinforced sub base compared to flyash
reinforced sub base.

A B.Tech project on "Proposal of alignment and pavement design for a newly built up
colony" by J.B.S. Bharathi et al In this project an attempt is made to design a model road for
a newly built up colony based on the modern principles of pavement design. On the existing
alignment of the road, soil samples are collected for the determination of soil characteristics
like consistency limits sieve analysis, C.B.R values, etc. Based on this, the thickness of the
pavement (flexible) is designed. The alignment of the road is also designed and fixed by
surveying and leveling.

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 CHAPTER – 3
METHODOLOGY AND ANLAYSIS

.2 TEST ON AGGREGATE AND BITUMEN

2.1 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST (CBR TEST)

 STANDARD:-
IS: 2720(part 16) 1979.

 DEFINITION:-

California bearing ratio is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate in to a soil
mass with the circular plunger of 50 mm diameter at the rate of 1.25 mm per minute.

 APPARATUS:-

 Mould 2250 cc capacity with base plate, stay rod and wing nut, confirming to 4.1, 4.3
and 4.4 of IS: 9669-1980.
 coller confirming to 4.2 of IS: 9669- 1980.
 Spacer disc confirming to 4.4 of IS: 9669- 1980.
 Metal rammer confirming to IS: 9189- 1979.
 Expansion measuring apparatus with the adjustable steam, perforated plate, tripod
confirming and to weight confirming to 4.4 of IS: 9669- 1980.
 loading machine having a capacity of at least 5000 KG and equipped with a movable
head of the base that travel at uniform rate of 1.25 mm per minute for use in forcing
the penetration plunger into the specimen.
 Dial gauge two number reading to 0.01mm.

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  IS Sieves 37.50 or 22.50 or 19mm and 4.75mm.
 Miscellaneous apparatus such as mixing bowl, a straight edge, scale, soaking tank,
drying oven, filter paper, dishes and deliberated measuring jar.

 PROCEDURE:-

 There are two type of methods in compacting soil specimen in the CBR moulds.
 Static compaction method.
 Dynamic compaction method.
 The material used in the above two method shall pass 19mm sieve for fine grained soil
and 37.50mm sieve for coarse material up to 37.50mm.
 Replace the material retained on 19mm sieve by an equal amount of material passing
19mm sieve and retained on 4.75mm sieve.
 Replace the material retained on 37.50mm sieve by an equal amount of material passing
37.50mm sieve and retained on 4.75mm sieve.

 STATIC COMPACTION:-

In this method calculate the mass of wet soil at required moisture content to give a desired
density when compacted in a standard test mould as given below.

Volume of mould = 2250 cc.

Weight of dry soil (W) = 2250× MDD

Weight of wet soil = 1+------× W 100

Weight of water = weight of wet soil - weight of dry soil.

Where M = optimum moisture content obtained from the laboratory compaction test.

 Take oven dried soil Sample of calculated weight and thoroughly mixed with water
(O MC) as obtained from the above equation.

17
 Record the empty weight of the mould with base plate, with extension coller moved
(M1).
 Place the correct mass of the wet soil into the mould in five layer.
 Gently compact each layer with the spacer disc.
 Compact the mould by pressing it in between the plates of the compression testing
machine until the top of spacer disc comes flush with the top of the mould.
 Held the Load for about 32 seconds and then release.
 In some soil type where a certain amount of rebound occurred, it may be necessary to
reapply load to force the spacer disc slightly below the top of the mould so that on
rebound the right volume is obtained.
 Remove the mould from the compression testing machine.
 Remove the spacer disc and weight the mould with compacted soil (M2).
 Replace the extension Collar of the mould.
 Prepare two more specimens in the same procedure as described above.

CBR TEST READING

S.NO. DIAL GAUGE READING(mm) PROVING RING READING

1 0.50 0
2 1.00 0.3
3 1.50 0.8
4 2.00 1.2
5 2.50 1.7
6 3.00 2.2
7 50 3.5
8 0 5.1
9 50 6.9
10 0 8.6
11 50 10
12 0 108
13 50 11.2

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 14 0 11.6
15 50 12
16 0 12.4
17 50 12.8
18 0 13.4
19 50 14
20 0 14.7
21 50 15.2
22 0 16
23 50 16.4
24 0 17.2
25 50 18

 DYNAMIC COMPACTION:-

 Take a representative sample of weighing approximately 6 KG and mix thoroughly at

OMC.
 Record the empty weight of mould with this plate, with extension Collar removed (m1).
 Replace the extension Collar of mould.
 Insert the spacer disc over the base plate and place of coarse filter paper on the top of the
spacer disc.
 Place the mould on a solid base such as a concrete floor of plinth and compact the wet
soil into the mould in five layers of approximately equal mass each layer being given 56
below with 4.90 KG hammer equally distributed and dropped from a height of 450 MM
above the soil.
 The amount of soil used shall be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not more than about
6 MM to be a struck off when the extension Collar is removed.
 Remove the extension Collar and carefully level the compact soil to the top of mould by
means of a straight edge.

19
 Remove the spacer disc by inverting the mould and weigh the mould with compact soil
(m2).
 Place of filter paper between the base plate and inverted mould.
 Replace the extension Collar of the mould.
 Prepared two more specimen in the same procedure as described above.
 In both the cases of compacts, if the sample is to be socked, take a representative sample
of the material at the beginning of compaction for determination of moisture content.
 Each Sample shall weigh not less than 100 g for fine grained soil and not less than 500
 Place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the compacted soil specimen in the
mould.
 Place the weights to procedure a surcharge equal to the weight of base material and
pavement to the nearest 2.5 KG on the perforated plate.
 Immerse the whole mould and weights in a tank of water allowing free access of water to
the top and bottom of a specimen for 96 hours.

CBR Test Apparatus

2.2 TEST FOR SWELLING:-

 Determine the initial height of specimen (h) in mm.

 Mount the expansion-measuring device along with the tripod on the edge of
 The mould and record the initial dial gauge reading (ds).

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 Keep this set up as such undisturbed for 96 hours noting down the readings
 Every day against the time of reading.
 This test is optional and may be omitted if not necessary.
 Maintain a constant water level throughout the period of soaking.
 Note the final reading of the dial gauge at the end of soaking period (dh).

 CALCULATIONS FOR SWELLING

df-ds
Expansion ratio =--------------100
H

ds= Initial dial gauge reading in

mm df= final dial gauge reading in

mm h = initial height of specimen

in mm

2.1 PENETRATION TEST

 After 96 hour of soaking take out the specimen from the water and remove the
extension Collar, perforated disc, surcharge weight and filter paper.
 Drain off excess water by placing the mould inclined for about 15 minutes and weigh
the mould.

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 TESTING OF CBR SPECIMEN:-

 Place the mould on lower plate of testing machine with top face exposed to prevent
upheaval of soil in to the whole of surcharge weights, place 2.5 KG.
 Annular weights on the soil surface prior to seating that penetration plunger after
which place the reminder of the surcharge weights.
 Set the plunger under a load of 40 KG so that full contact is stabilised between the
surface of a specimen and the plunger.
 Set the stress and strain gauges to zero.
 Consider the initial load applied to the plunger as the zero load.
 Applied the load at the rate of 1.25mm/min.
 Take the reading of the Load at penetration of zero, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4, 5,
7.5, 10 and 12.5.
 Raise the plunger and detach the mould from the loading equipment.
 Collect a sample of about 20 to 50 gms of soil from the top 30 MM layer of a
specimen and determine the water content in accordance with IS: 2720 ( part 4 ) 1973.
 Examine the specimen carefully after the test is completed for the presence of any
oversized soil particle, which are likely to affect the result if they happen to be located
directly below the penetration plunger.

 CALCULATION OF CBR FROM LOAD PENETRATION CURVE:-

 Plot the load penetration curve in natural a scale, load on Y-axis and
 If the curve is uniformly convex upwards although the initial portion of the curve may
be concave upwards due to surface irregularities may correction by drawing a tangent
to the upper curve at the point of contra flexure as below.
 Take the intersection point of tangent and the X axis as an origin.
 Calculate the CBR value for penetration of 2.50 MM and 5.00 MM.

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 Corresponding to the penetration value at which CBR is to be desired, take the
corrected load value from the load penetration curve and calculate the CBR from the
equation,

CBR= load carries by specimen X100

Load carries by standard specimen

Where PT - corrected unit test load corresponding to chosen penetration from Load
penetration curve.

PS - total a standard load for the same depth of penetration, which can be taken from
the table below.

CF - proving a ring correction factor.

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 Standard load curve at a specified penetration.

penetration depth (mm) Unit standard load kgf/cm2 Total standard load (kgf)

2.50 70 1370

5.00 105 2055

7.50 134 2630

10.00 162 3180

12.50 183 3600

 REPORT:-

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 Repeat the CBR value to the nearest second decimal.
 Take the average of three test a specimen as the CBR value of the test.
 Generally, the CBR value at 2.50 MM penetration will be greater than that at
 5.00 MM penetration and in such case take the value at 2.50 MM as the CBR value.
 If the CBR value corresponding to a penetration of 5.00 MM exceed that of 2.50 MM,
repeat the test.
 If the identical result follow, take the value corresponding to 5.00 MM as the CBR value.

 PRECAUTIONS:-

 Clean the holes of base plate and that of perforated disc thoroughly.
 Aligns the surcharge weight with the plunger so that the plunger penetrate freely into the
soil.

3.1.4. IMPACT TEST

 INTRODUCTION:-
Toughness is the property of material to resist impact due to traffic load, the road stone are
subjected to the pounding action and impact and there is possibility of stone breaking into
a smaller pieces. The road stone should therefore be tough enough to resist fracture under
the impact’s test designed to evaluate the toughness of the stones i.e., the resistance of
fracture under repeated impact may be called an impact test for road stones.

 OBJECT:
To determine the toughness of road stone material by impact test.

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 APPARATUS:-

a) Impact testing machine.

b) Measure: a cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75 MM and depth 50 MM
for measuring aggregate.
c) Tamping rod: a straight metal tamping rod of circular cross-section, 10 MM in diameter
and 230 MM long, rounded at one end.
d) Sieve: IS sieve of size 12.5 MM, 10 MM, and 2.36 MM for sieving the aggregate.
e) Balance: a balance of capacity not less than 500 GM to weigh accurate up to 0.1 gm.
f) Oven: a thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining
constant temperature between 100°C to 110°C.

Impact Test Machine

 PROCEDURE:-

The test sample consist of aggregates passing through 12.5 MM sieve and retained on 10 MM
sieve and dried in an oven for four hour at the temperature of 100°C to 110°C and cooled.
Test aggregate are filled up to about one third full in the St cylindrical measure and tamped
25 times with the rounded of the tamping rod. Further quality of aggregate is then added up to
2/3 full in the cylinder and 25 stocks of tamping rod are given. The measure is now filled
with the aggregate to overflow, tamped 25 times. The surplus aggregate are struck off using
the tamping rod as a straight edge. The net weight of aggregate in the measure is determined

26
to the nearest gram and this weight of aggregate is used for carrying out duplicate test on the
same material. The impact machine is placed with its bottom plate flat on the floor so that the
hammer guide columns and vertical. The cup is fixed firmly in position on the base of the
machine and the whole of the test sample from the cylindrical measure is transferred to the
cup and compacted by tamping with 25 strokes.

The hammer is raised until its lower face is 380 MM above the upper surface of the aggregate
in the cup, and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate. The test sample is subjected to a total
15 blows, each being delivered at an interval of not less than one second. The crusted
aggregate is then removed from the cup and the whole of it sieved on the 2.36 MM sieve until
no further significant amount passes. The fraction passing the sieve is weighed accurate to 1.0
gm. The fraction retained on the sieve is added it should not be less the original weight of the
specimen by more than 1 g, if the total weight is less than the original by over 1 g the results
should be discarded and fresh test made.

 CALCULATIOS:-

The aggregate impact value is expressed as percentage the fine formed in term of the total
weight of the sample.

Weight of aggregate sample in the cylindrical measure, W1 = 325 gm.

Weight of crushed aggregate after passing through 2.36 mm sieve W2 = 70 gm.

Aggregate impact value = W2/W1 ×100

=70/325 ×100

= 21.53 %

Where, W1 = original weight of sample.

W2 = weight of fraction passing 2.36 MM IS sieve.

27
 RESULTS:-

The impact value of aggregate obtained in test reported = 21.53%

 LIMITS:-

Impact value Surface strength

less than 10% exceptionally strong

10 to 20% as strong

20 to 30% satisfactory for road surfacing

greater than 35% weak road surfacing

1.5 CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST

 INTRODUCTION:-

The principal mechanical property in the road stones are Q satisfactory resistance to crushing
under the roller during construction and adequate resistance to surface of abrasion under
traffic. also surface a stress under rigid tyre rims of havlely loaded animal, drawn vehicle are
high enough to consider the crushing strength of road stones may be determined either on
aggregates are all cylindrical is specimen cut out of rocks. These two test are quite different
in not only the approach but also in the expression of I results.

Aggregate used in road construction, should be a strong enough to resist crushing under
traffic wheel thought load if aggregates are weak, the stability of the pavement structure is
likely to be adversely affected.

The strengths of coarse aggregate is assessed by aggregate crushing test. The aggregate
crushing value provider.

28
A relative measure of resistance to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load.to
achieve a high quality of pavement, aggregate possessing low aggregate crushing value
should be preferred.

 APPARATUS:-

The apparatus for the standard aggregate crushing test consist of following:

1) Steel cylindrical with open ends, and internal diameter 25.2 cm, a square base plate
plunger having a piston of diameter - with a hole provided across the stem of the plunger.
A rod could be inserted for lifting or placing the plunger in the cylinder.
2) Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 0.5 cm and height 18 cm.
3) Steel temping load with one rounded end, having a diameter of 1 cm and length 45 to 60
cm.
4) Balance of capacity - KG with accuracy up to 1 g.
5) Compression testing machine capable of applying load of 40 tons, at uniform rate of
loading of four tons per minute.

 PROCEDURE:-

 The aggregate passing 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on 10 MM IS sieve selected for a
standard test.

29
 The aggregate should be in surface dry condition before testing. The aggregate may be
dried by heating a temperature 100˚ C to 110°C for a period of four hour and is tested
after being cooled to room temperature.
 The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers of
approximately equal depth each layer being tamped 25 times by the rounded end of the
tamping rod. After the third layer is tamped .the aggregate at the top of the cylindrical
measure is a level off by using the tamping rod as a straight edge. About of aggregate is
required for preparing two test samples. The test sample thus taken is then weighed. The
amount weight of sample is taken in the repeat test.
 The cylinder of the test apparatus is placed in position on the base plate; one Thired of
the test sample is placed in the cylinder and tamped 25 times by the tamping rod.
Similarly, the other two part of the test specimen are added, each layer being subjected
to 25 blows. The total depth of the matter is; in the cylinder after attempting shall
however be… The surface of the aggregate is labelled and the plunger inserted so that it
rests on this surface in the level position. This cylinder with the test Sample and plunger
in the position is placed on compression testing machine. Load is then applied through
the plunger at the uniform rate of 4 tons per minute until the total load is 40 tons and
then the load is released.
 Aggregate including the crushed portion are removed from the cylinder and sieved on a
2.36 MM IS sieve. The material which passes this sieves is collected.
 The above crushing test is repeated on second sample of the same weight in accordance
with above test.

 CALCULATIONS:-

Weight of empty cylinder W1 = 1981 gm.

Weight of full cylinder W2 = 4745 gm.

Weight of aggregate = WA = W2 – W1

= 4745 – 1981 gm.

= 2764 gm.

30
Weight of aggregate passed from sieve 2.36 mm = Wb = 608 gm.

Crushing value of aggregate = Wb/Wa ×100

= 608/2764 ×100

= 22%

 RESULTS:-

The crushing value of aggregate obtained in test reported = 22%

3.1.6 PENETRATION TEST:

 INTRODUCTION:-
The consistency of bituminous materials varies depending upon
several factors such as constituents, temperature etc. The penetration test determines the
consistency of these materials for the purpose of grading them, by measuring its depth to
which standard needle is penetrate under specific condition of standard load, duration and
temperature. Thus the basic principal of the penetration test is the measurement of the
penetration of a standard needle in a bitumen sample maintained at 25c during five seconds,
the total weight of the needle assembly being 100g.

 OBJECTIVE:-
To determine the penetration value of a given sample.

 APPARATUS:-
The apparatus for conducting penetration test on bitumen consist of
penetrometer, Container, Thermometer, controlled water bath, stop watch and transfer dish.

31
 Standard Penetrometer

 PROCEDURE:-

 The bitumen is heated to a pouring consistency, about 75˚C to 100˚C. above

the temperature at which bitumen softens.
 The sample material is thoroughly stirred to make it homogeneous and free from
air bubbles and water.
 The sample is then poured into the containers of 35mm depth.
 The sample is then placed on transfer tray and cooled in atmosphere at temperature
between 15-30˚c for 60-90 minutes.
 The sample is then placed in controlled water bath at a temperature of 25˚c for a
period of 60-90 minutes.
 The sample is then placed under the needle of the penetrometer.
 Now the tip of needle is made to just touch the top surface of the bitumen sample.
 The initial reading of penetrometer is adjusted to zero and then the needle is
released exactly for a period of 5 seconds by pressing the knob and final reading is
taken on dial.
 The needle assembly is then raised and the penetration needle is removed and
replaced by clean, dry needle.

32
  The test is repeated on the sample in the other container, after keeping in the
water bath maintained at a temperature of 25˚c.

 OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Penetrometer Dial TEST-1 TEST-2 TEST-3

Reading

Initial 155 240 290

Final 260 295 345

Penetration Value 10.5 5.5 5.5

RESULTS:-

The difference between the initial and final penetration readings is taken as the
penetration value.

3.1.7. Los Angeles Abrasion test of the Aggregate

 INTRODUCTION:-

The principal of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative
rubbing action aggregate and steel ball used as abrasive charge the pounding action of these
balls also exists while conducting the test some investigator believes that this test to be more
dependable on rubbing and pounding action simulate the filled condition where both abrasion
and impact occur. Los Angeles abrasion test has been standardised by the ASTM, AAHO and
also by the ISI. A standard specification of Los Angeles abrasion value is also available for
various type of pavement construction.

33
 APPARATUS:-

The apparatus consist of hollow steel cylinder, enclose at both ends having are inside
diameter 70 cm and inside length of 50 cm maintained and stuff about which it rotate on a
horizontal axis. An opening is provided in such a way that when closed and fixed bolt and
nut. It is dust-tight and the interior surface is preferably cylindrical. A removable steel shelf
projecting radially 8- 8 cm into the cylinder into the cylinder rigidly parallel to the axis. The
self is fixed at a distance of 125 cm from the opening measured along the circumference in
the direction of rotation. Abrasive charge consisting of cast iron sphere approximately 4.8 cm
in the diameter and 390 to 445 g in weight are used. The weight of sphere used as the
abrasive charge and the number of sphere to be used are a specified depending upon the
grading of the aggregate tested. The aggregate grading has been standardised as a, B, C, D, E,
F, and G for this test and the IS a specification for the grading and the abrasive charge to be
used are in the given table IS sieve with 1.70 MM opening is used for separating the finer
after the abrasion test.

Los Angeles abrasion resistance

 PROCEDURE:-

Clean aggregate dried in an oven at 105°C to 110°C to constant weight. Confirming to

anyone of the grading as to go as per table is used for the test. The grading or gradation used

34
in the test should be nearest to the grading to be used in the construction. Aggregate
weighing five KG for grading a, B, C, D and 10 KG for grading E, F, or G may be taken as
test a specimen and placed in the cylinder. The abrasive charge is also chosen in accordance
with the table. Depending upon the grading of the aggregate and placed in the cylinder of
machine. The cover is then fixed in dust tight. The machine is rotated of speed of 32 t 33
roll per minute. The machine rotated Fe 500 revolution for grading a, B, C, and d and for
grading E, F, and G it shall rotated Fe 1000 revolution. The machine should be balanced and
delivering in such a way as to maintain uniform speed

After the desired number of revolution the machine is stopped and the material is discharge
from the machine taking care to take net entire stone dust. Using the sieve of size larger
than 1.70 MM IS sieve the material is first separated into the two part, and the finer portion
take net and see further on A 1.7 MM IS sieve. The portion of material coarser than 1.7 MM
size washed and dried in an oven at 105°C to 110°C to constant weight and weighed correct
to 1 g.

 CALCULATION:-

The difference between the original and final weight of Sample expressed as a percentage of
original weight of the sample is reported as the percentage wear.

Sample number Weight

Total weight of dry Sample(w1) grams 5000 g

Weight of aggregate retained on 1.7 MM 3935 g

IS sieve after the test (w2) grams

Loss in weight due to be (W1-w2) gram 1065 g

Los Angeles abrasion value (w1-w2/w1 10.65/5000 ×100 = 21.3%

×100)

35
 RESULT:-

The result of the Los Angeles abrasion test is expressed as percentage WEAR and the
average value of two test may be adopted as the Los Angeles abrasion value. The abrasion
value of given aggregate sample is 21.3%

3.1.8 FLASH & FIRE POINT OF BITUMEN

 INTRODUCTION:-
The flash and fire point of bitumen grade 30-40.

 APPARATUS:-
Pensky-Marten Closed Tester, Thermometer.

Pensky-marten closed tester

 THEORY:-

Bituminous material leave out volatiles at high temperatures depending upon their grade.
These volatile vapours catch fire causing a flash. The flash point is the lowest temperature at

36
which flash occurs due to ignition of volatile vapours when a small flame is brought in
contact with the vapours of a bituminous product, gradually heated under standardised
condition. When bituminous material is further heated to a higher temperature, the material
itself catches and continues to burn; the lowest temperature causing this is the fire point. Fire
point is always higher than flash point. The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature
at which vapour of a substance momentarily take fire in the form of flash.

The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the material gets ignited and burns under
specific conditions of test.

 PROCEDURE:-

All parts of cup are cleaned and dried thoroughly. Material is filled into cup upto filling mark.
Lid is placed to close the cup in a closed system. All accessories including thermometer of
specified range are suitably fixed. Bitumen sample is then heated. Stirring is done at regular
intervals. The test flame is lit and applied at intervals depending upon expected flash and fire
point. First application is made at about 17°C below actual flash point and then at every 1°C.
Stirring is discontinued during the application of the test flame.

 RESULT:-

Flash point of bitumen = 176°C

Fire point of bitumen =180°C

 RECOMMENDED VALUES:-

The minimum value of flash point by Pensky Martens closed type apparatus is 175°C for all
grades of bitumen.

37
3.1.9 SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN/ TAR.

4 INTRODUCTION:-
The Softening Point of bitumen or tar is the temperature at which
the substance attains particular degree of softening. As per IS: 334-1982, it is the temperature
in ºC at which a standard ball passes through a sample of bitumen in a mould and falls
through a height of 2.5 cm, when heated under water or glycerine at specified conditions of
test. The binder should have sufficient fluidity before its applications in road uses. The
determination of softening point helps to know the temperature up to which a bituminous
binder should be heated for various road use applications. Softening point is determined by
ring and ball apparatus.

5 APPARATUS:-
(i) The ring and ball apparatus consisting of
(a) Steel balls-two numbers each of 9.5 mm diameter weighing 3.5 ± 0.05 g.

(b) Brass rings-two numbers each having depth of 6.4 mm. The inside diameter at bottom and
top is 15.9mm and 17.5 mm respectively.

(c) Ball guides to guide the movement of steel balls centrally.

(d) Support -that can hold rings in position and also allows for suspension of a thermometer.
The distance between the bottom of the rings and the top surface of the bottom plate of the
support is 25mm.

38
(i) Thermometer that can read up to 100° C with an accuracy of 0.2° C.

(ii) Bath–heat resistant glass beaker not less than 85 mm in diameter &1220mm deep.

(iii) Stirrer

6 PROCEDURE:-

(i) Preparation of test sample: Heat the material to a temperature between 75-100° C above its
softening point; stir until, it is completely fluid and free from air bubbles and water. If
necessary, filter it through IS sieve 30. Place the rings previously heated to a temperature
approximating to that of the molten material, on a metal plate which has been coated with a
mixture of equal parts of glycerine and dextrin. After cooling for 30 minutes in air, level the
material in the ring by removing the excess material with a warmed, sharp knife.

(ii) Assemble the apparatus with the rings; thermometer and ball guides in position

(iii) Fill the bath with distilled water to a height of 50mm above the upper surface of
the rings. The starting temperature should be 5° C.

Note: Use glycerine in place of water if the softening point is expected to be above 80° C; the
starting temperature may be kept 35° C.

(iv) Apply heat to the bath and stir the liquid so that the temperature rises at a uniform rate
of 5 ± 0.5 °C per minute.

(v) As the temperature increases the bituminous material softens and the balls sink through
the rings carrying a portion of the material with it.

(vi) Note the temperature when any of the steel balls with bituminous coating touches the
bottom plate.

(vii) Record the temperature when the second ball touches the bottom plate.

The average of the two readings to the nearest 0.5°C is reported as softening point.

39
7 PRECAUTIONS:-

(i) Distilled water should be used as the heating medium.

(ii) During the conduct of test the apparatus should not be subjected to vibrations. (iii)The
bulb of the thermometer should be at about the same level as the rings.

8 OBSERVATIONS:-

1 2
Temperature when the ball touches bottom, °C
46.4 °C 45.8 °C

9 RESULT:-

Softening point of bitumen / tar = 46.4+45.8 /2 =46.1 °C.

40
 CHAPTER – 4

4.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT

PROPERTIES FLEXIBLE REGID

DESIGN PRINCIPLE Empirical method based on Designed and analysed by
load distribution using the elastic theory
characteristics of the
complements
MATERIAL Granular material Made of cement concrete
either plan, reinforced or
prestressed concrete

FLEXURAL STRENGTH Low of negligible flexible Associated with rigidity or

strength flexural strength or slab
action so the load is
distributed over a wide area
of sub- grade soil
NORMAL LOADING Elastic deformation Acts as beam or cantilever

EXCESSIVE LOADING Local depression Causes cracks

STRESS Transmits vertical and tensile stress and

compressive stresses to the temperature increases
lower layer
DESIGN PRACTICE Constructed in number of Laid in slabs with steel
layers reinforcement
THE TEMPERATURE No stress is produced Stress is produced

FORCE OF FRICTION Less deformation in the sub- Friction force is high

grade is not transferred to
the upper layers
OPENING TO TRAFFIC Road can be used for traffic Load cannot be used until 14
within 24 hour day of curing
SURFACING Rolling of surfacing is Rolling of surfacing is not
needed needed

41
Difference between flexible and rigid pavement

42
4.2 ROLE OF STABILISATION
Pavement materials include a combination of coarse and fine aggregate with a proportion of a
smaller clay/silt -sized particles. The objective is to ensure a final grading matrix that will
allow maximum compaction of the product with the least void present. This is to achieve a
solid layer that is in part impervious to water infiltration. Pavement materials can be used in
different layers of the pavement and requirement of such a layers will be determined by
applied load and payment compaction selected by designer.

For the pavement containing mechan1ically stabilised materials and/or modified materials,
the limiting design criteria is the vertical strain at the top of the subgrade. For a stabilised and
higher binder content materials, the vertical strain at the top of subgrade is not only design
criteria as the fatigue life of cemented material must also be considered. The fatigue life of
cemented material is usually the governing criterion.

High-performance quarried materials will likely be obtained from the nearest possible source
in order to minimise transport costs. Often, however, imported material may not be
sufficiently strong payment design requirements. in such cases, the solution is found in the
design of either stronger payment layers or a reduction in the stresses requirement for the
layer.one of the most cost effective ways to make the pavement stronger is to modify or a
stabilised the pavement material.as an alternative, it is possible to reduce the stress
requirement by the stiffening for foundation. Again, this can be done by either modifying are
stabilising the foundation

4.2.1 LIME STABILISATION

Lime stabilisation or modification is used in the road construction to improve the quality of
existing material within the construction project. Lime is an effective addictive for plastic
soil, improving both workability and a strength. Lime stabilisation can be used to:

 modify marginal material to bring it within specification or for performance

requirement
 increases strength as an alternative to cementetious stabilisation

43
  enhance volumetric stability for various layers of select material
 improve surface stability of unsealed road

4.2.2 CEMENTITIOUS STABILISATION

When stabilising the cement, the working time of the resultant material can be critical. The
time available to deliver, incorporate and compact a pavement layer needs to be understood
before project commencement. With cement as the only binder, the time for performing
placement and compaction process is limited to approximately two-hour from the incorporate
of the cement into the moistened payment materials. No rework time is normal provided for.
This can be create a demanding schedule with little opportunity for error management on the
site.

Cement as the only binder is not often used due to working time restrictions. In
addition, higher shrinkage rates can result in an increased cracking tendency. Addition of FA
to the binder extends the working life of the stabilised material, allows more time placement
in compaction of the material and mitigates risks typically associated with a single cement
binder.

44
 CHAPTER - 5

5.1 DESIGN AND COST ANALYSIS OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT

The structural capacity of flexible payment is attended by combined action of the different
layer of the payment. The load is directly applied on the wearing course and it gets dispread
with the depth in base, sub base and subgrade layers and then ultimately to the ground. Since
stress induced by traffic load is highest at the top, the quality of top and upper layer of
material is better. The subgrade layer is responsible for transferring the load from above
layers to the ground. Flexible payments are design in such a way that the load transmitted to
the subgrade does not exceed its bearing capacity. Consequently, the thickness of the layer
would vary with CBR of soil and it would affect the cost of pavement.

The thickness design of flexible payment also varies with the amount of traffic. The range of
variation in volume at a different highways has direct effect on the repetitions of traffic loads.
The damaging effect of different axle loads is also different. The Indian Road Congress
method of flexible pavement design uses the concept of ESAL for the purpose of flexible
pavement design and the same has been used in this study also.

5.1.1 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BY GROUP INDEX METHOD

in order to classify the fine grained soil within one group and for judging their suitability as
subgrade material, and indexing system has been introduced in HRB classification which is
term it as group index. Group index is the function of percentage materials passing through
200 Mesh sieve (0.074 mm), liquid limit and plasticity index of soil and is given by equation:
(0.074 mm). Liquid limit and plasticity index of soil is given by equation:

G.I = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd

Here, a = that portion of material passing through0.074 mm sieve, greater than 35 and not
exceeding 75%.

45
 b = that portion of material passing through 0.074 mm sieve, greater than 15 and not
exceeding 35%.

c = that value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than 60

d = that value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more than 30

Or, GI = (F-35)0.2 + 0.05(WL-40) + 0.01(F-15) (IP-10) DATA:

F = 66%

WL = 55%

IP = 31%

GI = (F-35)0.2 + 0.05(WL-40) + 0.01(F-15) (IP-10) = 17.35

So pavement thickness = 700mm

Thickness of surface course = 35mm

Thickness of DBM = 145mm

Thickness of base course = 200mm

Thickness of sub base = 320mm

5.1.2. CALIFORNIA RESISTANCE VALUE METHOD

F.M Hakeem and R.M.carmany in 1948 provided design method based on stabilometer R-
value and Cohesimeter computer value. Based on performance data it was estabilised by
Hveem and Car many that payments thickness varies directly with R value and logarithm of
load repetitions. It varies inversely with fifth root of computer value. The expression for
pavement thickness is given by the empirical equation.

T = K (TI) (90-R)/C1/5

Here K = total thickness of pavement in centimetre.

TI = numerical constant = 0.166.

R = stabilometer resistance value.

46
 C = Cohesiometer value

The annual value of the equivalent wheel load (EWL) here is the accumulated some of the
products of constant and the number of axle loads. The various constant for the different
number of the axles in group are given below:-

Number of axles EWL constant (yearly basis)

2 330

3 1070

4 2460

5 4620

6 3040

DATA

K = 0.166, TI = 9.66, R = 44, C = 61

Pavement thickness is given by the empirical equation:-

T = K (TI) (90-R)/C1/5

CALCULATION

TI = 1.35(EWL) 0.11

TI = 1.35(32729750)0.11

TI = 9.66

T = K (TI) (90-RC)/C1/5

T = 0.166(9.66) (90-44)611/5

47
T = 730 mm

So pavement thickness = 730 mm

Thickness of surface course = 35 mm

Thickness of DBM = 145 mm

Thickness of base course = 210 mm

Thickness of sub base = 340 mm

5.1.3 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BY CBR DATA

 Length of road = 3.45 km

 Traffic intensity as worked out = 1001 cv/d average
 Growth rate of traffic (assumed) = 7.5 %
 Total period of construction = 4 months
 Design C.B.R of sub grade soil = 5.00 %
 Design period of the road = 10 years
 Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction
 A = P×(1+r)×r
 A = traffic in the year of completion of construction
 P = traffic at last count April 2013
 r = annual growth rate of traffic
 x = number of years between the last census and the year of completion of
construction
 A =1001x(1 + 0.075)x 11076 CV/day
 Vehicle damage factor = 3.5 ; standard axle per CV (as per Clause 3.3.4.4 table 1 of
IRC -37-2001) design calculation
 Initial traffic in design lane = initial traffic x distribution factor = 1076 x 0.75 =
807.05 CVPDN = [365 x {(1+r)x-1}xAxF]/r = 365x[{(807(1+0.075)^101
}x3.5]/0.075 = 14.58 msa or say 15.00 msa

48
 Total pavement thickness for design C.B.R = 660 MM
 (As per plate – 2 of IRC -37-2001)
 the thickness of the individual component layer of flexible pavement by CBR
method is given below: so pavement thickness = 660 mm
 thickness of the surface course = 40 mm thickness of DBM = 70 mm thickness of
base course = 250 mm thickness of sub base = 300 mm

49
 CHAPTER - 6
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION

6.1 Advantages

 Durable

Once filled, permeable pavement is as durable as concrete or asphalt surfaces, and in

many cases, even more durable. It can support heavy equipment such as wheel loaders,
backhoes, fork lifts, dump trucks and 18-wheelers without a problem.

 Sustainable

The permeable pavement grids are made from environmentally-friendly recycled

materials, which reduces the amount of waste in the system and reduces the energy
required to acquire new materials. At the end of their lifespan, they can easily be
recycled, further reducing their carbon footprint.

 Eliminates Costly Drainage Systems

With a conventional asphalt or concrete surface, the parking area must be crowned and
have a system of storm drains and pipes to control water during rain or flooding events.
This can significantly add to the construction costs of the parking area, and if the system
is connected to a municipal waste water system, there may be extra costs and permits
required to install the drainage system. Water absorbing roads allows any water that
accumulates to drain through the surface and into the ground. This helps to prevent
flooding and allows any aquifers in the area to replenish naturally. Lear

 Low Cost

Asphalt and concrete can be expensive to install and require a large amount of labour
Permeable pavement is less expensive per square foot, and is much less labour-intensive.
The fill materials can be obtained from local sources, reducing transportation costs, and

50
 because the paving grids are made from lightweight plastic, the shipping costs are kept
to a minimum.

6.2 Limitations

 Limited for use in heavy vehicles traffic areas.

 It requires specialized construction practices.
 Lack of standardize test methods.
 Clogging of voids thus affecting the purpose of pavement.
 Special attention possibly required with high groundwater

Maintenance

The majority of pervious concrete pavements function well with little or no maintenance.
However, after repeated water flows, debris and residue may lodge within the top 1 to 1%" of
the void structure. Maintenance of pervious concrete pavement consists primarily of
removing this debris and residue from the void structure to rejuvenate some of its original
permeability

Routine Maintenance

All porous surfaces require some maintenance to preserve permeability and service life. A
minimum amount of planning and regular maintenance is more effective than surface
rehabilitation or replacement. Surfaces should be vacuumed at least 2 times per year. More
may be necessary based on site conditions. Well maintained Regenerative Air Vacuum
sweeping equipment is recommended Operator experience and training on both equipment
and porous surfaces is essential.

51
Rehabilitation Repairs and Replacement

Small areas of clogging can be rehabilitated using focused vacuum and water pressure. If in-
situ rehabilitation is not successful the Storm Crete unit can be removed for additional rehab
techniques (soaking, air or water pressure applied from the underside of unit, light
vibration/percussion, etc In the event of wide-spread clogging, damage, or spill the unit can
be removed and replaced in almost any weather, any time of the year.

Winter Maintenance

De- ices should be used sparingly during, winter season. Due to their freely as it does
on conventional impermeable pavements as readily as it does on conventional
impermeable pavements during thaw freeze cycles

52
 CHAPTER -7
CONCLUSION

From this report on payment it is observed that flexible payment are the most economical for
lesser of volume of traffic. The life of flexible payment is near about 15 years whose initial
cost is low needs a periodic maintenance after a certain period and maintenance costs are
high. The life of rigid payment is much more than flexible pavement of about 40 years
approx. 2.5 times life of flexible payment whose initial cost is much more than flexible
payment but maintenance cost is very less.

The pavement is designed as flexible pavement upon a black cotton soil subgrade, the CBR
method as per IRC 37-2001 is most appropriate method than other methods.

The pavement is designed as a flexible method from which each method is design on the
basis of their design thickness from which each method has different cost analysis of a
section, from which CBR as per IRC is most appropriate in term of cost analysis.

The pavement is designed as a rigid pavement, the method suggested by IRC is more
suitable.

53
 SCOPE OF PROJECT

This section sets out the guideline for design of road pavement to meet the required design
life, based on the subgrade strength, traffic loading and environmental factors, and including
the selection of appropriate materials for subgrade, sub base, base and wearing surface.

The guideline contains procedures for the design of the following forms of surfaced road
pavement construction:

a) Flexible pavements consisting of unbound materials;

b) Flexible pavements that contain one or more bond layers, including pavements
containing asphalt layers other than thin asphalt wearing surface;
c) Rigid pavements (i.e. cement concrete pavements);
d) Concrete or clay segmental pavements

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 REFERENCE

1. M. T. Highway, T. Engineering, C. Engirming, and J. National, "Bituminous

Pavement Failures Surajo Abubakar Wada," vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 94-100, 2016.
2. T. V Mathew and K. V. K. Rao, "Introduction to pavement design," pp. 1-7, 2007.
3. N. G. Sorum, T. Guite, and N. Martina, "Pavement Distress: A Case Study, vol. 3,
no. 4, pp. 274-284, 2014.
4. S. S. Adlinge and P. A. K. Gupta, "Pavement Deterioration and its Causes," pp. 9
15. 5. M. M. E. Zumrawi, "Failures Survey and Evaluation of flexible Pavement
Failures," no. January, 2015.
5. C. Engineering, "Study on Failures and Maintenance of Flexible Pavement (Pyay-
Aunglan-Koepin Portion )," vol. 3, no. 14, pp. 2984-2990, 2014.
6. W. R. Woods and J. W. A. Jr, "A General Characterization of Pavement System
Failures, with Emphasis on a Method for Selecting a Repair Process," vol. 7, no. 1,
pp. 58-62, 2002.
7. P. Kumar and A. Gupta, "Case Studies on Failure of Bituminous Pavements" 2010.
8. G. Tchemou, "Prediction of Flexible Pavement Degradation: Application Rutting
in Cameroonian Highways," pp. 1301-1319, 2011.

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