GATE MASTER’S ACADEMY Highway Materials & Testing

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Engineering Surveys :

Key map - proposed & existing routes

i. Map study:
Index map - General topography of the area
» From map study, all the rough and likely routes (alternate routes) are to be identified.
ii. Reconnaissance :
» General characteristics of an area will be studied; Aerial survey’s should be done for
vast areas.
iii. Preliminary Survey :

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» In this survey, different proposal of alignments will be compared and necessary physical
information like topography, drainage and soil is obtained.

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» Cost of the project (for different proposals) will be worked out & quantity of required
earthwork materials is obtained.
» The best route is identified among all the alternate routes (finalizing the alignment).
iv. Detailed study :
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» Transferring of the best route to the ground is done in this stage.
» Detailed soil survey is done by collecting the soil samples at a depth of 0.5 m to 1.5 m
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» In the case of water affected areas, carriageway or pavement should be 0.6 m above the
high flood level (HFL).
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HIGHWAY MATERIALS AND TESTING

Angularity number :
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» Denotes 67% of solid volume and indicates degree of angularity i.e., in a container,
67% is volume of solids & 33% is voids.
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» Measures voids in excess of 33%.

100W
AN = 67 -
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CGa

W = Weight of aggregates (kg)

C = Volume of cylinder (3 liters)
Ga = Specific gravity of aggregates

Voids Type of aggregate Angularity number

33% Rounded Gravel 0
44% Angular Aggregates 11

» As the void % increases the angularity number increases.

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 GATE MASTER’S ACADEMY Highway Materials & Testing

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
» Greenberg's logarithmic model : Greenberg assumed a logarithmic relation between
speed and density. He proposed,

V K 
= ln  J 
VF  K 
 V  KJ 
C max =  F 
 e 

» Underwood's exponential model :

To overcome the limitation of Greenberg's model, Underwood put forward an exponential
model as shown below.

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 -K 
V 
K

= e J 
VF

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» Effective Green time : It is the time which is available for the vehicles to cross the
intersections.
It is given by = Green time + Amber time - applicable lost time
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Types of signal systems :
i) Simultaneous system : In this system all the signals along a given road will always
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show same indication at same time . As the division of cycle is also same,this
system will not work satisfactorily.
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ii) Alternate system : In this system, alternate signals show opposite indications at
same time.
iii) Simple progressive system : In this system the phases and intervals at each signal
may be different but each signal will work as fixed time signal with equal cycle
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length.
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iv) Flexible progressive system : (useful for mixed traffic condition)

In this system it is possible to automatically vary the length of cycle,
cycle division and time schedule at each signalized intersection with the help of a
computer. This system is the best system out of all the signal systems.
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Green time for the pedestrian crossing :

W
Gp  ts 
Up

ts = Start up lost time = 4.7 sec as per IRC

W = Width of carriage way in meters
U P = Walking speed of pedestrians =1.2 m/s as per IRC

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 GATE MASTER’S ACADEMY Highway Materials & Testing

Note:
The normal flow is determined from traffic volume studies which are conducted during
design hour or the traffic during peak 15-minutes duration. Range of Peak Hour Factor
(PHF) = 0.25 to 1
* PHF is important in the design of roads and control of traffic. There should be a
comparison between average hourly traffic and peak hourly traffic. PHF compares traffic
volume during busiest 15-minutes of peak hour with the traffic volume during the peak
hour .
( 5,10,20 min can also be used in calculation of PHF)
Peak hour flow
PHF 
Peak traffic in't'hr in Veh /hr

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Lane Capacity :

q max  Si 
gi 
C0 

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
where q max is maximum lane capacity ; Si is Saturation flow on ith lane ; g i is green
g 
time on ith lane ;  i C  is green ratio.
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 0

Webster delay model :

C0  G i  2
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1
2 
 Co 
di  ; d i is delay on ith lane
qi
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1
si

Road marking : These are special signs to control, warn and guide the traffic.
 White paint - Pavement or Carriage way marking
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 Yellow paint - Parking restrictions and obstructions

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 Longitudinal solid line - Guiding lines which should not be crossed

 Horizontal lines - To stop vehicles (near traffic signals)
* Refer IRC 35 for road markings
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RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Points and Crossings :
Points and crossings are provided to transfer railway vehicles from one track to another.
The tracks may be parallel to, diverging from, or converging with each other. Points and
crossings are necessary because the wheels of railway vehicles are provided with inside
flanges and they require this special arrangement in order to navigate their way on the
rails. The points or switches help in diverting the vehicles and the crossings provide
gaps in the rails so as to help the flanged wheels to roll over them. A complete set of
points and crossings, along with lead rails, is called a TURNOUT.

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 GATE MASTER’S ACADEMY Highway Materials & Testing

Turnout : It is an arrangement of points and crossings with lead rails by means of which
the rolling stock may be diverted from one track to another. A turnout is designated
as a right-hand or a left-hand turnout depending on whether it diverts the traffic
to the right or to the left.

Tongue rail : It is a tapered movable rail, made of high-carbon or manganese steel to

withstand wear. At its thicker end, it is attached to a running rail. A tongue rail is also
called a SWITCH RAIL.

Stock rail : It is the running rail against which a tongue rail operates.

Points or switch : A pair of tongue and stock rails with the necessary connections and
fittings forms a switch.

Crossing : A crossing is a device introduced at the junction where two rails cross each

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other to permit the wheel flange of a railway vehicle to pass from one track to another.

Stock Rails Switch Rails

Switch Points
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Frog
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Stock Rails Crossing Running Rails

(Switch)
Point Blades Tie Bar Check Rails
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 Wing Rails
Toe Heel Running Rails
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SL
L

 = Crossing Angle
Turnout
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Total lead = Curve lead – Switch Lead

L = C.L – S.L
Gathering Lines : When more than two tracks divert from one line, it is called as Gathering
line.
Diamond Crossing : When two tracks cross each other at less than 90 degrees angle, it
forms a diamond shape and is called as Diamond crossing.
Cross-over Crossing : Connects two parallel or diverging tracks.
Based on angle of crossing, the types of crossings are
i) Acute angle crossing or V crossing – two rails faces at acute angle

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 GATE MASTER’S ACADEMY Highway Materials & Testing

ii) Obtuse angle or Diamond crossing

iii) Square crossing – two tracks cross at right angles
Number and Angle of Crossing :
A crossing is designated either by the angle the gauge faces make with each other or by
the number of the crossing, represented by N. There are three methods of measuring
the number of a crossing, and the value of N also depends upon the method adopted.
Centre line method :
This method is used in Britain and the USA. In this method, N is measured along the
1 
centre line of the crossing. N = cot
2 2
Right angle method :
This method is used on Indian Railways. In this method, N is measured along the base

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of a right-angled triangle. This method is also called Coles method. N = cot 
Isosceles triangle method :

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In this method, N is taken as one of the equal sides of an isosceles triangle.

1 
N= cosec
2 2
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 N 1m 1m  N 1m
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
N N

Centre line method Right angle method Isosceles triangle method

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AT
G

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