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CISM International Centre for Mechanical Sciences 595
Courses and Lectures
Michael Le Bars
Daniel Lecoanet Editors
Fluid
Mechanics of
Planets and
Stars
International Centre
for Mechanical Sciences
CISM International Centre for Mechanical
Sciences
Courses and Lectures
Volume 595
Managing Editor
Paolo Serafini, CISM - International Centre for Mechanical Sciences, Udine, Italy
Series Editors
Elisabeth Guazzelli, IUSTI UMR 7343, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
Franz G. Rammerstorfer, Institut für Leichtbau und Struktur-Biomechanik, TU
Wien, Vienna, Wien, Austria
Wolfgang A. Wall, Institute for Computational Mechanics, Technical University
Munich, Munich, Bayern, Germany
Bernhard Schrefler, CISM - International Centre for Mechanical Sciences, Udine,
Italy
For more than 40 years the book series edited by CISM, “International Centre for
Mechanical Sciences: Courses and Lectures”, has presented groundbreaking
developments in mechanics and computational engineering methods. It covers
such fields as solid and fluid mechanics, mechanics of materials, micro- and
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some introductory material.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/76

Michael Le Bars Daniel Lecoanet
•
Editors
Fluid Mechanics of Planets

and Stars
123
Editors
Michael Le Bars Daniel Lecoanet
IRPHE (UMR 7342) Department of Astrophysical Sciences
CNRS, Aix Marseille University Princeton University
Centrale Marseille Princeton, NJ, USA
Marseille, France
ISSN 0254-1971 ISSN 2309-3706 (electronic)

CISM International Centre for Mechanical Sciences
ISBN 978-3-030-22073-0 ISBN 978-3-030-22074-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22074-7
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Preface
The course “Fluid mechanics of planets and stars” was held at the International
Centre for Mechanical Sciences in Udine, Italy, from April 16 to 20, 2018. It was
part of the research project FLUDYCO, supported by the European Research
Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation
program.
The scientific focus of this course was the dynamics of planetary and stellar fluid
layers, including atmospheres, oceans, iron cores, convective and radiative zones in
stars, etc. Our first motivation for organizing this school came from the following
ascertainment: this scientific domain is by its essence interdisciplinary and
multi-method. But while much effort has been devoted to solving open questions
within the various communities of Mechanics, Applied Mathematics, Engineering,
Physics, Planetary and Earth Sciences, Astrophysics, and while much progress has
been made within each enclosed domain using theoretical, numerical, and experi-
mental approaches, cross-fertilizations have remained marginal. The objective of
this CISM School was to go beyond this state, by providing participants with a
global introduction and an up-to-date overview of relevant studies, fully addressing
the wide range of involved disciplines and methods.
44 participants attended the 35 lectures given by 6 lecturers, chosen so as to cover
the widest possible range of skills and knowledge in fundamental mechanics as well
as geo- and astrophysical applications. Professor Gordon Ogilvie from University of
Cambridge (UK) was in charge of the theme “Waves in fluids and in stellar interi-
ors”. Dr. Daniel Lecoanet from Princeton University (USA) focused on the
dynamics and interactions of convective and radiative zones in stars. Professor Bruce
Sutherland from University of Alberta (Canada) provided an overview of instabil-
ities in atmospheres and oceans. Dr. Michael Le Bars from CNRS (France) reviewed
numerous instabilities in planetary interiors. Dr. Renaud Deguen from University
Claude Bernard (France) discussed various aspects of the fluid mechanics of plan-
etary cores. And finally, Dr. Benjamin Favier from CNRS (France) offered a large
overview of various aspects of turbulences. All lectures were stimulating, of the top
scientific level, and entertaining, while simultaneously highlighting the many
v
vi Preface
connections between different fields and communities. The six chapters of this book
summarize this intense, but scientifically enlightening week.
Before starting, let us thank all the people from the International Centre for
Mechanical Sciences, and especially its highly qualified and sympathetic secre-
tariat, who allowed us to focus on science and made this week highly enjoyable for
all participants.
Marseille, France Michael Le Bars

Princeton, USA Daniel Lecoanet
Contents
1 Internal Waves and Tides in Stars and Giant Planets . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Gordon I. Ogilvie
2 Waves and Convection in Stellar Astrophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Daniel Lecoanet
3 Internal Waves in the Atmosphere and Ocean: Instability
Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Bruce R. Sutherland
4 Rotational Dynamics of Planetary Cores: Instabilities Driven
By Precession, Libration and Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Thomas Le Reun and Michael Le Bars
5 Fluid Dynamics of Earth’s Core: Geodynamo, Inner Core
Dynamics, Core Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Renaud Deguen and Marine Lasbleis
6 A Brief Introduction to Turbulence in Rotating
and Stratified Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Benjamin Favier
vii
Chapter 1
Internal Waves and Tides in Stars
and Giant Planets
Gordon I. Ogilvie
Abstract Internal waves play an important role in tidal dissipation in stars and giant
planets. This chapter provides a pedagogical introduction to the study of astrophysical
tides, with an emphasis on the contributions of inertial waves and internal gravity
waves.
Introduction to Internal Waves
Internal waves are those restored by Coriolis or buoyancy forces in rotating or stably
stratified fluids. In stars and giant planets, internal waves can propagate at frequencies
that are much lower than those of acoustic or surface gravity waves and are usually
more suitable for excitation by tidal forcing when the body has a close orbital com-
panion. I begin this chapter with an exploration of some of the basic properties of
internal waves, using the simplest possible models.
Plane Inertial Waves
Consider an unbounded, inviscid, incompressible fluid that is rotating uniformly with

angular velocity . In the rotating frame, arbitrary velocity perturbations u to this
basic state satisfy the equation of motion and incompressibility condition
Du
+ 2 × u = −∇q, ∇ · u = 0,
Dt
where D/Dt = ∂/∂t + u · ∇ is the Lagrangian time derivative and q is the pressure
perturbation divided by the density. Initially neglecting the nonlinear term u · ∇u,
G. I. Ogilvie (B)
DAMTP, Cambridge, UK
e-mail: gio10@cam.ac.uk
© CISM International Centre for Mechanical Sciences 2020 1

M. Le Bars and D. Lecoanet (eds.), Fluid Mechanics of Planets and Stars,
CISM International Centre for Mechanical Sciences 595,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22074-7_1
2 G. I. Ogilvie
Fig. 1.1 Illustration of the

fluid motion in a plane
inertial wave
Ω
k
θ
let us seek plane-wave solutions with wavevector k and angular frequency ω:

u = Re ũ ei(k·x−ωt) , q = Re q̃ ei(k·x−ωt) .
Choosing axes such that = ez , we obtain the algebraic equations
−iω ũ x − 2ũ y = −ik x q̃,

−iω ũ y + 2ũ x = −ik y q̃,
−iω ũ z = −ik z q̃,
i k · ũ = 0,
for which a non-zero solution exists if the dispersion relation

k z2
ω 2 = 42
k x2 + k 2y + k z2
is satisfied. This can be written in the form ω = ±2 cos θ, where θ is the angle
between k and .
These plane inertial waves (Fig. 1.1) are in fact exact solutions of the nonlinear
equations (although a superposition of plane waves is not); the u · ∇u term vanishes
because u ⊥ k.
Plane Internal Gravity Waves
Now consider a stratified atmosphere in a uniform gravitational field −g ez . In the

Boussinesq approximation (which is valid for highly subsonic motions on scales that
are small compared to the scale height of the atmosphere), an ideal fluid satisfies the
equations
1 Internal Waves and Tides in Stars and Giant Planets 3
Du DB
= −∇ Q + B ez , = 0, ∇ · u = 0,
Dt Dt
where Q is a modified pressure and

ρ0 − ρ
B=g
ρ0
is a buoyancy variable, proportional to the difference between a constant reference

density ρ0 and the actual density ρ of the fluid.
An equilibrium atmosphere is a solution depending only on z, in which u = 0,
Q = Q(z) and B = B(z), with d Q/dz = B. Arbitrary perturbations u, q and b to
this basic state satisfy the nonlinear equations
Du Db
= −∇q + b ez , + N 2 u z = 0, ∇ · u = 0,
Dt Dt
where N 2 = d B/dz is the square of the buoyancy frequency.

In the case of uniform stable stratification, N 2 is a positive constant. Initially
neglecting the nonlinear terms u · ∇u and u · ∇b, let us seek plane-wave solutions

u = Re ũ ei(k·x−ωt) ,
etc., leading to the algebraic equations
−iω ũ x = −ik x q̃, −iω ũ y = −ik y q̃, −iω ũ z = −ik z q̃ + b̃,

−iω b̃ + N ũ z = 0,
2
i k · ũ = 0.
A non-zero solution exists if the dispersion relation

k x2 + k 2y
ω =N
2 2
k x2 + k 2y + k z2
is satisfied. This can be written in the form ω = ±N sin θ, where θ is the angle
between k and g.
These plane internal gravity waves are also exact solutions of the nonlinear equa-
tions; the u · ∇u and u · ∇b terms vanish because u ⊥ k.
Properties of Internal Waves
There is a close similarity between the dispersion relations of inertial and internal
gravity waves. These internal waves have properties that are opposite to those of
acoustic or electromagnetic waves, being strongly anisotropic and dispersive. Their
4 G. I. Ogilvie
frequency is independent of the magnitude k = |k| of the wavevector and depends

only on its direction k̂ = k/k. This means that the group velocity ∂ω/∂k is per-
pendicular to k and is proportional to the wavelength 2π/k. The frequency is also
bounded (by 2 or N , respectively), resulting in a dense or continuous spectrum
when suitable boundary conditions are imposed.
Linear inertial waves satisfy the differential equation
∂2 2 2∂ q
2
∇ q + 4 = 0.
∂t 2 ∂z 2
If the time-dependence e−iωt is assumed, this reduces to Poincaré’s equation,
∂2q
ω 2 ∇ 2 q = 42 . (1.1)
∂z 2
In frequency range −2 < ω < 2, this equation is hyperbolic in the spatial coor-
dinates. Its characteristic curves or surfaces are inclined at a constant angle θ to the
plane perpendicular to the rotation axis, where ω = ±2 cos θ, and coincide with
the rays determined from the dispersion relation and group velocity. However, when
we seek modal solutions in a contained fluid, the boundary conditions are specified
on a closed surface, which is generally unsuitable for a hyperbolic equation because
of the way information is propagated along the characteristics from one part on the
boundary to another. The problem is generally ill-posed and smooth modal solutions
may not exist; similar considerations apply to internal gravity waves.
Internal Wave Beams
An internal wave beam can be formed from a superposition of waves with the same
ω and k̂, but different k. Consider inertial waves:
Du
+ 2 × u = −∇q, ∇ · u = 0.
Dt
For waves of frequency ω = 2 cos θ, the beam is inclined at an angle θ to the

horizontal. Introduce coordinates parallel (ξ) and perpendicular (η) to the beam in
the x z plane, with = ez (Fig. 1.2):
ξ = x cos θ + z sin θ, η = x sin θ − z cos θ.
In these coordinates, we can find solutions with u η = 0 that are independent of ξ and
y, oscillating at frequency ω and satisfying
∂u ξ ∂u y ∂q
− ωu y = 0, + ωu ξ = 0, −ωu y tan θ = − .
∂t ∂t ∂η
Fig. 1.2 Coordinates

parallel and perpendicular to
Ω
an internal wave beam
ξ
θ

Any complex beam profile u ξ = Re U (η) e−iωt allows an exact nonlinear solution.
When a small viscosity ν is included, a monochromatic beam spreads as it prop-
agates, and is accompanied by a small transverse velocity u η . It is described approx-
imately by

∂ ∂ ∂
(u ξ , u η , u y , q) = Re ,− , −i , −iω tan θ e−iωt ,
∂η ∂ξ ∂η
where (ξ, η) is a streamfunction that varies more rapidly with η than with ξ. Viscous
spreading of the beam along its length is described by the equation
∂ ∂3 ν
= iλ 3 , λ= ,
∂ξ ∂η ω tan θ
which can be derived by an asymptotic expansion of the solution in the limit of

small viscosity. If λ > 0, then waves propagating in the +ξ direction have negative
transverse wavenumbers kη < 0 and are attenuated in the +ξ direction. As ξ → +∞,
a generic beam tends towards a similarity solution proportional to
0
eλk ξ eikη dk = (λξ)−1/3 f (η̃),
3
−∞
where
∞
e−k̃ e−i k̃ η̃ d k̃, η̃ = η(λξ)−1/3
3
f (η̃) = k̃ = −(λξ)1/3 k,
0
is a complex function (Moore and Saffman 1969) describing the transverse structure
of the spreading beam in a dimensionless similarity variable (Fig. 1.3). The width of
the beam is proportional to ξ 1/3 , where ξ is measured along the beam from its (virtual)
source. This type of structure is commonly seen in problems in which internal waves
are generated by periodic forcing, as described below in the section ‘Forced Internal
Waves’.
6 G. I. Ogilvie
Fig. 1.3 Complex wave

profile across a spreading
internal wave beam. The real
and imaginary parts of f (η̃)
are shown as solid and
dashed curves
Fig. 1.4 Formation of a

singularity at the critical
latitude through reflection of
inertial waves from a sphere.
Rays incident from the top
right are blue and rays
reflected from the sphere are
red
Reflections and Singularities
When a beam of internal waves reflects from a boundary, preservation of the fre-
quency and therefore of the angle between k and (or g) means that the reflection is
generally non-specular and leads to focusing or defocusing of the beam. Reflection
of inertial waves from a sphere creates a singularity at the critical latitude (at which
the rays are tangent to the boundary) through this focusing effect (Fig. 1.4).
In a closed container in which the boundaries are not all parallel or perpendicular
to (or g), internal waves are generically focused into stable limit cycles known as
wave attractors (Maas and Lam 1995). A simple example is a square container that
is tilted with respect to the axis of rotation (or gravity). In the left panel of Fig. 1.5,
for the purposes of illustration,
√ the tilt angle is arctan(1/3) and the wave frequency
has been chosen to be 1/ 2 of the maximum frequency so that the rays propagate at
Fig. 1.5 Left: Formation of a wave attractor through focusing reflections. The dashed line indicates
the axis of rotation (or gravity). The figure is oriented so that the rays propagate either horizontally
or vertically. Right: Variation of the attractor with wave frequency
45◦ with respect to the axis. For ease of visualization, the figure is oriented so that the
rays propagate either horizontally or vertically. Consider the blue rays propagating
towards the right; at each reflection (producing the red rays, then the green . . . ),
the width of the beam is halved and the rays are√focused towards a √ square attractor.
As the wave frequency is varied in the range 1/ 5 < ω/ωmax < 2/ 5 (right panel,
where the axis is drawn vertically), the attractor maintains a continuous existence,
transforming through a family of parallelograms. The central member of the family
is the square attractor, which has a total focusing power of 16 (this being the factor by
which the width of the beam is reduced after a complete circuit). The outer extremes
of this family are the two diagonals of the box, each of which has a total focusing
power of 49.
The propagation of inertial waves in a uniformly rotating spherical shell involves
both critical-latitude singularities and wave attractors (Rieutord et al. 2001). As an
example of the complexity of this behaviour, Fig. 1.6 shows the frequency depen-
dence of a measure of the focusing power of the strongest attractor, in a spherical
shell with a radius ratio of 1/2. The bandwidth of each attractor is relatively small
because of the sensitivity of the trajectories of the waves to the angle of propagation
and therefore to the wave frequency.
Inertial Waves in a Sphere
A problem that can be solved analytically is to find inertial wave modes in a uniformly
rotating, homogeneous, incompressible fluid in a spherical container. Despite the
ill-posedness of the eigenvalue problem, there does exist a complete set of modes
(Ivers et al. 2015), whose frequencies are dense in the interval −2 < ω < 2 and
8 G. I. Ogilvie
Fig. 1.6 Focusing power of the strongest inertial wave attractors in a spherical shell, as a function
of wave frequency. The quantity plotted is the natural logarithm of the focusing power, divided by
the number of reflections on the outer sphere; this picks out the strongest and shortest attractors.
The radius ratio of the shell is 1/2
whose eigenfunctions are orthogonal polynomial vector fields. Similar results hold
for an ellipsoidal container (Backus and Rieutord 2017), and appear plausible for a
Maclaurin spheroid, which is a self-gravitating, homogeneous, incompressible fluid
body with a free surface (Bryan 1889). Qualitatively similar modes have been found
analytically in certain non-uniform spheres (Wu 2005) and computed in polytropes
(Lockitch and Friedman 1999), both in a low-frequency approximation that excludes
acoustic and surface gravity waves.
There are numerous methods to describe these special solutions. One is to trans-
form Poincaré’s equation (1.1), for −2 < ω < 2, into Laplace’s equation by
rescaling the z coordinate by an imaginary factor: (x̃, ỹ, z̃) = (x, y, iαz). The homo-
geneous solutions of this equation that are regular at the origin are of the form
q ∝ r̃ l Ylm (θ̃, φ̃), where r̃ = x̃ 2 + ỹ 2 + z̃ 2 = x 2 + y 2 − α2 z 2 is the new radial
coordinate and Ylm is a spherical harmonic. These solutions are polynomial in x̃ and
therefore in x. (The homogeneous solutions that are regular at infinity are of the
form q ∝ r̃ −(l+1) Ylm (θ̃, φ̃), but these involve negative powers of r̃ and therefore have
singularities on the cones r̃ = 0; as argued by Goodman and Lackner (2009), this
property explains why non-singular modes cannot be found in a spherical shell.)
It is also possible to find the modal solutions by directly calculating the radial
velocity in spherical polar coordinates (Ogilvie 2009). For example, in the case
m = 2 one separable solution has
u r ∝ r Y22
and another has

7ω 2 + 7ω − 22
ur ∝ r 3
Y22 + √ Y42 .
6 3 2
For free modes in a full sphere of radius R with a rigid outer boundary, u r must
vanish at r = R. This is possible using a linear combination of these solutions:
u r ∝ r (R 2 − r 2 )Y22 ,
when ω is one of the two roots of

15
7ω 2 + 7ω − 22 = 0, i.e. ω = −1 ± .
7 2
These are two of the lowest order inertial modes of a full sphere.
Instabilities of Internal Waves
If internal waves exceed a critical amplitude, they break and are strongly dissipated.
In the case of a stably stratified atmosphere with a plane internal gravity wave, the
total buoyancy is
B = N 2 z + Re b̃ ei(k·x−ωt) + constant.
The vertical gradient

∂B
= N 2 + Re ik z b̃ ei(k·x−ωt)
∂z
becomes inverted at some phase if |k z b̃| > N 2 (Fig. 1.7). This leads to a local convec-
tive instability that generates small-scale motions and causes the wave to break. The
breaking criterion is equivalent to |k z ξ˜z | > 1, where ξ is the displacement, related to
the velocity perturbation by u = ∂ξ/∂t.
Similarly, for a plane inertial wave, the vertical component of the absolute vorticity
is
2 + Re i(k x ũ y − k y ũ x ) ei(k·x−ωt)
and becomes inverted at some phase if |k x ũ y − k y ũ x | > 2, leading to a local inertial
instability. The breaking criterion is again equivalent to |k z ξ˜z | > 1. Since ∇ · ξ =
0 for internal waves, |k z ξ˜z | is equal to |kh · ξ̃ h |, where ‘h’ denotes the horizontal
components.
Internal wave beams undergo similar breaking instabilities when the amplitude
exceeds a critical value (Jouve and Ogilvie 2014; Dauxois et al. 2018). This is par-
ticularly relevant when the amplitude is increased by a focusing reflection.
Plane internal waves in an unbounded or periodic domain are in fact unstable at
any non-zero amplitude in the absence of dissipation (Phillips 1981, and references
therein). The parametric subharmonic instability involves the destabilization of a pair
of secondary plane waves through their coupling with the primary wave. Parametric
10 G. I. Ogilvie
Fig. 1.7 Contours of z + A cos(x + z) for A = 0.0 (top left), 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 (bottom right). The
last case illustrates the overturning of stable stratification by a plane internal wave of sufficient
amplitude
resonance occurs if the wavevectors of the three waves sum to zero and similarly
for their frequencies, within some tolerance that depends on the amplitude of the
primary wave. Owing to the denseness of the spectrum, this condition can always
be achieved. However, this type of instability relies on the spatial periodicity of the
waves and does not apply to single beams in the same way.
Forced Internal Waves
We have seen that internal waves fill a restricted range of the spectrum of oscilla-
tion frequencies in a rotating or stably stratified fluid system, and that the waves
may involve singularities. What happens when a system with a dense or continu-
ous spectrum of internal waves is forced at a frequency within that range? For the
application to astrophysical tides, we are interested in the total dissipation rate and
Fig. 1.8 Variation of the dissipation rate (on a logarithmic scale) with forcing frequency, when a
rotating fluid in a square domain is subjected to a large-scale body force in the linear regime. The
blue and red curves are for frictional damping coefficients γ = 0.01 and 0.001, respectively.
Left: untilted case, showing classical resonances with separable normal modes in the frequency
range of inertial waves. Right: tilted case, showing robust dissipation in wave attractors of finite
bandwidth
its dependence on the forcing frequency, especially in the limit that the dissipation
coefficients of the fluid are very small.
Figure 1.8 shows the linear response of a rotating fluid in a square container to
periodic forcing. The body force is harmonic in time and has a uniform curl. A scale-
independent frictional damping is applied to the fluid motion; similar results can be
expected for scale-dependent viscous damping. The response curves show the total
dissipation rate in a steady state versus the forcing frequency, for two values of the
damping coefficient γ.
In the left panel, the rotation axis is aligned with the container and the response is
dominated by resonances with normal modes, which have a rectangular structure and
can be obtained by separation of variables. Each mode contributes a Lorentzian peak
to the dissipation rate, with a height ∝ γ −1 and a width ∝ γ, like a damped harmonic
oscillator. In the limit of small γ, the response shows a forest of very narrow peaks,
although the frequency-averaged dissipation rate is independent of γ. As expected,
the resonances occur at frequencies less than 2.
In the right panel, the rotation axis is tilted by arctan(1/3) as considered in the
section ‘Reflections and Singularities’. Now the dissipation rate shows a sequence
of smooth, broad ridges. Each is associated with a wave attractor, occupying a cer-
tain band of frequency, the broadest of which is the one shown in Fig. 1.5. Within
each band, the dissipation rate has a smooth dependence on frequency and becomes
independent of γ in the limit γ → 0. This behaviour was noted and explained by
Ogilvie (2005) using an asymptotic analysis that separates the essentially inviscid
large-scale dynamics from the dissipative behaviour on small scales close to the
attractor. Large-scale forcing generates waves that are focused towards the attractor
and carry a certain energy flux towards it. Provided that there is a mechanism to
12 G. I. Ogilvie
Fig. 1.9 A beam of internal

waves (red curves) that
achieves a balance between
focusing by a wave attractor
(blue lines) and viscous
spreading
dissipate wave energy on small scales, the attractor absorbs this flux rather like a
black hole, without feedback on the large scales. If the dissipation coefficients are
lowered, then the waves must undergo more focusing reflections to reach the scale
on which they can be dissipated.
Numerical simulations of the tilted square with a viscous fluid (Jouve and Ogilvie
2014) confirm this behaviour in the linear regime. The physics of the forced wave
attractor is illustrated in Fig. 1.9. A spreading beam of the type discussed in the
section ‘Internal Wave Beams’, with a virtual source outside the container, is focused
at each reflection in a way that compensates exactly for the viscous spreading. The
simulations can also explore the nonlinear regime in which the inertial waves become
unstable, and it is found that approximately the same total dissipation rate is obtained
in the nonlinear regime as if the instability did not occur. As the waves are focused
towards the attractor, they reach a length scale on which they become unstable before
they can be dissipated directly by viscosity; the instability merely provides an alter-
native channel of dissipation, by diverting energy into secondary waves of smaller
scale that are dissipated more easily by viscosity.
Interiors of Stars and Giant Planets
Interior Models
The interior structure of stars, and their evolution as a result of nuclear reactions,
is fairly well understood and described by spherically symmetric, hydrostatic mod-
els that neglect rotation and magnetic fields. The structure of the Sun inferred from
such models is largely confirmed by helioseismology. It consists of a stably stratified
core in which energy is transported by radiation, surrounded by an unstably strat-
Fig. 1.10 Variation of the squared buoyancy frequency with fractional radius in a standard solar
model (Christensen-Dalsgaard et al. 1996). In the logarithmic plot (right), the dashed curve indicates
the negative values estimated in the convective zone
Fig. 1.11 Variation of the solar rotational frequency /2π with radius and latitude, as deduced
from helioseismology. Credit: NSO/GONG
ified envelope in which convection dominates. The radial profile of the buoyancy
frequency is shown in Fig. 1.10. The distribution of radiative and convective zones
varies considerably with the mass and age of the star.
The interior rotation of the Sun has also been deduced from helioseismology,
using the rotational splitting of acoustic mode frequencies (Thompson et al. 1996).
The latitudinal differential rotation seen at the surface through the motion of sunspots
continues nearly to the base of the convective zone (Fig. 1.11).
The interior structure of giant planets, even within the solar system, is much
less well understood. Not only are there very few seismological constraints but the
interior physics is also more complicated and less certain. Nevertheless, considerable
progress has been made recently in modelling the interiors of Jupiter and Saturn (e.g.
Helled 2019), and Saturn’s rings have been used as a seismometer for the planet
(French et al. 2019, and references therein).
14 G. I. Ogilvie
Waves and Instabilities in a Stratified, Rotating Body
Basic equations and basic state. The basic equations for an ideal, compressible
fluid in cylindrical polar coordinates (r, φ, z) are
Du r u 2φ ∂ ∂p
− =− −v ,
Dt r ∂r ∂r
Du φ ur u φ 1 ∂ v ∂ p
+ =− − ,
Dt r r ∂φ r ∂φ
Du z ∂ ∂p
=− −v ,
Dt ∂z ∂z
D ln v 1 D ln p 1 ∂(r u r ) 1 ∂u φ ∂u z
=− == + + ,
Dt γ Dt r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
where
D ∂ ∂ uφ ∂ ∂
= + ur + + uz
Dt ∂t ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
is the Lagrangian time derivative, v = 1/ρ is the specific volume and γ is the first adi-
abatic exponent. The gravitational potential is related to the density via Poisson’s
equation, ∇ 2 = 4πGρ.
Consider a steady, axisymmetric basic state representing a (differentially) rotating
star or giant plant, described by v(r, z), p(r, z), (r, z) and u φ = r (r, z), while
u r = u z = 0. This description neglects magnetic fields, convection, meridional cir-
culation, diffusion, etc. Nevertheless, the linear theory of this basic state contains a
rich theory of internal waves that is relevant to both free and forced oscillations of
stars and giant planets.
The basic equations are satisfied if
∂ ∂p
−r 2 = − −v ,
∂r ∂r
∂ ∂p
0=− −v .
∂z ∂z
The thermal wind equation is obtained by eliminating by cross differentiating:
∂2 ∂v ∂ p ∂v ∂ p
−r = − .
∂z ∂r ∂z ∂z ∂r
The basic state is called barotropic if the right-hand side
∂(v, p)
= eφ · (∇ p × ∇v)
∂(r, z)
vanishes; otherwise, it is baroclinic. According to the fundamental thermodynamic

identity de = T ds − p dv (where e is specific internal energy, T is temperature and
s is specific entropy),
∂(v, p) ∂(s, T )
= , ∇ p × ∇v = ∇T × ∇s.
∂(r, z) ∂(r, z)
Linearized equations. Now consider small perturbations, representing waves or

instabilities on this background. The linearized equations in the Cowling approxi-
mation (in which perturbations of the gravitational potential are neglected) are
Du r ∂p ∂p
− 2u φ = −v −v ,
Dt ∂r ∂r
Du φ ∂(r ) ∂(r ) v ∂p
+ ur + uz + u r =− ,
Dt ∂r ∂z r ∂φ
Du z ∂p ∂p
= −v −v ,
Dt ∂z ∂z
Dv ∂v ∂v
+ ur + uz = v ,
Dt ∂r ∂z
Dp ∂p ∂p
+ ur + uz = −γ p ,
Dt ∂r ∂z
with
D ∂ ∂ 1 ∂(r u r ) 1 ∂u φ ∂u
= + , = + + z.
Dt ∂t ∂φ r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
Let us introduce the Lagrangian displacement ξ, which is the difference in position

of a fluid element in the perturbed and unperturbed flows. It is related to the Eulerian
velocity perturbation u by
Dξ
= u + ξ · ∇u,
Dt
or, in components,
Dξr Dξφ Dξz

ur = , uφ = − r ξ · ∇, uz = ,
Dt Dt Dt
and their divergences are related by
D
=∇·u = (∇ · ξ).
Dt
Rewritten in terms of the Lagrangian displacement, the linearized equation of
motion has components
16 G. I. Ogilvie
D 2 ξr Dξφ ∂p ∂p
− 2 + 2r ξ · ∇ = −v −v ,
Dt 2 Dt ∂r ∂r
D ξφ
2
Dξr v ∂p
+ 2 =− ,
Dt 2 Dt r ∂φ
D 2 ξz ∂p ∂p
= −v −v ,
Dt 2 ∂z ∂z
and we find by integration that

1 ∂(r ξr ) 1 ∂ξφ ∂ξz ∂v ∂v
v =v + + − ξr − ξz ,
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z ∂r ∂z

1 ∂(r ξr ) 1 ∂ξφ ∂ξz ∂p ∂p
p = −γ p + + − ξr − ξz .
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z ∂r ∂z
Harmonic disturbances. Let us now consider free or forced harmonic disturbances

of the form
ξr = Re ξ˜r (r, z) exp(−iωt + imφ) ,
etc., where ω is the wave frequency and m (an integer) is the azimuthal wavenumber.
Then, the Lagrangian derivative reduces to multiplication by −i ω̂, where ω̂ = ω −
m is the intrinsic wave frequency: the wave frequency seen in the fluid frame.
Dropping the tildes and eliminating ξφ and v algebraically, we obtain
∂p vp ∂ p 2 v
(−ω̂ 2 + A)ξr + Bξz = −v + + mp ,
∂r γ p ∂r ω̂ r
∂p vp ∂ p
Cξr + (−ω̂ 2 + D)ξz = −v + ,
∂z γ p ∂z

m 2 v2 1 ∂(r ξr ) m 2 ∂ξz ∂p ∂p
1 − 2 2s p = −γ p + ξr + − ξr − ξz ,
r ω̂ r ∂r r ω̂ ∂z ∂r ∂z
√
where vs = γ p/ρ is the adiabatic sound speed and the four coefficients are given
by
∂2 ∂v v ∂p ∂p
A = 4 + r
2
− + ,
∂r ∂r γ p ∂r ∂r

∂2 ∂v v ∂p ∂p
B =r − + ,
∂z ∂z γ p ∂z ∂r

∂v v ∂p ∂p
C =− + ,
∂r γ p ∂r ∂z

∂v v ∂p ∂p
D=− + .
∂z γ p ∂z ∂z
According to the thermal wind equation, B = C and the coefficients form a sym-
metric matrix
A B A B
M= = .
C D B D
These can be written in terms of gradients of the specific angular momentum = r 2

and the specific entropy s (if the composition is uniform), as well as the effective
gravity g = −∇ + r 2 er = v∇ p:
1 ∂2 gr ∂s
A= −δ ,
r 3 ∂r c p ∂r
1 ∂2 gr ∂s gz ∂s
B= −δ = −δ ,
r 3 ∂z c p ∂z c p ∂r
gz ∂s
D = −δ ,
c p ∂z
where we have used

∂ ln v ∂ ln v ∂ ln T 1
= =δ
∂s p ∂ ln T p ∂s p cp
and note that δ = 1 for an ideal gas.

Our equations are reducible to a second-order partial differential equation (PDE)
for p . Without writing this out in full, we can note that the structure of the second-
derivative terms is
∂2 p ∂2 p ∂2 p
(ω̂ 2 − D) + 2B + ( ω̂ 2
− A) + · · · = 0,
∂r 2 ∂r ∂z ∂z 2
implying that the PDE is hyperbolic when
B 2 > (ω̂ 2 − A)(ω̂ 2 − D).
This is true for squared frequencies in the range
(A + D) − (A − D)2 + 4B 2 (A + D) + (A − D)2 + 4B 2
< ω̂ 2 < , (1.2)
2 2
corresponding to inertia-gravity waves—internal waves that are restored by a com-
bination of inertial and buoyancy forces and generalize the waves discussed in the
sections ‘Plane Inertial Waves’ and ‘Plane Internal Gravity Waves’. The characteris-
tics of the hyperbolic PDE are generally curved, unlike those of Poincaré’s equation
for pure inertial waves in a uniformly rotating fluid.
18 G. I. Ogilvie
Axisymmetric perturbations. In the special case of axisymmetric perturbations

(m = 0), our equations can be written in the form

p
ω ξ = M · ξ + v ∇p −
2
∇p , (1.3)
γp
p = −γ p∇ · ξ − ξ · ∇ p,
where only the meridional (r, z) components of ξ are included. Taking the scalar
product of Eq. (1.3) with ρξ ∗ and integrating over the volume of the star with p = 0
and ρ = 0 at the surface, we obtain

| p |2
ω =
2
ρQ(ξ) d V + dV ρ|ξ|2 d V,
γp
where Q(ξ) = ξ ∗ · M · ξ is the real Hermitian form associated with the matrix M.
This expression for ω 2 has two contributions: the first involves inertial and buoyancy
forces and is associated with internal waves, while the second involves pressure
perturbations and is associated with acoustic waves. It has the usual variational
property associated with self-adjoint eigenvalue problems: the eigenvalues ω 2 are
the stationary values of this expression among trial displacements that are regular at
the surface. The star is unstable (with respect to axisymmetric perturbations) if and
only if the expression can be made negative by such a trial displacement. Clearly,
a necessary condition for instability is that M have a negative eigenvalue in some
region because, otherwise, Q ≥ 0. This condition can also be shown to be sufficient
for instability; if it is satisfied, we can construct a trial displacement ξ that is localized
in this region, achieves Q < 0 by being nearly parallel to the eigenvector e with the
negative eigenvalue, and avoids any positive acoustic contribution by having p = 0.
(This can be arranged by giving ξ a short wavelength in the direction perpendicular
to e and setting the subdominant component of ξ perpendicular to e so as to make
p vanish.)
Noting that M has non-negative eigenvalues if tr M = A + D ≥ 0 and det M =
AD − B 2 ≥ 0, we obtain the Høiland stability criteria: for stability we require

1 ∂2 δ ∂2 ∂s ∂2 ∂s
− g · ∇s ≥ 0 and − gz − ≥ 0.
r 3 ∂r cp ∂r ∂z ∂z ∂r
Two special (barotropic) cases can be understood more easily. In the non-rotating
case ( = 0), the first criterion reduces to the Schwarzschild criterion for convec-
tive stability, −g · ∇s ≥ 0 (i.e. N 2 ≥ 0). In the homentropic case (s = constant), it
reduces instead to the Rayleigh criterion for inertial stability, d2 /dr ≥ 0.
−g −g
∇s ∇2
∇2 ∇s
er er
STABLE UNSTABLE
Fig. 1.12 Stable and unstable baroclinic configurations of a rotating star
In baroclinic equilibria, the second Høiland criterion needs to be considered:
(er × (−g)) · (∇2 × ∇s) ≥ 0.
For stability, the specific angular momentum should not decrease with r on each
surface of constant entropy (Fig. 1.12).
Short-wavelength disturbances. Let us now consider short-wavelength (and gen-
erally non-axisymmetric) disturbances of the form

ξr ∼ Re ξ˜r (r, z) exp(−iωt + imφ + iϕ) ,
etc., where ϕ(r, z) is a rapidly varying phase variable. Then, when the gradient
operator acts on perturbations, the result at leading order is multiplication by i k,
where k = ∇ϕ is the local wavevector.
Two different ordering schemes are possible in the short-wavelength limit |k| →
∞. In the acoustic-wave ordering, ω̂ = O(|k|) also diverges and we obtain the dom-
inant balances
−ω̂ 2 ξ ∼ −v i k p , p ∼ −γ p i k · ξ,
leading to the local dispersion relation for acoustic waves,
ω̂ 2 ∼ vs2 |k|2 .
In this scheme, m/r can be O(|k|) in general, forming the φ component of k.

In the internal wave ordering, ω̂ = O(1) remains finite as |k| → ∞. In this
scheme, m is at most O(1), so k is essentially meridional. We require p to be
an order smaller than ξ; otherwise, the ∇ p terms are unbalanced. The dominant
balances are
20 G. I. Ogilvie
∂p
−ω̂ 2 ξr + 2iω̂ξφ + 2r ξ · ∇ ∼ −v − v ikr p ,
∂r
−ω̂ 2 ξφ − 2iω̂ξr ∼ 0,
∂p
−ω̂ 2 ξz ∼ −v − v ik z p ,
∂z

∂v v ∂p ∂v v ∂p
v ∼ −ξr + − ξz + ,
∂r γ p ∂r ∂z γ p ∂z
ikr ξr + ik z ξz ∼ 0,
while p becomes algebraically independent of ξ. Eliminating ξφ , we obtain (in terms

of the meridional components of the displacement only)
−ω̂ 2 ξ + M · ξ ∼ −v i k p , i k · ξ ∼ 0,
leading to the local dispersion relation for internal (inertia-gravity) waves,
ω̂ 2 ∼ Q(ξ̂),
with ξ̂ = ξ/|ξ| ⊥ k. The range of ω̂ 2 for internal waves is bounded by the two
eigenvalues of M (Eq. 1.2), leading to a dense or continuous spectrum, and ω̂ 2 is
positive if the equilibrium is Høiland stable.
Approaches to Internal Waves in Stars and Giant Planets
A variety of approaches have been taken to understanding and calculating internal

waves in stars and giant planets. Global linear computations of internal waves on
idealized axisymmetric basic states have been carried out for both free oscillations
(e.g. Dintrans and Rieutord 2000; Mirouh et al. 2016) and tidally forced disturbances
(e.g. Ogilvie and Lin 2004). Nonlinear numerical simulations have also been used,
particularly to study the internal waves generated by convection (e.g. Alvan et al.
2014). More analytical approaches have also been taken: these include the analysis of
characteristics, wave attractors, etc. (e.g. Rieutord et al. 2001), ray tracing (e.g. Prat
et al. 2016) and extensions of the WKB method (e.g. Ivanov and Papaloizou 2010).
These methods are in fact closely related and it would be valuable to unify them.
Tidal Interaction of Two Bodies
Introduction
It is well known that the motion of two gravitationally bound point masses in Newto-
nian dynamics is described by a Keplerian elliptical orbit. If the bodies are extended,
however, then each is deformed from a spherical shape by tidal forces, as well as
by rotation, and this perturbs the orbital motion. We are particularly interested in
dissipative aspects of the tidal interaction that lead to an irreversible evolution of the
orbit and the spins of the two bodies.
Gravitational Interaction of Particulate Systems
Consider first two bodies composed of particles that interact only through gravity.
The particles of body 1 have masses m i and position vectors r i (t), so that the total
mass M and centre of mass R(t) of body 1 are given by

M= mi , MR = mi r i .
i i
The positions x i = r i − R of its particles relative to the centre of mass satisfy

m i x i = 0. (1.4)
i
The total linear momentum of body 1 is

m i ṙ i = M Ṙ,
i
its total angular momentum about the origin is

m i r i × ṙ i = M R × Ṙ + m i x i × ẋ i
i i
and its total kinetic energy is

1 1 1
m i |ṙ i |2 = M| Ṙ|2 + m i | ẋ i |2 .
i
2 2 i
2
We denote the equivalent quantities for body 2 with primes: m i , r i , M , R , x i .

The total kinetic energy of the system is
1 1 1 1 2
T = M| Ṙ|2 + m i | ẋ i |2 + M | Ṙ |2 + m ẋ
2 i
2 2 i
2 i i
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One other thing, the oysters at Kurrachee are not bad, particularly
when you know you won’t get any for five years to come.
We were much struck with the beauty and cheapness of the black-
wood furniture here. This beautiful carved furniture is now, so they
told us, out of fashion in India, and may be had for a song; the worst
of it is, it is brittle and bulky. We went to one of the dealers and
bought a hundred pounds’ worth, and for this sum our Persian home
would have been sumptuously furnished; we made a contract with
the seller, in writing, to pay him ten per cent. extra for the whole to be
delivered free on board, in cases not weighing over three hundred
pounds each, and not measuring more than four by three feet; if
otherwise as to size and weight, the bargain to be off. The afternoon
before the Arcot left, we, on our return from our drive, found the
dealer on board, and he smilingly informed us that the furniture was
all in the hold; he then presented his bill. I smelt a rat, as I had told
him I must see the cases and weigh them before shipment. Luckily I
did not trust the fellow, for some of the cases weighed eight hundred
pounds, and of course could not have gone up country in Persia. I
refused to take delivery, and was threatened with the law. But it
appears that the dealer, on showing his contract to a solicitor, was
told he had no case, and reluctantly removed his packages. I was
sorry the man lost by the affair, but packages of huge size and
weight were useless for mule carriage. So we lost our black-wood
furniture.
We had ten days of the coast of Belūchistan and the Persian Gulf,
stopping at Linga, Bunder Abbas, etc., though we did not go ashore,
having no desire for some hours’ pull, in the sun, in an open native
boat on a very rough sea.
At length Bushire was reached, and after a seven weeks’ voyage
from the time we left London, we landed in Persia; and were
hospitably entertained at the Residency, where Colonel Prideaux,
one of the whilom captives of King Theodore, was Acting Political
Resident in the Persian Gulf; Colonel Ross being at home on leave.
I was anxious to draw pay again, which I could only do on
reaching my station, Shiraz; and to escape the rains: so I engaged a
muleteer, and finding two of my old servants and a boy in Bushire,
we started with thirty mules, ourselves riding muleteers’ ponies.
Our stay in Bushire lasted only four days, and at some personal
discomfort we started, hoping to avoid the rains which were due in a
fortnight.
CHAPTER XXXII.
FROM THE PERSIAN GULF TO ISPAHAN.
Our start for Shiraz—Camp out—Borasjūn—Spring at Dalliké—Kotuls—Kazerūn—

Buy a horse—A tough climb—Place of Collins’s murder—Arrive in Shiraz—
Hire a house—Settle down—Breaking horses—Night marching—Difficulties of
start—Mūrghab—Find our muleteer and loads—Abadeh—Yezdikhast—
Koomishah—Mayar—Marg—Arrive in Julfa.
We ourselves, our small dog “Pip” in a cage, and our canaries—

almost unknown in Persia—and seventy-two tiny “avadavats”
(bought at Kurrachee for three rupees), left in a boat for Sheif, on an
estuary of the gulf, thus avoiding the Macheelah plain, a dreadful
march of mud and water, and shortening the journey to Shiraz by two
stages.
After four hours’ pull and sail in the burning sun we reached Sheif.
This appeared simply a mud hut on the beach. There may have
been a village, but we saw nothing of it. Here we mounted our sorry
steeds.
Some three hours after we caught up with the rest of our loads,
which had struggled out through the Macheelah the day before. All
the mules were knocked up, and my wife was fatigued with the
unwonted exertion of riding a muleteer’s pony. This is at any time
hard work for a man, for the beast does not answer the bit, bores
continually on it, and strokes with a light-cutting whip are quite unfelt.
There is also a struggle among the riding ponies, more used to loads
than riders, as to who shall be last of all; in which a lady’s pony is
generally the victor.
It had been impossible to buy a hack suited to a lady in Bushire. I
had been asked English prices for the ghosts of steeds—quite
honestly, however, for Bushire prices are much higher than Shiraz
ones. So after my wife’s trying my pony, the cook’s, and the head
muleteer’s, I got one of our escort, a good-natured fellow, clad in
rags and smiles, to lend her his. This “yabū” (common pony) was at
all events easy, and had a canter in him at need.
At sunset the muleteer informed me that we were twenty miles
from our halting-place, Borasjūn, and that the mules could do no
more. It was hopeless to attempt to go on, as my wife was as tired
as the mules. Night (happily a warm one) was coming on; there was
no sign of any shelter for miles, the only thing visible on the sandy
plain being the distant date-groves, and these are of course no
protection. The road was dry, which was something, and we had
plenty of food with us; so we halted, spread our carpets, had tea,
and later on dinner, and camped out—rather a dreadful first day’s
travelling in Persia for a lady, to sleep without shelter, and in her
clothes, in the middle of the road, after travelling since ten a.m.
However, there was nothing else for it. The Sheif road is a very
unfrequented one, and the country was safe and undisturbed. It was
a lovely night, not a breath of wind. At four a.m. we had tea, and
started at five, getting into Borasjūn at ten.
For the time of year the luxuriant vegetation near the village was
extraordinary; it was now late in October, the heat was great, and the
amount of moisture in the air somewhat oppressive. We found
capital rooms in the caravanserai, and the clerk at the telegraph-
station made us welcome to high tea, being rather indignant that we
had not come straight to the office. After that we started again, and
reached our halting-place at midnight.
At Dalliké is a rest-house maintained by the Department for the
use of the employés. A short distance from the rest-house at Dalliké
is a hot spring of clearest water; the temperature is about one
hundred degrees, and being in a circular natural basin, some four
feet deep in the centre, and in a place where no warm bath can be
had, it is a favourite halting-place for travellers. Besides giving a
comfortable bath, there is a peculiarity that I have seen nowhere
else; the basin is full of myriads of fish about the size of whitebait.
On dipping the hand in, they at once cover it, and in a minute it is
quite hid from sight by crowds of tiny fish: they have no fear, and can
be removed in handfuls. On stripping and entering the basin a
curious effect is produced by one’s limbs becoming black with the
fish, which nibble at the skin, and only leave it when you plunge
violently. On becoming still, one’s body is again entirely covered with
fish.
From thence we travelled by day only. At each village I tried to get
a pony for my wife, but nowhere could I succeed, though I was ready
to buy anything not absolutely vicious.
Mr. M⸺ kindly gave us quarters at the telegraph-office at
Kazerūn, and here we rested a day.
The kotuls, or passes (literally ladders), well known throughout the
country, had astonished my wife: they are terrible places to ride up,
and nearly impossible to ride down: she, however, was determined
not to be beaten, and had ridden them all. We had been especially
fortunate in our weather; no rain, though we saw many clouds, and it
was imminent.
As I was looking out of window at the Kazerūn telegraph-office, I
saw a man mounted on a handsome grey mare. I hallooed, and he
stopped. I went down and parleyed. The mare was sound, and six
years old, fast, light-mouthed. I felt that, if free from vice, she was
what my wife wanted. I rode her, and succeeded in getting the man
to close for seven hundred and fifty kerans, about thirty pounds. I
gave him fifty kerans in cash, and a bill on Shiraz for the remainder. I
never regretted the purchase. The mare was all that a lady’s horse
should be. She was tall for Persia, being fourteen three in height, no
goose rump, and very handsome. Her mouth soon got very light, and
her only fault, a very trifling one, was that she carried her ears badly.
My wife and I constantly rode her for four years, and after marching
twenty-eight stages from Ispahan to the Caspian on her with a side-
saddle on, I handed her over in good condition, having sold her for a
fair price.
Of course the journey to my wife became now a pleasure. She had
a horse of her own that did not jolt, and who at a word or a shake of
the rein would canter or gallop, instead of the thwack, thwack of the
muleteer’s yabū. By fancying the troubles of a lady compelled to
cross the Rocky Mountains on a small Hampstead donkey, with a
tendency to fall, one might form some faint ideas of my wife’s trials in
getting over her five days’ climb from the coast to Kazerūn. We here
left the date-groves, which had been numerous till now.
Two more passes remained to us—the Kotul Dokter and Kotul Peri
Zun (the Passes of the Virgin and the Old Woman). That of the Old
Woman is very bad indeed, and it is a wonder how loaded mules do
get up it—miles of awful road among loose rocks and stones, and
then steep zigzags of paved road up a perpendicular cliff. Awful
work! We did it, however, and did it in the night; for we had been
stopped by a great firing of guns and alarm of thieves in the beautiful
Oak Valley, and so lost the daylight. We avoided a great part of the
pass by scrambling up “Walker’s Road,” a straight path under the
telegraph-line, well enough to walk down, but almost impossible to
ride up, particularly at night; fortunately, we had a moon, and the
weather was fine. My wife, however, was compelled to dismount
twice, and we lugged, shoved, and dragged the horses up, the
mules, of course, going by the high-road: at last we did get in, but all
tired out.
Next day a longish march brought us to the hill leading down into
the plain of Desht-i-arjeen. It was on this hill, some eleven years
before, that Major St. John[33] was riding, when a lion suddenly
sprang upon his horse’s hind-quarters. St. John had only a very
small Colt’s revolver with him at the time, when suddenly he saw a
lioness some thirty yards in front; he cracked his whip and shouted
at her, thinking that she would bolt. She charged; sprang, and came
down under his foot. With so small a pistol it would have been
useless to fire, so he spurred his horse, which, however, would not
move. The lioness now attacked from the rear, standing on her hind-
legs, and clawing the horse’s hind-quarters; he then jumped off,
getting, however, one slight scratch.
The horse now plunged and reared, knocking over the lioness on
one side, and the man on the other. The horse now was moving
away. The lioness stared at the horse, the man at her; then St. John
fired a couple of shots over her head to frighten her, but without
effect; she sprang again on the horse’s hind-quarters, and both were
lost to view. After an hour St. John found his horse, who, however,
would not let him mount. He drove the animal to the little hamlet,
where he found a single family, but the fear of beasts would not let
the head of it come out to search for the horse; however, next
morning he was found quietly grazing; his quarters and flanks were
scored in every direction with claw-marks, and one wound had
penetrated the flesh, which St. John sewed up. In a week the horse
was as well as ever, but bore the marks for the rest of his life.
I have taken the liberty of abridging Major St. John’s own account
of this real lion story from his note to the article “Leo,” in the work on
the ‘Zoology of Persia,’ volume ii., edited by Mr. W. Blandford, the
well-known naturalist. At the time the affair took place, Major St.
John was superintendent of the Persian Telegraph Department;
shortly after, I had the honour of serving under him in Shiraz for
some time, and was indebted to him for many kindnesses. I saw the
horse some two years after the affair, and the scars were very
apparent. I did not tell my wife this story till we had passed the stage,
and there was no more lion country.
Our next march brought us to Khana Zinyun, where a handsome
caravanserai has been built by the Muschir, the great man of Shiraz.
Before reaching it we passed a pole, marking the place where the
body of Sergeant Collins was found, after his murder by highway
robbers in the famine time.
The next morning we rode into Shiraz, and had no sooner reached
our house than the expected rain, which had happily held off during
our journey, began to fall, the sky was overcast, and continuous
storms took place, which lasted for a fortnight. Thanking our lucky
stars, we prepared to make ourselves as comfortable as possible,
and set to to unpack and arrange our quarters.
When we arrived at Shiraz, the superintendent’s house, which was
in a garden just out of the town, was kindly placed at our disposal. In
a few days I succeeded in hiring a good new brick-built house. We
bought a few carpets, and moved into it.
My colleague, Dr. Odling, kindly gave us the loan of his furniture
for the six months he expected to be away on leave, which was a
good thing, as one cannot get furniture made in Shiraz, and
everything has to be ordered in India or Ispahan. In the latter place
there are fairly good carpenters.
Our house was the property of the superintendent of the
Government powder mills, and for ten tomans, or four pounds a
month, we hired it for the six months that we should have to stop in
Shiraz during my colleague’s leave of absence. On his return it had
been arranged that we were to go to Ispahan, where we were to be
permanently stationed.
The house was formed of a quadrangle, having rooms on three
sides, and a dead wall at the end.
The greater portion of our kit being in tin-lined cases, and intended
for our permanent abode, we did not unpack. After about a week we
had settled down into working order, obtained a fair cook, and old
and respectable servants; put our little “Crescent” car together, a
small low dog-cart, built by McMullen, of Hertford, which has the
great advantage of taking to pieces, being easily put together, easily
packed in small and light parcels, and was thoroughly seasoned; and
stood the extraordinary dryness of the climate without cracking or
warping, which is saying a great deal.
The next thing was to get a trap-horse. The roads are mere tracks,
and very rough and heavy, and a strong animal was required. I
managed for twelve pounds to pick up a cobby pony of thirteen two. I
had him gelded, as even in Persia it is considered unsafe to drive an
entire horse; and he with another animal I gave seven pounds for,
were handed over to the coachman of the Muschir to be broken. I
had vainly attempted to break them myself with a gun-carriage, for
my little dog-cart was too light and pretty to risk a smash with. After a
fortnight the Muschir’s coachman informed me that both were quite
broken. I suggested that he should drive them in his master’s trap, a
big brougham; but he evidently feared an accident, and gave up the
job in despair. Another fellow, however, took it in hand, and after a
few days I rode out some five miles, and was delighted to find that
one of the ponies was fairly broken, the little grey one. The other one
was hopeless; he, however, answered well as a servant’s drudge.
We were able now to take frequent drives, though a long one, from
the heavy state of the roads, generally kept the pony in the stable for
a couple of days. Still it was nice driving over the plain, when once
outside Shiraz and its environs.
My wife found the life amusing from its novelty; and as we were
not to remain in Shiraz during the summer, which is the unhealthy
time, our stay was enjoyable enough.
As Shiraz has been previously described, there is nothing more to
be said than that the winter soon slipped away, and the spring, the
most enjoyable part of the year in Shiraz, arrived, bringing the jaunts
to gardens so usual there.
My colleague, anxiously expected, did not, however, arrive till July,
and the weather had then got so hot as to necessitate our marching
up to Ispahan by night. As I have not noticed this mode of travelling
before, I cannot do better than quote my wife’s diary, which gives her
experience of the matter.
“On Tuesday, July the 17th, 1877, everything being ready, we
were informed that our muleteer was unable to start, his mules being
a hundred miles off; so after much delay we found another, and
engaged with him for forty mules, each carrying three hundred and
fifty pounds, at the rate of seven hundred pounds, from Shiraz to
Ispahan, for two pounds eight. Besides this, our cook had three
mules for himself and his family, and with our own three horses, we
shall form quite a respectable cavalcade.
“Shiraz to Zergūn, 24 miles.—On Wednesday the 18th, after
weighing all our cases and tying them up with the charwardar’s
ropes, at six p.m. we rode out, accompanied by Mirza Hassan Ali
Khan (our friend the British Agent here); having started all our
servants, bedding, and road-kit, on six mules. We kept one servant
with us, and a gholam (or irregular cavalry man), having an order
from the Governor of Fars on all the chiefs of villages to vacate their
houses if needed, and to find us with food and forage, of course
being paid for them. No sooner had we cleared the town, than, to our
disgust, we found our pantry-man surrounded by his weeping
relatives, his wife and our cook’s lady being unable to tear
themselves from their sympathising friends. This, of course, did not
matter, but, alas! the mule-load with our bedding was with them.
“My husband, by a free use of threats, compelled Abdul Hamid
(the pantry-man) to start, the gholam following in charge of the mule
which carried Hamid’s wife and the cook’s wife and daughter, a girl of
nine; all closely veiled, and weeping copiously.
“On getting about a mile out, the cage containing eight canaries,
two goldfinches, and eighteen avadavats, which we had got at
Kurrachee, was given to Hamid to carry in front of him; but as it was
his first journey and attempt at riding, after about a couple of
hundred yards he and the cage came crash to the ground, some
avadavats escaping; so we gave the cage to a villager to carry on his
head; we then bid good-bye to Mirza Hassan Ali Khan; and my
husband now was occupied in whipping on the mule of helpless
Abdul Hamid, to get him up to the other servants, in which he
succeeded after we had gone twelve miles. From the packing, and
excitement about getting mules, and not having had anything since
breakfast at one p.m., we were very tired; as were the horses, which
we had been from peculiar circumstances obliged to keep on grass
for the last three weeks.
“The road was a good one, but the moon gave very little light, and
we could not canter on that account, and for fear of the servants
lagging. This stage was formerly a very bad one, but the road was
made good last year, when the king was expected in Shiraz.
“At last, at eleven p.m., we reached the chupper-khana (or post-
house) at Zergūn, where we took the bala-khana (or upper room);
we drank some milk, and lay down till our dinner—a roast fowl and
potatoes, and custard pudding—was ready, which was not till nearly
one hour after midnight.
“After that we slept heavily till seven a.m., when we were glad of
our tea and devilled fowl. We had breakfast at twelve, and vainly
expected the mules all day; and after seeing our horses groomed
and fed, we dined at seven on soup, boiled fowl, and caper sauce,
Irish stew, custard pudding, figs, and grapes; ice, of course, was not
procurable; our wine we brought with us, and we always have a flask
full of it for the road.
“Just before starting, at half-past two a.m., in the dark, we had a
basin of soup; and having got all our servants off, started for our
second stage.
“At three we got off, and after nearly missing the road, we
marched along with our mules till dawn, when we cantered over a
good and level road, and feeling tired at sunrise, got down and had
some cold fowl and wine. Another hour brought us to Hadjiabad,
where we found two comfortable rooms occupied by some small
official, of whose carpets and water-skin we took possession (by
means of a few kerans), and slept till breakfast. We again rested till
five p.m., when we had soup, and started, reaching Sivend at nine
p.m., seven hours’ journey, thirty-two miles from Zergūn.
“To our disgust we found that the inspector had locked every room
in the telegraph-office, he being on leave; so we took up our quarters
on the verandah, which was fairly cool. In the morning still no mules,
so we moved over to the best house in the village, where we are
very comfortable. We were glad to give our horses a rest, for the
sudden exertion after grass had done them no good. We passed our
day in seeing our saddles cleaned, the washing of ‘Pip,’ and writing
letters.
“At night, the place being full of cats, who attacked the birds, C⸺
shot two and missed two more. They, however, ate one canary, and
the wires being broken, C⸺ had to pursue another bird over many
roofs, catching him at last unhurt.
“Sunday.—Still no news of mules; sent a ‘kossid’ (or foot-
messenger) with a letter to Shiraz asking for steps to be taken to get
them out. The man is to get half-a-crown for walking the fifty-six
miles in eighteen hours, and to bring back an answer!
“Monday.—Venison for breakfast. We got a welcome present of
snow last night, and by laying the top of the table on the bird-cage,
succeeded in defying the cats.
“At twelve p.m., Wednesday, having no news of our mules, we
engaged two muleteers, started, and in two hours marched to
Kawamabad, eight miles, fording the river Bendamir half-way. A fair
road. The weather changed here; it was very chilly on arrival, and
cool and windy all day.
“Left Kawamabad at six p.m., Thursday, and reached the tomb of
Cyrus at twelve, where we rested a little, and ate some fowl, and
found the night very cold. The monument is like a huge dog-kennel,
of great squared stones, on a stone platform. Ussher states the tomb
itself to be forty-three feet by thirty-seven. There are seven stone
steps, which diminish in thickness as one ascends. The kennel-like
edifice at the top is twenty-one feet by sixteen only; the thickness is
five feet. The interior dimensions are ten feet long, seven wide, and
eight high. There are no inscriptions. The door is four feet high only.
There are the remains of twenty-four columns, six on each side.[34]
“Got to Murghāb, twenty-eight miles, at two a.m. A very long and
fatiguing march; several passes. This place is celebrated for carpets,
but we failed to obtain any. In the centre of the village there is a large
piece of turf like a cricket field—the only piece of turf I have seen as
yet.
“Left at six p.m. A bad road, with several passes, till half way, when
it became a sort of steppe; here we came on a number of mules
grazing: we fortunately sent a man to ask whose they were, and they
turned out to be our loads and the missing charwardar,[35] who had
passed us when we halted at Sivend.
“Our difficulties will now be much less, as with lots of muleteers we
shall get loaded and off quickly, and our bedding mule (which at
present carries my fortnightly box, C⸺’s portmanteau, a carpet,
two heavy chairs, and a table, a champagne box full of wine, an
india-rubber sack full of odds and ends, my little black bag, a heavy
cage for Pip, and the birds’ cage a yard long, besides our bedding;
and its pack-saddle weighing thirty pounds) will go much lighter: we
shall also get our bath, which had gone on with the loads.
“We reached Dehbeed, twenty-six miles, at two; we had soup and
fowl on the road, and were very glad to get in. There is nothing here
but a chupper-khana, a caravanserai (in ruins), and a telegraph-
office. It is delightfully cool and windy, the water, too, is like ice, and
very good. Nothing to be got but bread; but we had supplies with us.
Left at nine p.m., and over a fair road with two small passes to Konar
Khora, twenty-four miles. This is a more lonely place than the last;
water only and cucumbers to be got; a post-house and caravanserai
(in ruins) the only houses, and nothing nearer than twenty-four miles.
The flies so hungry here that they bite and hurt.
“Left at six p.m., over a level plain and splendid road; stopped at
Faizabad, twenty-four miles, at twelve midnight, and taking the best
house, a very good one with two rooms overlooking a garden, slept
again in the open air; much warmer here; meat to be got again; we
are now out of the wilderness; had a really comfortable rest here; left
at ten p.m.
“Reached Abadeh, sixteen miles, at two a.m. Our groom had
lagged behind with the horse-clothing, and the other two men had
lost their way; so we, the cook and the bedding, arrived alone. C⸺
had to tie up the horses as best he could, and we took an hour to get
to bed. The road was good, and in the morning we got a fair mutton
steak, but no fruit was to be had. Left at ten p.m. Abadeh is a large
place enclosed in a mud wall, the post-house being outside; it is
celebrated for spoons carved in wood in a wonderful manner, but
they are useless and dear. Here Mr. Carapet, of the Department,
hospitably entertained us and gave us a capital dinner, and a leg of
mutton for the road.
“Over a long plain, twenty-four miles to Shūrgistan; put up in the
guest-house of the shrine; arrived at half-past three. Nothing to be
got here; so hot that we had to go downstairs—the lower rooms are
cooler. Left at half-past eight p.m., and over a long plain to
Yezdikhast, twenty miles, where we arrived at one. A fine
caravanserai; got a good room on the roof. People here report the
king’s death, and there is a panic. The place is peculiar, being built
on a high cliff which is in the middle of a deep gorge nearly a mile
wide, a small river running down the middle. Our gholam left us here,
this being the frontier of Fars.
“Left at six p.m. with three guards on horseback, the road reported
to be not safe. This stage is where C⸺ was robbed, and where the
Bakhtiaris make their incursions. Twenty-six miles to Maxsud Beg: a
long road. Arrived at two a.m. Took the guards the whole way, or we
should never have found the chupper-khana, which is off the road.
Got some good bread here at a small village. Found a load of ice
sent us from Kūmishah; a welcome present from the inspector there.
A good room twice the usual size, very cool; a high wind all day and
night. Left at half-past seven for Kūmishah, sixteen miles, a fair road,
wind very high and cold. Arrived at half-past eleven, after much
trouble in a rocky valley, servants losing themselves and coming to
grief. The brown horse went lame (from a projecting nail) and had to
be led. Were hospitably entertained by the inspector, Sergeant
McIntyre, who gave us a breakfast of many dishes. A large place,
but in ruins; very cool; a fine shrine and resting-place for pilgrims,
accommodating some thousands.
“Left at half-past five; twenty miles over a dreary plain to Mayar, a
large caravanserai, and a village which is the Shah’s personal
property (in ruins); arrived at half-past eleven. No beds, as we had
got in two hours before the loads. I was so tired, I lay down and slept
in my habit. We were all too tired to eat, and the servants were dead
beat; so we went without dinner, ordering a good breakfast to be
served as soon as we should wake. Being determined to try and get
into Ispahan (or rather Julfa) to-morrow, an early move was
necessary; we started at five p.m., and reached Marg caravanserai,
twenty-eight long miles, at two a.m.; here my husband determined to
halt for a few hours, and I slept till dawn in a wretched hole. There
were good quarters in the chupper-khana (post-house), and the
post-house and caravanserai are all that Marg consists of; but we
were told that glanders had been rife there, and we were afraid to
trust our horses in the place.
“At dawn our caravan arrived; the muleteers and servants swore
they could do no more, but a little persuasion and a promise of a
present got them off, after feeding their mules, and we cantered on,
reaching our quarters at ten a.m., after a hot ride in the sun. By this
forced march we escaped the meeting with new friends, who
otherwise, had we arrived the next day, as was calculated, would
have ridden out to meet us. I lay down at once, and the mules and
their riders dropped in one by one, each man on his arrival seeming
to shout louder than his predecessor.
“But our journey was over, and I trust I may never again have to
march three hundred miles at night.”
CHAPTER XXXIII.
JULFA.
Hire a house—Coolness of streets—Idleness of men—Industry of women—Stone

mortars—Arrack—Hire a vineyard—A wily Armenian—Treasure-trove—The
“Shaking Minarets”—A hereditary functionary—A permanent miracle—Its
probable explanation—Vaccination—Julfa priests—Arrack as an anæsthetic—
Road-making—Crops of firewood—Fire temple—Huge trees—The racecourse
—Disappearance of ancient brick buildings—Donkeys—Healthiness of Julfa—
Zil-es-Sultan—His armoury—Prospects of the succession to the throne—Bull-
terriers—Mastiffs—Politeness and rudeness of the prince.
After a considerable amount of diplomacy, we managed to secure

a fine large house with a good garden and stabling, in the principal
and best street of Julfa. My wife was pleased with the cool climate of
Ispahan, the abundance of water, and the rows of trees with which
each street is planted.
The Armenian is a thrifty fellow, and plants the Zoban-i-gūngishk,
or sparrow-tongue, a kind of willow, on either side of the small ditch
which runs down the side or centre of the streets; this ditch brings
the water for the irrigation of the gardens, and by planting the trees
he obtains shade and fire-wood; for the “Zoban-i-gūngishk” is the
best of all woods for fuel, and the roots keep the ditch-bank solid and
in good repair. Cool and pretty as the streets look from the
unaccustomed masses of foliage, one soon finds that one is in a
Christian village. Sheep and oxen are slaughtered all down the
principal street, in the most public manner; and on Saturday night
especially drunkards are common, while swarms of loafers, generally
men who live on small pensions from relatives in India, lean with
their backs against the wall, basking in the early sun, or sprawl in the
shade during the heat.
In each doorway sit or lounge the women, but their hands and
tongues are busily employed; they knit socks as long as daylight
lasts; some widows even maintain a family by this industry. With
nose and mouth hidden, poorly fed, but well and warmly clad, the
Armenian woman makes up by her industry for the laziness of her
husband; she sweeps the house and yard, cooks the food, makes
the clothes, bakes the bread, makes wine, arrack, flour—for this is
generally ground in a hand-mill by the poor; and the rest of her time
is filled up by knitting. These Armenian women are notable
housekeepers, and though generally ignorant and ungraceful—a girl
is never even fairly good-looking after seventeen—they are hard-
working and very virtuous.
In most of the quarters of Julfa may be seen at the roadside huge
stone mortars for the pounding of rice, by which means it is extracted
from the husk; these are the remains of the teeming Julfa of other
days, when it was a large city with twenty-four crowded parishes,
each with its church, the ruins of most of which are now all that
remain of the parishes. You seldom see a Julfa man pounding at one
of the huge mortars; he prefers to hire a Mussulman or villager to do
the heavy work for him, and as he does not care to part with his
money—“Thrift, thrift, Horatio!”—the payment is generally a glass of
spirits. These spirits cost nothing, as each man makes his own wine,
which he sells, and from the refuse his arrack, which he drinks.
Armenians seldom drink wine; it is not strong enough for them, and
arrack is much more to their taste. All the refuse, after clearing the
wine, is put in a big pot, a head and worm is fixed on with mud, and
distillation by means of a very slow fire of big logs is proceeded with.
The product is redistilled once, and even a third time. A strong rough
spirit is the result; it is generally coloured green, and flavoured by
thrusting a handful of leaves of anise (rasianah) into the receiver. Of
course the spirit is quite pure, being after a third distillation simply
strong spirits of wine. What the Armenians sell, however, is much
adulterated and drugged; it is known as “fixed bayonets,” and is
simply made to produce intoxication.
I secured a fine house in Julfa for forty-eight pounds a year. One
side of this house—it formed two of the four enclosing sides of a big
garden—is shown in the illustration. The immense window indicates
the great size of the huge T-shaped summer room, or Orūssee, the
floor of which was tiled. The fountain is seen playing in the hauz, or
ornamental tank, in front of the Orūssee.
DR. WILLS’S HOUSE IN JULFA.
My landlord had a fine vineyard at the side of my house, and for a

yearly payment of one hundred kerans I secured the right of entry,
and the privilege of eating as many grapes as we pleased. The
landlord, however, made mud bricks, and covered over all the paths
with the freshly-made bricks laid to dry; it was only, finding
remonstrance ineffectual, by calling our five dogs in with us, and
letting them run over the soft bricks, that I could get him to clear the
paths. I found, too, that I was waterless directly water became
scarce and dear, the man having sold our water. Fortunately the
lease specified the water, so I took the water, and referred the
purchasers to my landlord. They beat him, and got back their money.
I saw the three arguing and fighting for several days; how the matter
ended I did not inquire. I got my water.
Twice in my house concealed treasure had been discovered; once
to a large amount by the grandfather of my landlord, and a second
time to a smaller value by his father.
On this second occasion, the well running dry, men were sent
down to deepen it; a door was found in the wall, and a quantity of
arms and clothing were discovered in a small chamber in the wall,
but no money or jewels. I found a secret chamber in this house, but it
was empty.
Of course my wife had to be taken to that terrible fraud, the
Shaking Minarets. Why, no one knows, but every one has heard of
the Shaking Minarets. “You went to Ispahan. What did you think of
the Shaking Minarets?” is constantly asked by those who have not
been there. Even those who have, much on the principle of the
bumpkin, who, on paying his penny, is triumphantly shown the
biggest donkey in the fair, in a looking-glass, and urges his friends to
go and see that show: so does a feeling of having been defrauded
cause people to advise their friends to see the Shaking Minarets.
The mere name is poetical and mysterious.
Upon a gentleman high in the diplomatic service being asked what
was the use of the British Agent at Ispahan, he replied:
“Oh, it is an hereditary office; he shows British travellers the
Shaking Minarets.”
But then that “excellency” was a humorous man. He it was who,
on being troubled by a pertinacious clergyman with many
grievances, and told by him (the parson) that “he was but a humble
member of the Church Militant,” replied, “Church Pugnacious, you
mean.”
Dearly did the British Agent love to perform his “hereditary
function.” The new-comer, full of desire to see the Shaking Minarets,
and really pleased with his visit to the town of Ispahan, would make
the appointment for the sight, and, seeing the “hereditary
functionary’s” enthusiasm, not liking to damp it, would acknowledge
that he had seen the eighth wonder of the world.
An hour’s sharp canter through bridle-paths and shady lanes, after
crossing the river by the old Marnūn bridge, would bring one to the
little shrine, through the power of whose “Pir,” or saint, there interred,
the miracle of the Shaking Minarets is daily on view. As one
approached the village where the shrine is, the labourers in the field
would begin to run towards it, each eager to be the holder of a
European’s horse, and their shouts would bring a crowd to the
scene.
There is nothing particularly wonderful about the shrine; it is under
a lofty arch of modern construction, and is the usual rectangular
chest, under which reposes the body of the saint. On the whole lies
an open Koran and reading-stand. The chest is covered by a ragged
pall of cotton cloth; and a few strings of copper “kendils,” or votive
offerings, in the shape of small copper cylinders constricted in the
middle, attest the popularity of the saint with the villagers. The
guardian, also the village schoolmaster, is a Syud, or holy man; no
information can be obtained from him, save that the dead saint has
great power, and that the shaking is a miracle. Proceeding to the top
of the shrine, a good view of the Ispahan valley is obtained, and here
one sees the celebrated Shaking Minarets. A lusty villager ascends
each, and by dint of strong shaking, both vibrate considerably. The
“hereditary functionary” used to do this himself with great gusto, but,
having visited England, has become too important for the personal
exercise of his “functions.” When one man ceases to shake the
vibration continues in both, and a peculiar sensation of insecurity is
felt when one is inside the minaret.
The minarets are some twelve or fourteen feet high above the
roof. They are of brick; and the fact is, that being continuous with a
long thin wall which connects the two at the base, the vibration
caused in one is communicated to the other. This is the miracle,
which will probably some day cease by the vibrator being propelled
into space, and then the office of the “hereditary functionary” will be
really a sinecure. The place, however, has been repaired, and the
minarets rebuilt, within the last thirty years, so the guardian says. I

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Fluid Mechanics of Planets and Stars

PLANETARY SCIENCE : the science of planets around stars

Ludwig Prandtl A Life for Fluid Mechanics and

Twenty Worlds The Extraordinary Story of Planets Around

Engineering Fluid Mechanics Hongqing Song

Engineering Fluid Mechanics Donald F. Elger

Applied Fluid Mechanics Robert L. Mott

Stars and Galaxies 10th Edition Michael A. Seeds

Fluid Mechanics, 8 Ed 8th Edition White

Courses and Lectures

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/76

Fluid Mechanics of Planets

ISSN 0254-1971 ISSN 2309-3706 (electronic)

Marseille, France Michael Le Bars

1 Internal Waves and Tides in Stars and Giant Planets . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction to Internal Waves

Plane Inertial Waves

Consider an unbounded, inviscid, incompressible fluid that is rotating uniformly with

© CISM International Centre for Mechanical Sciences 2020 1

Fig. 1.1 Illustration of the

let us seek plane-wave solutions with wavevector k and angular frequency ω:

Choosing axes such that = ez , we obtain the algebraic equations

−iω ũ x − 2ũ y = −ik x q̃,

for which a non-zero solution exists if the dispersion relation

Plane Internal Gravity Waves

Now consider a stratified atmosphere in a uniform gravitational field −g ez . In the

is a buoyancy variable, proportional to the difference between a constant reference

where N 2 = d B/dz is the square of the buoyancy frequency.

etc., leading to the algebraic equations

−iω ũ x = −ik x q̃, −iω ũ y = −ik y q̃, −iω ũ z = −ik z q̃ + b̃,

A non-zero solution exists if the dispersion relation

Properties of Internal Waves

frequency is independent of the magnitude k = |k| of the wavevector and depends

If the time-dependence e−iωt is assumed, this reduces to Poincaré’s equation,

Internal Wave Beams

For waves of frequency ω = 2 cos θ, the beam is inclined at an angle θ to the

ξ = x cos θ + z sin θ, η = x sin θ − z cos θ.

Fig. 1.2 Coordinates

which can be derived by an asymptotic expansion of the solution in the limit of

Fig. 1.3 Complex wave

Fig. 1.4 Formation of a

Reflections and Singularities

Inertial Waves in a Sphere

and another has

when ω is one of the two roots of

Instabilities of Internal Waves

The vertical gradient

Forced Internal Waves

Fig. 1.9 A beam of internal

Interiors of Stars and Giant Planets

Waves and Instabilities in a Stratified, Rotating Body

The thermal wind equation is obtained by eliminating by cross differentiating:

The basic state is called barotropic if the right-hand side

vanishes; otherwise, it is baroclinic. According to the fundamental thermodynamic

Linearized equations. Now consider small perturbations, representing waves or

Let us introduce the Lagrangian displacement ξ, which is the difference in position

Dξr Dξφ Dξz

and we find by integration that

Harmonic disturbances. Let us now consider free or forced harmonic disturbances

These can be written in terms of gradients of the specific angular momentum  = r 2

where we have used

and note that δ = 1 for an ideal gas.

implying that the PDE is hyperbolic when

These can be written in terms of gradients of the specific angular momentum = r 2

(er × (−g)) · (∇2 × ∇s) ≥ 0.