MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING MINISTRY OF NATIONAL

DEFENCE
MILITARY SCIENCE ACADEMY

VŨ THẾ DƯƠNG

USING INFORMATION GAP ACTIVITIES

TO IMPROVE ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS
FOR THE FIRST-YEAR NON-ENGLISH MAJORED CADETS
AT THE AIR DEFENSE - AIR FORCE TECHNICAL COLLEGE

MASTER THESIS IN ENGLISH LINGUISTICS

 Hanoi - 2023

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING MINISTRY OF NATIONAL

DEFENCE
MILITARY SCIENCE ACADEMY

VŨ THẾ DƯƠNG

USING INFORMATION GAP ACTIVITIES

TO IMPROVE ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS
FOR THE FIRST-YEAR NON-ENGLISH MAJORED CADETS
AT THE AIR DEFENSE - AIR FORCE TECHNICAL COLLEGE

Specialization: English Linguistics

Code : 8 22 02 01

MASTER THESIS IN ENGLISH LINGUISTICS

THESIS SUPERVISOR:
NGUYỄN THỊ THU THỦY, PhD
Hanoi - 2023
BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO BỘ QUỐC
PHÒNG
HỌC VIỆN KHOA HỌC QUÂN SỰ

VŨ THẾ DƯƠNG

SỬDỤNGCÁCHOẠTĐỘNGKHOẢNGTRỐNGTHÔNGTIN
ĐỂNÂNGCAOKỸNĂNGNÓITIẾNGANH
CHOHỌCVIÊNKHÔNGCHUYÊNNĂMTHỨNHẤT
TẠI TRƯỜNG CAO ĐẲNG KỸTHUẬTPHÒNGKHÔNG-KHÔNG
QUÂN

Chuyên ngành: Ngôn ngữ Anh

Mã số : 8 22 02 01

LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ NGÔN NGỮ ANH

NGƯỜI HƯỚNG DẪN KHOA HỌC:

TS. NGUYỄN THỊ THU THỦY
Hà Nội - 2023
 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project

report entitled “USING INFORMATION GAP ACTIVITIES TO IMPROVE
ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS FOR THE FIRST-YEAR NON-ENGLISH
MAJORED CADETS AT THE AIR DEFENSE – AIR FORCE TECHNICAL
COLLEGE” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master in English Linguistics. Except where the reference is
indicated, no other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgment
in the text of the thesis.

Hanoi, 2023

Vũ Thế Dương

Approved by
Supervisor

Nguyễn Thị Thu Thủy, PhD

Date: .............................................
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Nguyen Thi Thu
Thuy, from the Vietnam Academy of Agriculture, for her invaluable guidance
and support throughout my research. Her expertise and encouragement have
been instrumental in shaping my ideas and directing my focus.
I am profoundly grateful to my esteemed teachers throughout the
course, including Assoc. Pro. Dr. Nguyen Thu Hanh, Dr. Huynh Anh Tuan,
Dr. Pham Hien, Dr. Nguyen Thi Minh Tam, Dr. Nguyen Nhat Tuan, and
Dr. Ha Thanh Chung. Their guidance and mentorship during my study have
been invaluable, and I am deeply thankful for their support and expertise.
I am also grateful to my colleagues and students at the Air Defense Air
Force Technical College, who have been a constant source of inspiration and
motivation. Their insights and feedback have helped me to refine my work
and gain new perspectives.
Finally, I would like to thank my family for their unwavering love and
support. Their encouragement and understanding have been the bedrock of
my academic journey, and I am deeply grateful for their presence in my life.
Thank you all for your contributions to this work.
 ABSTRACT
Nowadays, English has grown to become a major foreign language
not only in Vietnam but also on a global scale. Among the language skills
required, speaking is, without a doubt, one of the most important and also
one of the hardest to acquire. Moreover, teaching English speaking skills can
be challenging, especially to L2 learners, due to several reasons, namely the
lack of authentic conversations and learners’ self-consciousness. As Brown
(2001) stated, the nature of speaking is the process of exchanging
information orally. Thus, to formulate the need for exchanging information,
activities that focus on information gaps to encourage learners to speak have
been proven to be highly beneficial. Consequently, this study explored the
effects of using information gap activities to improve English speaking skills
as well as examined the cadets’ attitudes towards using information gap
activities to improve speaking skills at Air Defense - Air Force Technical
College. With these goals in mind, an action research project with three
research instruments, including a pre-test and a post-test, a survey
questionnaire, and a semi-structured interview, was conducted. From the
analysis of the data collected, it is implied that using information gap
activities to teach English speaking skills had a positive effect on the cadets’
speaking ability. Furthermore, the findings of the study also point to a leap
in the cadets’ attitudes toward speaking lessons and their motivation for
learning speaking skills.
Keywords: IGA, action research, speaking, cadets
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter 1. LITERATURE REVIEW 5

1.1. Review of previous studies 5

1.2. Theoretical background 7

1.2.1. Overview of speaking skills 7

1.2.2. Overview of information gap activities 13

Chapter 2. METHODOLOGY 20

2.1. The research approach 20

2.2. The setting of the study and participants 21

2.2.1. The setting of the study 21

2.2.2. The participants of the study 21

2.3. The data collection instruments 22

2.3.1. Tests 22

2.3.2. Questionnaire 23

2.3.3. Semi-structured interviews 23

2.4. Research procedure 24

2.4.1. Phase 1: Pre-action 24

2.4.2. Phase 2: Action 26

2.4.3. Phase 3: Post-action 27

2.5. Data analysis procedures 28

2.5.1. Quantitative data 28

 2.5.2. Qualitative data

Chapter 3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 29

3.1. Research findings 29

3.1.1. Findings from pre-test and post-test 29

3.1.2. Findings from the questionnaire 31

3.1.3. Findings from the interview 37

3.2. Discussion 40

3.2.1. Research question 1 40

3.2.2. Research question 2 43

CONCLUSIONS 46
REFERENCES

APPENDICES
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ESP: English for Specific Purposes

GE: General English
ADAFTC: Air Defense - Air Force Technical College
IGA: Information gap activities
 LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS
Page

Table 2.1. Pre-action test results 25

Table 2.2. Timeline for research 26

Table 3.1. Results of pre-post tests 29

Table 3.2. Results of t-test for Total scores 30

Table 3.3. Results of t-test for components 31

Table 3.4. Cadets’ Interest/Enjoyment 32

Table 3.5. Cadets’ Perceived competence 33

Table 3.6. Cadets’ Effort 34

Table 3.7. Cadets’ Pressure/Tension 35

Table 3.8. Value/Usefulness of IGA to cadets 36

 1

INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study
Nowadays, English has grown to become a major foreign language not
only in Vietnam but also on a global scale. With the rapid integration into the
international arena, Vietnam has the opportunity to develop faster than ever if
the challenges brought about by this event could be overcome. However, to
do so, all fields of cooperation from the economy, and politics to national
defense and security need “bridges” connecting people of different languages
and cultures, an extremely difficult, but critical, task, ensuring the success of
the goal of national development. Fully aware of this fact, for many years, the
Vietnam People’s Army has always aimed to train cadets and officers so they
excel at both their own professions and foreign languages, with a strong
emphasis on the English language. Though the results are still limited, with
determination and the efforts put forth by the whole army, our cadets and
army officers' language skills have been gradually improved.
For the past decade, the Service of Air Defense – Air Force, following
the vision of a modernized military, has made multiple arms deals to upgrade
its armaments. This leads to a transition in the needed foreign language within
the Service, from Russian to English, as more and more Soviet-era weapons
get replaced with contemporary Western weaponry. To best utilize the new
arrays of armaments, the Service intends to improve the English language
skills within its rank. Hence, the Air Defense - Air Force Technical College
has added English to its curricula and made English a part of the graduation
examination. However, there remains an enormous obstacle, which was
revealed during the final English oral test: the cadets’ speaking capability fell
short of expectations. This problem stems from the fact that the current
teaching method employed by the teachers at Air Defense - Air Force
Technical College fails to provide cadets with the necessary skills for
 2

speaking English. To unravel this problem, the researcher as well as other

teachers at Air Defense - Air Force Technical College have spent a great
deal of time searching for effective teaching speaking methods. While
reading about the works of other teachers/researchers with similar problems,
such as Sari (2008) who described the implementation of information gap
activities; Defrioka (2009) tested to what extent applying information gap
activities could improve students’ interaction in speaking class; Jondeya
(2011) focusing on finding out the effectiveness of using information gap on
developing speaking skills for the eighth graders in Gaza Governorate
Schools; or, in Vietnam, Nguyễn (2009) conducting a thesis with the topic
“Using information gap activities to enhance speaking skills for the first year
students in ED-ULIS- VNU”; and Lại (2011) who studied this issue at
Phuong Dong University “Using information gap activities to motivate
students in speaking lessons for the first-year non-English major students”,
the researcher concluded that information gap activities can be a viable
solution to the current situation at Air Defense - Air Force Technical
College. Hence, the study titled “Using information gap activities to
improve English speaking skills for the first-year non-English majored
cadets at the Air Defense – Air Force Technical College” is chosen for my
master thesis.
2. Aim of the study
This study is intended to improve English speaking skills for the first-
year non-English-majored cadets at Air Defense - Air Force Technical
College through the use of information gap activities.
3. Objectives of the study
The primary objectives of the study are set as follows:
- To discern the effects of using information gap activities to improve
English speaking skills for the cadets at Air Defense - Air Force Technical
 3

College.
- To investigate cadets' attitudes towards using information gap
activities to learn English speaking skills at Air Defense - Air Force Technical
College.
4. Research questions
To obtain the research objectives, this study was conducted to answer
the following questions:
Question 1: To what extent does using information gap activities improve
the cadets’ speaking skills at Air Defense - Air Force Technical College?
Question 2: What are the cadets’ attitudes towards using information
gap activities to study speaking skills at Air Defense - Air Force Technical
College?
5. Methods of the study
The study employs an action research approach, with the use of both
quantitative and qualitative data. The three research instruments for data
collection are tests, questionnaire, and semi-structured interview.
6. Scope of the study
In this study, the researcher focuses on using information gap activities
to improve English speaking skills for the first-year non-English-majored
cadets at Air Defense - Air Force Technical College.
7. Significance of the study
Theoretically, the study is expected to become a helpful source of
reference for future related research. Practically, the study is carried out with
the hope of improving Air Defense - Air Force Technical College cadets’
English speaking skills; providing English teachers at Air Defense - Air Force
Technical College an effective tool to teach English speaking skills.
8. Structure of the study
The study is divided into parts as follows:
 4

The first part of the study is the Introduction which explains the
rationale, research aim, objectives, research questions, methodology, scope,
and significance of the study, as well as the thesis organization.
Chapter 1: Literature review provides a rundown of related studies
and lays the theoretical background for this study.
Chapter 2: Methodology explicates the action research approach, the
setting of the study and participants, methodology for data collection,
procedures for data collection, and data analysis procedures, and also the three
instruments for data collection: tests, questionnaire, and semi-structured
interview.
Chapter 3: Findings and Discussion presents and analyzes the data
collected; elucidates the meanings behind such data.
The last part of the study is the Conclusion which summarizes the
major findings of the study, and its limitations, and proposes some
pedagogical implications and suggestions for future research.
 5

CHAPTER 1
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews the literature related to the study, consisting of
two sections. The first section of the chapter gives a review of previous
studies; the second one draws the theoretical background of the study.
1.1. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES
There have been several previous studies on the practice of using
information gap activities to enhance speaking skills. Some carried out by
both foreign researchers and Vietnamese ones were mentioned as follows:
Sari (2008) did action research on “Improving Students’ speaking
Mastery Using Information Gap at the Second year of SMP N3Kebaremat
Karangany”. The study aimed to find out whether using information gap
activities can improve students’ speaking mastery and describe students’
responses to the information gap in speaking class. The participants are 40
second-year cadets in the SMP N3Kebaremat Karangany. The researcher
applied information gap activities in the speaking class. The data was
collected from students’ answers on oral tests in the form of pre-test and post-
test. The result of the study indicated that by implementing information gap
activities in teaching speaking, students seemed to be more active and
cooperative in speaking lessons. The students’ motivation to speak, to
practice speaking, and students’ achievement of speaking were improved.
Another study was carried out by Jondeya (2011) with its title “The
effectiveness of Using Information Gap on Developing Speaking skills for the
Eighth Graders in Gaza Governorate Schools”. The researcher adopted the
experimental approach to investigate the effectiveness of using information
gap in developing speaking skills for the eighth graders in Gaza governorate
schools. An oral test was designed and validated to be used as a pre and post-
 6

test for the two groups of students. The data were analyzed statistically by
using T-test paired sample to measure the differences between the
performance of the experimental group in the pre and post-test. T-test
independent sample was used to measure the differences in the speaking skills
at each level of the five levels (comprehension, pronunciation, fluency,
grammar, and vocabulary) for the experimental and control groups in the
post-test. The results proved that there were statistically significant
differences at (a ≤ 0.05) in the mean scores between the pre and post speaking
test of the experimental group in each level of speaking skills in favor of the
post-test. The result also indicated that there were statistically significant
differences at (a ≤ 0.05) in the mean scores of each level of speaking skills in
the post-test for the experimental group compared with the control group.
Additionally, in a study conducted by Ismaili and Bajrami (2016) titled
"Using information gap activities to enhance speaking skills of elementary
level students," the researchers investigated the impact of information gap
activities on the speaking skills of 56 undergraduate students enrolled in an
English course lasting 10 weeks. The findings of the study revealed notable
improvements in the students' vocabulary as a result of engaging in
information gap activities. Additionally, the students demonstrated increased
motivation and confidence in speaking English. The use of information gap
activities proved to be an effective strategy in promoting the development of
speaking skills among elementary level students.
In Vietnam, there are some studies on the real situation of using
information gap activities to promote speaking skills for students. A study on
“Using information gap activities to enhance speaking skills for the first-year
students in ED-ULIS-VNU” by Nguyễn Thị Thu Trang (2009) is one of the
examples. The result of the study showed that information gap activities have
 7

been exploited widely and gained certain achievements at ULIS, and VNU.
Also, Lại Thị Đua (2011) carried out action research on “Using
information gap activities to motivate students in speaking lessons for the first-
year non-English major students at Phuong Dong University”. She aimed to
find out the causes of students’ low motivation, and the importance of using
information gap activities to motivate students to speak English. The
participants of the study included 64 students, 30 of whom from class 508A23
were in the control group and 34 others from class 508A24 were in the
experimental group. The action research was carried out through several steps,
using a combination of 3 data collection instruments: questionnaire,
observation, pre-test, and post-test. The results showed that the students’
motivation and speaking proficency increased significantly when the
intervention was implemented.
Furthermore, Sỹ Thị Thơm (2015) conducted a study on “Using
information gap activities to promote cadets' motivation and participation in
speaking lessons for the first-year cadets at commando college of training
officers”. The research involved 25 elementary-level cadets and spanned across
eight lessons. The results indicated a noticeable improvement in cadets'
engagement during lessons, heightened motivation levels, and a greater
inclination to communicate in English. By incorporating information gap
activities, cadets actively participated in speaking exercises and demonstrated
enhanced oral proficiency. This study emphasizes the significance of integrating
information gap activities into language instruction as an effective approach to
foster the development of speaking skills among elementary-level cadets.
In conclusion, concerning the literature review, using information gap
activities in teaching speaking is quite widely employed by teachers in many
countries in the world and also in Vietnam. Many studies were conducted on
 8

this issue to clarify the benefit of using this type of activity. They proved that
information gap activities could promote learners to take part in speaking
activities in lessons and improve learners’ capabilities in speaking. As this
technique has not been investigated to apply to the speaking lessons in Air
Defense - Air Force Technical College, the author of this study intends to use
information gap activities in lessons to improve cadets’ speaking skills.
1.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.2.1. Overview of speaking skills
1.2.1.1. The nature of speaking
The notion of speaking is tackled by many scholars, with each
researcher defining speaking in a separate manner. For Byrne (1976, p. 8),
speaking is a two-way process between the speaker and the listener
involving the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of
understanding (listening). Essentially, speaking occurs together with
listening. It is an interactive activity between the speaker and the listener.
On a similar note, Scott (1982) reveals that speaking can be represented as
an interpersonal activity related to two or more participants who are both
hearers and speakers having to respond to what they hear and make their
contribution. This definition shows that speaking is an interaction between at
least two people. It can be seen that both definitions indicate the roles of
participants in both speaking and listening activities, both speakers and
hearers. However, both definitions leave out the fundamental reason behind
the need for speaking.
In consideration of the aforementioned point, Burns and Joyce (1997),
and later, Brown (2001), add that speaking is an interactive phrase of creating
meaning that comprises making, acquiring, and dealing with information. This
definition is succinct and its content is relatively sufficient and profound as it
 9

mentions information as the currency being exchanged within a conversation.

Nonetheless, it does not set the forms or conditions for speaking to take place.
To further develop the proposed definitions, Nunan (2001) proposes
speaking as a productive aural/oral skill. Effectiveness deals with the meaning
negotiation and the active use of language to express meanings so that other
people can make sense of them. This definition shows that speaking
emphasizes the use of language interactively to make meaning of what is said.
In addition, Chen (2009) explains that speaking is the process of constructing
and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols in
different contexts as indicated. All of these mentioned aspects show that
speaking concerns meaning creation, which involves both verbal and non-
verbal symbols through an interaction process.
To summarize, each author has his/her point of view on the concept of
speaking, and all of the explanations contain key aspects to define speaking.
As such, the study adopted a new definition reflecting the main points and
important features of speaking which is an interactive process between the
speaker and the listener to exchange meanings in various contexts.
1.2.1.2. Functions of speaking
As per the nature of speaking, every human being has its purposes
when they communicate with others, especially through spoken language. In
line, Brown and Yule (1991) found that in every speaking activity, three
different purposes can be seen in form and function, and each requires a
different teaching approach. The same framework was adopted and cited by
Richard (2007). These three purposes consist of talking as interaction, talking
as transaction, and talking as performance.
Talking as Interaction
Effective communication requires the ability to speak in a natural way,
 10

which can be challenging for some students who may struggle to find the
right words and present themselves well. To address this issue, language
instructors should offer opportunities for students to engage in meaningful
communication on relevant topics through learner-learner interaction, as this
is the key to teaching language for communication. As communication is
essentially derived from interaction, exchanging information enables students
to create a discourse that effectively conveys their intentions in real-life
communication.
Talking as Transaction
This type of speaking pertains to situations where the main emphasis is
on what is being said or done. Burns (1997), as cited in the same source
(Richard, 2007), divides talk as a transaction into two categories. The first is a
circumstance where the focus is on imparting and acquiring information, and
where the participants give importance mainly to what is said or accomplished.
The second category is when transactions are geared towards acquiring goods
or services, like checking into a hotel. In this type of spoken language, the
emphasis is usually on meaning. It is crucial for students to acquire both kinds
of talks to master their speaking ability. As recommended by Donald (2005),
students must be proficient in both message-oriented or transactional language
and interactional language, which is essential for maintaining social
relationships.
Talking as Performance
This pertains to the act of delivering information in front of an
audience, such as delivering a morning talk, making public announcements,
and giving speeches. Talk as performance usually involves a monologue
rather than a dialogue, unlike giving a class report about a school trip,
conducting a class debate, or delivering a lecture. Therefore, talk as
 11

performance should be prepared in written form (Richard, 2007).

Consequently, it is crucial for English teachers to be mindful of these
functions when teaching.
This categorization of functions of speaking allows a teacher to
determine which genre a course focuses on and to design activities under the
aim of the course. As such, the researcher exploits this classification to decide
and design speaking tasks suitable within the scope of the study.
1.2.1.3. Stages of teaching speaking skills
The tasks or activities designed for a speaking class are heavily relied
on which stage of the lesson they aim to support. Goh and Burns (2012)
propose a teaching cycle of seven stages, namely: focusing learners’ attention
on speaking, providing input and/or guide planning, conducting speaking
tasks, focusing on strategies/skills/language, repeating speaking tasks,
directing learners’ reflection on learning, and facilitating feedback on
learning.
Another teaching cycle, designed by Willis (1996) and employed by
Richard (2007), consists of three stages: pre-task activities, the task cycle, and
the language focus.
Pre-task activities: Introduction to topic and task
The pre-task activities aim to introduce the topic and task to the
students. The teacher can use various techniques such as brainstorming, using
pictures, mime, or personal experiences to engage the students and generate
ideas related to the topic. For example, if the topic is about travel, the teacher
can ask the students to share their travel experiences or show them pictures of
different travel destinations.
During the pre-task stage, the teacher can also highlight useful words
and phrases related to the task, but they should not introduce new language
 12

structures at this point. The focus is on familiarizing the students with the
topic and task, not on teaching new grammar or vocabulary.
Additionally, the students can be given some preparation time to think
about how they will approach the task and what they want to say or write.
This allows them to gather their thoughts and plan their response. If there is a
recording available of a parallel task being done, the students can listen to it.
However, the recording should not provide the solution to the task, as the
purpose is for the students to develop their ideas and responses. If the task is
based on a text, the students can read a part of it to gain more information or
inspiration for the task.
The task cycle: Task, Planning, and Report
Task: The students work in pairs or groups to complete the task. The
emphasis is on using the language they already have to express themselves
and communicate their ideas. The teacher moves around the classroom,
monitoring and providing support and encouragement to the students. They
help the students formulate their thoughts and ideas but do not intervene to
correct grammar or vocabulary errors.
Planning: After completing the task, the students prepare to report their
findings or outcomes to the whole class. They can draft and rehearse what
they want to say or write. The teacher offers guidance on language use,
suggests useful phrases, and helps the students polish and correct their
language. If the reports are written, the teacher can encourage peer editing and
the use of dictionaries. The focus here is on clarity, organization, and
accuracy in preparation for a public presentation.
Report: Some pairs or groups are asked to report briefly to the whole
class, sharing their findings or outcomes. Other students listen and may
comment or add additional points. The teacher chairs the discussion, comments
 13

on the content of the reports, and may rephrase certain points, but does not
provide overt public correction. The purpose of the reports should be
meaningful for the other students, allowing for comparisons or starting a
survey, for example.
The language focus: Analysis and Practice
Analysis: The teacher sets language-focused tasks based on the texts
the students read or the transcripts of the recordings they heard. These tasks
can involve finding words and phrases related to the topic, identifying
specific grammatical forms, or classifying questions in the transcript. The
teacher initiates the analysis, and then the students continue, often working
in pairs. The teacher provides assistance and guidance during this stage, and
students can ask individual questions. In the end, the teacher reviews the
analysis and may write relevant language points on the board for students to
make notes.
Practice: The teacher conducts practice activities based on the language
analysis work done in the previous stage. This can involve choral repetition of
phrases, memory challenge games, sentence completion, or matching
exercises. The activities aim to reinforce and consolidate the language points
identified during the analysis stage.
The diagram is in line with designing activities for teaching talking as
interaction and talking as transaction, which is the main focus within the
scope of the study. For this reason, the aforementioned teaching speaking
cycle was included in the framework of the study.
1.2.1.4. Evaluation of speaking skills
To measure the proficiency of students’ speaking skills, efforts have
been made by researchers to provide clear criteria for speaking assessment.
One of the more popular rubrics, put forward by Hughes (2003), divides
 14

speaking skills into four components: accent, grammar, vocabulary, and

fluency.
On the other hand, Thornbury (2005, pp. 127-129) splits the criteria of
speaking tests into four categories: grammar and vocabulary, discourse
management, pronunciation, and interactive communication. While Ur (2012)
only intends to test the students’ speaking skills on two criteria: accuracy and
fluency.
On an important note, Haris (1974, pp. 172-173) states there are five
components concerning the assessment of speaking skills, being: grammar,
vocabulary, comprehension, pronunciation, and fluency. The five
components proposed by Haris are in line with the items proposed by
Brown (2003), albeit the latter provides a more detailed explanation and
evaluation scale for each of the five components: grammar, vocabulary,
comprehension, pronunciation, and fluency.
The study followed the evaluation method elaborated by Brown as it
fits the scope of the study the most. The pre-action test and post-action test
were designed under the rubric of the speaking test proposed by Brown.
1.2.2. Overview of information gap activities
1.2.2.1. Definition of information gap activities
Information gap is one of the most fundamental concepts in
communicative language teaching. Several methodologists have mentioned and
talked about information gap activities. Therefore, there have been different
definitions of information gap activities by different researchers and scholars.
Johnson and Morrow (1981) clarify the concept of information gap
activities by regarding it as an activity in which one pupil must be in the
position to tell another pupil something that he/she does not have. It means,
through information gap activities, one provides the other with the lacked
 15

information. Sharing the same point of view, Harmer (1991) defines

information gap as a “gap” between the two persons in the information they
possess, and the conversation helps to close the gap so that now both speakers
have the same information. And according to Harmer (1991), one type of
speaking activity is called information gap where two speakers have different
parts of information making up a whole. Because they have different
information, there is a gap between or among them. In the process of speaking,
speakers try to get the unknown information or to fill in the gap. Thanks to the
use of information gap activities, the communicative process is fostered and
stimulated. Approaching information gap activities in a practical way, Neu and
Reeser (1997, p. 88) suppose that “in information gap activity, one person has
certain information that must be shared with others to solve a problem, gather
information or make decisions”. It claims that the participants not only get the
whole information but also work together to fulfill certain tasks based on the
information.
It can be seen that there have existed various definitions of the concept
of information gap activities, and different scholars and researchers tend to
approach it from different points of view. In this study, the definition to be used
is by Doff (1997, p. 211) which states that in information gap activities, "one
person has information which another does not have", which gives rise to the
need of exchanging meanings. Furthermore, according to Richard (2007),
information gap activities are ideal for teaching talking as interaction and
talking as transaction and are applied during the task cycle stage of a speaking
lesson.
1.2.2.2. Types of information gap activities
Information gap activities are categorized differently by different
researchers. However, classifications proposed by Ellis (1999) and Doff
 16

(1997) are highly regarded and practically applied in a variety of settings.

Ellis’s classification of information gap activities
According to Ellis (1999), there are two main types of information
activities: one-way and two-way. One-way occurs when one person holds
information that other group members do not have. For instance, one person
has a picture and describes it to her/his partner who tries to draw it.
Meanwhile, in two-way information gap activities, both learners have
information and they must share it with each other to complete the activities.
For example, both have some information about different directions to a
location and they have to share the information to complete the directions.
Doff’s classification of information gap activities
Doff (1997) divides information gap activities into three main types:
guessing games, information gap exercises for pair work, and activities in
which students exchange personal information. The most fundamental aspect
of Doff’s classification is that each kind of information gap activities is
clearly described. Furthermore, for every type of information gap activities,
the pros and cons are specifically listed. Hence, English teachers can freely,
and accurately, choose and employ the most viable information gap activities
types to implement in their language classes.
- Guessing games: Students gain information by performing guessing
activities. These activities are as follows:
+ Guessing pictures: The teacher has a set of flashcards with simple
pictures (e.g. actions, clothes, food, places). She or he chooses one car but does
not show it to the class. The students must guess by asking questions, for
example, T: guess how I went to X; Ss: Did you go by car? Did you go by bus?
Or Did you walk?
+ Guessing sentences: The teacher writes a sentence on a piece of
 17

paper or card. He or she does not show the sentence but writes the basic
structure on the board. For instance, T: I went (somewhere) to (do
something). Students must guess the exact sentence by asking questions such
as Did you go to the park? Did you go to school? Or Did you play football?
+ Miming: The teacher calls a student to the front and secretly gives
her/him a sentence written on a piece of paper that describes a simple activity.
The student mimes this activity. And other students try to guess the situation
such as you are mending a puncture. Or you are mending a plug.
+ Guessing famous people: One student pretends to be a famous person
(alive or dead) who is known to others. The rest of the class tries to ask yes-
no questions to find out who the person is. For example:
Are you still alive or dead? Are you Vietnamese? Are you a doctor?
+ “What’s my line?”: One student chooses a job and mimes a typical
activity that it involves. The other tries to guess the job by asking questions
either about the activity or the job. For instance:
“Were you mending something?”, “Were you digging?” or “Did
you work outsides?”
+ What and Where: The teacher sends two students out of the room.
The other students hide an object. The two students come back and guess
what the object is and where it is hidden, by asking questions, e.g. Is it made
of woo? Is it high or low? or Is it on this side of the room?
- Information gap exercises: According to Doff, information gap
exercises are usually designed for pair work. They can be done in various
ways:
+ One student has some information, and the others have to find out by
asking questions
+ One student has information and tells it to the other students.
 18

+ Both students have different information, and they tell each other.
Then, Doff describes some models of those information gap exercises:
+ Completing the grid: Students sit in pairs. In each pair, one student
has an empty grid and the other has the text, which is not shown to each other.
Students with empty grids complete the grid by asking questions. For
example, “What’s he going to do tomorrow afternoon?”
+ Detecting differences: Two students in each pair are given two
versions of a picture that are identical except for differences. Without
looking at each other’s pictures, they have to try to find all the differences
by describing the picture or asking to compare.
+ Shopping list: Students sit in pairs. In each pair, student A is a customer
and has a shopping list. Student B is a shop assistant with a list of items in the
shop and their prices. They do not look at each other’s lists. They will try to buy
and sell.
The author also states the advantages and problems of using these
activities in class. On the one hand, students will be provided with intensive
and interesting language practice while being involved in these activities. On
the other hand, the teachers will find it hard to organize these activities in a
large class. On the other hand, it’s difficult for them to prevent students from
looking at each other’s information.
- Exchanging personal information activities
According to Doff, these activities are one of the easiest and most
interesting forms of communicative activity in which students exchange
information about their own lives, hobbies, experiences, etc. Students will feel
more natural and comfortable talking about the fact in their life and share with
their friends. Thus, there is a natural “information gap”. For instance, students
work in pairs and ask their partner about his or her daily routine such as “When
 19

do you get up? When do you have breakfast? When do you go to school?”, etc.
To sum up, three types of information gap activities recommended by
Doff (1997) are simple and effective communicative activities. In the scope of
this study, the classification proposed by Doff was exploited in designing
information gap activities.
1.2.2.3. Benefits of information gap activities
Using information gap activities in language teaching offers several
benefits for improving students' speaking skills. These benefits have been
supported by research studies:
Vocabulary and Language Development: Information gap activities
facilitate vocabulary expansion and language development. Studies by Liao
(2018) and Lightbown and Spada (2013) demonstrate that these activities
provide opportunities for targeted language use, allowing students to practice
and acquire new vocabulary and language structures in meaningful contexts.
Increased Speaking Practice: Information gap activities provide ample
opportunities for students to engage in speaking practice. Research by Ellis
and Shintani (2014) and Kızıltepe and Seferoğlu (2019) has shown that these
activities encourage students to actively participate in discussions, express
their ideas, and engage in extended conversations. This increased practice
leads to improved speaking fluency and accuracy.
Authentic Communication: Information gap activities promote
authentic communication, enabling students to exchange information in
meaningful contexts. This authentic communication enhances students'
speaking proficiency and their ability to use the language in real-life
situations (Panova & Lyster, 2016).
Cooperative Learning: Information gap activities foster cooperative
learning environments where students work collaboratively to complete tasks.
 20

Johnson and Johnson (2009) emphasize the benefits of cooperative learning,

such as increased student engagement, higher levels of language production,
and enhanced speaking skills through peer interaction and negotiation.
By incorporating information gap activities into language teaching,
teachers create a dynamic and communicative learning environment. Students
engage in authentic communication, gaining valuable speaking practice, and
developing their cooperative learning skills. Moreover, these activities
provide opportunities for vocabulary and language development, enabling
students to enhance their linguistic abilities while engaging in meaningful
conversations.
Summary
The first chapter provides a brief literature review of the core aspects of
the study. The notions of speaking skills and information gap activities have
been discussed. Aside from the definitions, the chapter also focuses on the
evaluation scale on which the pre-action test and post-action test relied, as
well as the different types of information gap activities which influented the
designing process for the action phase. In the next chapter, the methodology
used in the study will be presented.
 21

CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the research approach, the setting of the study and
participants, procedures for data collection, and data analysis procedures.
2.1. THE RESEARCH APPROACH
Action research, for the past decades, has gained widespread popularity
among researchers. As underscored by Bassey (1998), action research is
described “as an inquiry which is carried out to understand, to evaluate, and
then to change, to improve educational practice.” Accordingly, Nunan (1992)
also highlighted action research as a means to improve not only the students’
achievements but also the teaching skills of teachers.
Following this line of ideas, Cohen and Manion (2017); Kemmis and
McTaggart (2014) also suppose that teachers should exploit action research to
solve a specific problem occurring in their classrooms. The nature of action
research is to improve the existing situation. By exploring his teaching
situation, the researcher finds himself in the hope that action research has
allowed him to get embroiled in his study, tackle issues of concern to him that
have arisen within his practice, and improve his practice.
Furthermore, some advantages of action research are congruent with
the study’s context. As stressed by Koshy (2009), researchers can also be
participants - they do not have to be distant and detached from the situation,
and research can be set within a specific context or situation.
For many characteristics and benefits of action research, the researcher
as a teacher decided to choose action research as the most appropriate method
for this study. It is considered the best method to carry out the study on using
information gap activities to improve English speaking skills for the first-year
non-English-majored cadets at Air Defense - Air Force Technical College.
 22

2.2. THE SETTING OF THE STUDY AND PARTICIPANTS

2.2.1. The setting of the study
The study was carried out at Air Defense - Air Force Technical
College, a branch of Air defense – Air force Service, with English being
designated as one of the main subjects during the training program. The
cadets’ English level is expected to be at A1 upon entering Air Defense - Air
Force Technical College; and by the end of the course, they are required to
reach A2 level. To accommodate this, the program of teaching English is
divided into 2 modules: a module on GE (New Headway Elementary by Liz
and John Soars, published by Oxford University Press) and a module on ESP
(compiled by English teachers at Air Defense - Air Force Technical College).
GE is taught in the first modules with a total of 90 periods. This module
aims to provide cadets with basic knowledge of English, including structures,
vocabulary, and four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
After that, cadets took part in the next module with 30 periods of ESP. Finally,
upon finishing both modules, they have to take an exam in written and oral
forms. The same test setting is applied to their graduation examination.
Therefore, improving cadets’ speaking skills is not only one of the
researcher’s biggest concerns but also of other teachers. Within the scope of
the study, action research on implementing a new teaching English speaking
method aiming at assessing the quality of the cadets’ speaking as well as
finding out the problems they encounter when they try to speak English. And
hopefully, positive changes can be seen in cadets’ attitudes as well as in the
quality of their speaking after the new method is applied, which was
considered as the base for further improvement in teaching.
2.2.2. The participants of the study
The study was executed with the participation of 24 first-year non-
 23

English majored cadets of the course year 2022-2024. Their ages range from
18 to 25 and none of them specializes in English. Since all of them are first-
time enlistees, they all feel unfamiliar with the military environment, which is
extremely strict and demanding both physically and mentally. The cadets at
Air Defense - Air Force Technical College go to class twice a day. In the
morning, they have six periods to study two or three different subjects by
their timetable. In the afternoon, they have three periods for self-study in
classrooms. After their class time, they are to do other military tasks as
scheduled. Due to various educational and social backgrounds, their base
English levels are disparate (some cadets have learned English during
compulsory education, while some of them have never learned English
before).
2.3. THE DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
This study was conducted by employing both qualitative and
quantitative research methods. This is a common approach and helps to
improve the evaluation by guaranteeing that the strengths of one type of data
balance the limitations of another.
Data were gained through the employment of three research
instruments namely, tests, questionnaire, and semi-structured interview.
2.3.1. Tests
To evaluate the quality of cadets’ speaking skills before and after the
research, the researcher designed a pre-action test and a post-action test on
English speaking. The test forms selected for this study were similar to the
tests the cadets took during their courses, which was adapted from Cambridge
A2 Key Speaking Test. Thus, the cadets were supposed to be familiar with the
test format. A sample of the test was presented in Appendix 1.
The pre-action test and the post-action test on speaking were the same.
Both of them were similar in format, instruction, length, level of difficulty, and
 24

allotted time. To score the pre-action test and the post-action test, the same
marking scale was used and taken with other teachers, not just the researcher.
This analytic marking scale with exact evaluation criteria was adapted from
Brown (2003). The rubric used for evaluating speaking skills was included in
Appendix 7.
2.3.2. Questionnaire
The survey questionnaire was chosen since it allowed for collecting a
large amount of data in a relatively short time.
The questionnaire was performed after the intervention step was finished.
This was done to investigate the effects of using information gap activities in
lessons and the cadets’ attitudes toward the adoption of IGA in speaking lessons.
The questionnaire (adapted from Hoàng Thị Xuân Hoa & Nguyễn Thị Thủy
Minh (2006)) is composed of five main parts: interest/ enjoyment, perceived
competence, effort, pressure/ tension, value/ usefulness. The questionnaire
consists of 17 items. Each item is rated on a five-point Likert scale from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
2.3.3. Semi-structured interview
The interview is to be designed in a semi-structured format, which
means that the interviewer starts with a set of planned questions but does not
necessarily stick to those planned questions as in a structured interview.
Instead, the questions are modified and adapted along the interviewing
process with the purpose to collect the most natural and reliable data.
In the explanation of Bernard (2006), due to the detailed sets of
questions and topical focus, the responses recorded in a structured interview
tend to be restricted, hence the data are easier to code and analyze. However,
it is challenging to explore clarification and additional information from the
participants when applying for a structured interview. To allow the informants
 25

the freedom to express their views on their terms and to give researchers the
flexibility in getting information from interviewees, a semi-structured
interview is best utilized.
Bernard (2006) concludes that although a semi-structured interview
takes researchers considerably more time to code and analyze, the data are of
more value. For this reason, a semi-structured interview is employed in this
study.
2.4. RESEARCH PROCEDURE
Action research encompasses various models with different numbers of
steps, offering flexibility in its implementation. Creswell (2005) highlights the
dynamic and adaptable nature of action research, emphasizing that there is no
fixed blueprint for its execution.
Lewin (1946) proposed a traditional model comprising two main
phases and seven stages. Kemmis (1991) developed a concise four-step
model, involving planning, action, observation, and reflection. Susman (1983)
presented a distinct five-step model: diagnosing, action planning, taking
action, evaluating, and specifying learning.
Nunan (1992) views action research as activity research with a
comprehensive seven-step cycle: problem identification, preliminary
investigation, hypotheses formulation, intervention, evaluation,
dissemination, and follow-up.
In this study, the researcher opted for Nunan's (1992) action research
model due to its convenience and alignment with the classroom context. The
model's steps facilitated the researcher's implementation of the study and
accurately reflected the actions undertaken.
As detailed by Nunan (1992), the action research process had seven steps,
namely: Problem Identification, Preliminary Investigation, Hypotheses,
Intervention, Evaluation, Dissemination, and Follow-up. Although there are
 26

seven steps in an action research cycle, due to the limited time of the study, the
researcher conducted the study within only five steps as follows: Problem
Identification, Preliminary Investigation, Hypothesis, Intervention, and
Evaluation.
This action research was carried out in three main phases: Pre-action,
Action, and Post-action. Each of these phases concludes the instruction steps
introduced by Nunan (1992).
2.4.1. Phase 1: Pre-action
Step 1: Problem Identification
During the researcher’s time of teaching and observing at Air Defense -
Air Force Technical College, it was noticeable that the cadets’ English
speaking competency did not meet the requirements set in the course. As a
result, the final oral test scores were undesirable. Unfortunately, the same
situation is still occurring, with negative feedback from colleagues, and cadets
alike. From a combination of the researcher’s observation and cadets’
comments, the problem should lie in the current teaching method.
Step 2: Preliminary Investigation
Apart from score analysis and real situation observation of teaching,
and learning speaking at Air Defense - Air Force Technical College, to
illustrate the problem that cadets had in learning speaking skills, the
researcher conducted a pre-action test. The collected data were analyzed to
better understand cadets’ interest in learning speaking skills as well as their
speaking competency before the new approach was implemented.
Table 2.1. Pre-action test results
PRE
N.
C F G V P Tot
C1 2 2 2 2 1 9
C2 2 1 1 2 2 8
 27

C3 1 1 1 1 1 5
C4 2 1 1 2 2 8
C5 3 2 2 2 2 11
C6 2 2 3 2 1 10
C7 2 2 2 1 1 8
C8 1 1 1 1 1 5
C9 2 1 1 2 2 8
C10 3 2 3 2 2 12
C11 1 1 2 2 2 8
C12 2 2 2 2 1 9
C13 3 2 3 2 2 12
C14 4 3 3 4 3 17
C15 1 1 3 2 2 9
C16 2 2 2 2 2 10
C17 2 1 2 1 1 7
C18 1 1 1 1 1 5
C19 2 1 1 2 2 8
C20 2 2 2 2 2 10
C21 4 4 3 4 4 19
C22 2 2 2 1 1 8
C23 1 1 1 1 1 5
C24 2 1 1 2 2 8
From the pre-action test results presented in the table, it can be seen
that the majority of the cadets did not get a passing grade of 10 on their
speaking tests. Out of 24 cadets, only a third passed, and even so, their
performances left much to be desired.
Step 3: Hypotheses
It is hypothesized that using information gap activities could improve
the cadets’ speaking skills.
2.4.2. Phase 2: Action
Having identified the problem, a plan for using information gap
activities was drawn and executed during the seven weeks with the intention
of improving cadets’ speaking performance. A detailed sample lesson plan is
 28

presented in Appendix 6.
Step 4: Intervention
Using information gap activities in lessons to improve the cadets’
speaking skills. The process was carried out in seven weeks and the timeline
for research is presented below:
Table 2.2. Timeline for research
Time Activities
Week 1 Preparation activities
Pre- 6/2-10/2 Unit 1: Hello everybody! (Personal information)
action Week 2 Pre-action test.
13/2-17/2
Unit 2: Meeting people (Prices/Orders)
Week 3
IGA: Information gap exercises (Completing the grid)
20/2-24/2
Action IGA: Information gap exercises (Shopping list)
Unit 3: The world of work (Jobs)
Week 4
IGA: Information gap exercises (Completing the grid)
27/2-3/3
IGA: Guessing games (Miming)
Unit 4: Take it easy! (Leisure activities)
Week 5
IGA: Information gap exercises (Completing the grid)
6/3-10/3
IGA: Guessing games (Guessing pictures)
Unit 5: Where do you live? (Furniture)
Week 6 IGA: Information gap exercises (Detecting
13/3-17/3 differences)
IGA: Guessing games (Guessing pictures)
Week 7 Unit 6: Can you speak English? (Capabilities)
20/3-24/3 IGA: Information gap exercises (Shopping list)
 29

IGA: Guessing games (Miming)

Unit 7: Then and now (Using simple past tense)
Week 8
IGA: Information gap exercises (Completing the grid)
27/3-31/3
IGA: Guessing games (Guessing famous people)
Unit 8: How long ago (Using simple past tense)
Week 9 IGA: Information gap exercises (Detecting
3/4-7/4 differences)
IGA: Exchanging personal information
Post- Week 10 Post-action test, questionnaire, semi-structured
action 10/4-14/4 interview.
2.4.3. Phase 3: Post-action
Step 5: Teacher’s evaluation
After using information gap activities in lessons, a post-action test was
administered. The post-action test had the same format and questions as the
pre-action test. The purpose of the post-action test is to re-measure the
participants’ speaking performance. After that, the pre-action test and post-
action test were calculated and compared with each other. In this way, the
researcher can evaluate how using information gap activities impact cadets’
performance.
In the last phase, a questionnaire was given to each of the 24 cadets. The
questionnaire was for the cadets to self-assess their improvement and their
viewpoints on IGA and the lessons during the action phase. Furthermore, the
researcher conducted a semi-structured interview for the six cadets chosen based
on their performance in the pre-post action tests. Occasionally, unclear points
were further explained, which enriched the quantity and quality of collected
data.
2.5. DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
 30

2.5.1. Quantitative data

First, quantitative data from the tests and questionnaire were organized in
formats suitable for analysis. Then, the data were analyzed using descriptive
statistics to summarize the main characteristics. Next, paired sample t-tests were
applied to the data from pre and post-tests to compare the measurements before and
after intervention, and to detect whether there were significant differences. As for
data from the questionnaire, the answers were visualized using a pie chart to reveal
its pattern and trends. Consequently, the findings from the tests and questionnaire
were interpreted and discussed to draw conclusions about the two research
questions.
2.5.2. Qualitative data
The data from the interview was transcribed for ease of analysis. The
transcription was read through multiple times to highlight important
information such as recurring ideas. Furthermore, the data were categorized
into different themes to provide supporting evidence for the findings from
tests and questionnaire. The themes followed Hoàng Thị Xuân Hoa and
Nguyễn Thị Thủy Minh’s categorization including: interest/ enjoyment,
perceived competence, effort, pressure/ tension, value/ usefulness. Quotes and
paraphrases from the interview were used to illustrate and validate the
answers to the two research questions.
Summary
For this chapter, the researcher presented the implementation of using
information gap activities to improve speaking skills for the first-year non-
English majored cadets at ADAFTC. The participants, research methods, and
data collection procedures of the study were explained in full. The key
instruments used for data collection are tests, questionnaire, and semi-
structured interview. In the following chapter, the data analysis, significant
 31

findings, and discussion were presented.

 32

CHAPTER 3
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents the research findings and discussions after using
IGA to improve English speaking skills for the first-year non-English majored
cadets at ADAFTC and provides answers to the two research questions.
3.1. RESEARCH FINDINGS
3.1.1. Findings from pre-test and post-test
The pre-tests and post-tests were conducted before and after intervention
in order to measure the changes in cadets’ speaking skills as a consequence of
using IGA in lessons. The results are listed in the following table:
Table 3.1. Results of pre-post tests
PRE POST
No.
C F G V P Tot C F G V P Tot
1 2 2 2 2 1 9 3 2 2 2 2 11
2 2 1 1 2 2 8 3 2 2 2 2 11
3 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 1 1 2 2 8
4 2 1 1 2 2 8 3 2 2 3 3 13
5 3 2 2 2 2 11 3 2 2 3 3 13
6 2 2 3 2 1 10 3 2 2 2 3 12
7 2 2 2 1 1 8 2 2 2 2 2 10
8 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 1 1 2 2 8
9 2 1 1 2 2 8 2 2 2 2 2 10
10 3 2 3 2 2 12 4 3 3 3 3 16
11 1 1 2 2 2 8 2 2 2 2 2 10
12 2 2 2 2 1 9 3 2 2 3 3 13
13 3 2 3 2 2 12 3 2 3 2 2 12
14 4 3 3 4 3 17 4 3 3 4 4 18
15 1 1 3 2 2 9 2 2 3 2 2 11
16 2 2 2 2 2 10 3 2 2 3 3 13
17 2 1 2 1 1 7 2 2 2 2 3 11
18 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 1 1 2 2 8
19 2 1 1 2 2 8 3 2 2 2 2 11
20 2 2 2 2 2 10 3 2 2 3 3 13
 33

21 4 4 3 4 4 19 4 4 3 4 4 19
22 2 2 2 1 1 8 2 2 2 2 2 10
23 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 2 2 1 1 8
24 2 1 1 2 2 8 2 1 1 2 2 8
The cadets’ English speaking capabilities were tested based on 5
speaking components: comprehension (C), fluency (F), grammar (G),
vocabulary (V), and pronunciation (P). Each component had a minimum score
of 1 and a maximum score of 4 with a higher score indicating a higher level of
English proficiency, which were then combined to present a total score (Tot).
As shown in Table 3.1, most cadets achieved an increase in total scores for
the post-test, with Cadet 4 accomplishing the greatest improvement of 5
points, while the majority of the remaining cadets’ total scores improved by at
least 1 point. However, in the case of Cadet 13, Cadet 21, and Cadet 24, there
were no changes between the pre-test and the post-test scores. To test whether
or not there was a significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test,
the data collected were run through a paired samples t-test. The results of the
paired sample t-test for the total scores of the pre and post-tests are presented
in the following table (for a more detailed t-test result, refer to Appendix 2):
Table 3.2. Results of t-test for Total scores

Mean P
T-value df
Post-test Pre-test Posttest - Pretest Two-tailed

11.54 9.13 2.41 9.23 23 <0.01

Furthermore, to assess the effects of information gap activities on each

of the five speaking components, the pre and post-test scores for individual
component were also run through paired sample t-tests. The below table lists
the key findings from paired sample t-tests for five speaking components.
 34

Table 3.3. Results of t-test for components

Mean P
Components T-value df
Posttest - Pretest Two-tailed

Comprehension 0.63 6.19 23 <0.01

Fluency 0.38 3.71 23 <0.01

Grammar 0.17 1.69 23 0.103

Vocabulary 0.50 4.79 23 <0.01

Pronunciation 0.75 5.44 23 <0.01

The table shows the means, t-values, degrees of freedom, and p-values
for the five speaking components: fluency, comprehension, pronunciation,
vocabulary, and grammar. The t-tests were conducted to compare the pre-test
and post-test scores of the participants. The results indicate that there were
significant improvements in all five components, as shown by the p-values
that are all less than 0.01 with the exception of grammar (p=0.103).
The largest improvement was observed in pronunciation, with a mean
increase of 0.75 and a t-value of 5.44. The second-largest improvement was in
comprehension, with a mean increase of 0.63 and a t-value of 6.19.
Vocabulary and fluency also showed significant improvements, with mean
increases of 0.50 and 0.38, respectively, and t-values of 4.79 and 3.71.
Finally, while the improvement in grammar was not statistically significant
(p=0.103>0.05), the mean increase was still positive (0.17), suggesting some
improvement in this area as well. To conclude, the results indicate that
intervention has had a positive impact on the participants' language skills in
all five components.
3.1.2. Findings from the questionnaire
 35

To investigate to extent IGA can promote the cadets’ motivation in

speaking lessons, the researcher decided to use the self-questionnaire adapted
from Hoàng Thị Xuân Hoa and Nguyễn Thị Thủy Minh (2006). The data was
analyzed from the questionnaire regarding five categories: Interest/enjoyment,
perceived competence, Effort, Pressure/tension, and Value/usefulness.
3.1.2.1. Interest/Enjoyment
Table 3.4. Cadets’ Interest/Enjoyment
Number of cadets (%)
Item
Statement Strongly Strongly
No. Disagree Neutral Agree
disagree agree

1 IGAs are interesting 8.3 12.5 8.3 29.2 41.7

I am excited about
2 participating in IGA 4.2 8.3 16.7 25 45.8
in speaking lessons.

I preferred working with

3 12.5 8.3 12.5 41.7 25
other cadets.

The results indicate that a significant proportion of cadets (83.3%) did

not strongly disagree or disagree with the statement that IGA is interesting. In
fact, the majority of cadets (71.7%) either agreed or strongly agreed with this
statement. This suggests that the cadets find IGA to be engaging and
stimulating, which is a positive indication of the effectiveness of this teaching
method in enhancing their interest in learning speaking.
In addition, the results show that a large proportion of cadets (70.8%)
either agreed or strongly agreed that they are excited about participating in
 36

IGA in speaking lessons. Furthermore, the majority of cadets (66.7%) either

agreed or strongly agreed that they enjoy working in IGA. This highlights the
potential of IGA to foster positive attitudes and enthusiasm toward speaking
lessons, which can contribute to better learning outcomes.
3.1.2.2. Perceived competence
Table 3.5. Cadets’ Perceived competence
Number of cadets (%)
Item
Statement Strongly Disagre Strongly
No. Neutral Agree
disagree e agree

I find it easier to speak

4 with others thanks to the 8.3 8.3 33.4 25 25
given information.

I could speak more

5 8.3 16.7 20.8 25 29.2
fluently thanks to IGA.

I’m satisfied with my

6 performance in these 12.5 12.5 12.5 29.2 33.3
activities.

Thanks to IGA, I am
7 more confident in 8.3 16.7 16.7 20.8 37.5
speaking in English.

Four additional items were included in the questionnaire to measure the

effectiveness of Information Gap Activities (IGA) in improving the cadets'
speaking abilities. Item 4 assessed whether the given information in IGA
made it easier for cadets to speak with others. The results showed that 58.3%
of cadets agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. Item 5 aimed to
 37

measure whether IGA helped cadets speak more fluently, with 54.2% of
cadets agreeing or strongly agreeing with this statement.
Item 6 evaluated the cadets' satisfaction with their performance in IGA.
The results indicated that 62.5% of cadets were satisfied with their
performance. Finally, item 7 assessed whether IGA increased the cadets'
confidence in speaking in English. The results revealed that 58.3% of cadets
agreed or strongly agreed that IGA made them more confident in speaking
English.
This indicates the majority of the cadets could perceive their
improvement in speaking skills after the intervention.
3.1.2.3. Effort
Table 3.6. Cadets’ Effort

Number of cadets (%)

Ite
m Statement Strongl
Strongly
No. y Disagree Neutral Agree
agree
disagree

I put a lot of effort

8 16.7 4.2 12.5 12.5 54.2
into these activities.

I prepared a lot for

9 16.7 8.3 25 25 25
these activities.

Item 8 and Item 9 of the questionnaire aimed to measure the level of

effort and preparation that the cadets put into the IGA. The results showed
 38

that the majority of the cadets agreed or strongly agreed that they put a lot of
effort into these activities (54.2%), while only a small percentage disagreed or
strongly disagreed (20.8%). This suggests that the cadets were motivated and
engaged in the IGA.
Similarly, most cadets agreed or strongly agreed that they prepared a
lot for these activities (50%), while only a small percentage disagreed or
strongly disagreed (25%). This indicates that the cadets were invested in the
IGA and willing to put in the time and effort to prepare.
3.1.2.4. Pressure/Tension
Table 3.7. Cadets’ Pressure/Tension

Number of cadets (%)

Item
Statement
No. Strongly Disagre Strongly
Neutral Agree
disagree e agree

I felt comfortable while

10 working on these 4.2 8.3 8.3 37.5 41.7
activities.

I was active to take part in

11 IGA instead of being 12.5 8.3 16.7 33.3 29.2
asked by the teacher.

Regarding Item 10, the majority of the cadets responded positively,

with 79.2% agreeing or strongly agreeing that they felt comfortable while
 39

working on the IGA. This suggests that the IGA approach may have
contributed to a comfortable learning environment, which may have had a
positive impact on the cadets' performance and motivation.
As for Item 11, a total of 62.5% of the cadets agreed or strongly agreed
that they were always active to take part in IGA without being asked by the
teacher. This indicates that the cadets had a high level of engagement and
proactivity in their learning, which may be attributed to the interactive nature
of IGA that promote active participation and collaboration among cadets.
3.1.2.5. Value/Usefulness of IGA
Table 3.8. Value/Usefulness of IGA to cadets

Number of cadets (%)

Ite
m Statement
No. Strongly Strongly
Disagree Neutral Agree
disagree agree

These activities created a

12 real need for me to 4.2 4.2 20.8 29.2 41.6
communicate.

These activities helped

13 me to develop my 0 8.3 16.7 29.2 45.8
speaking ability.

These activities helped me

14 to react to speaking 8.3 8.3 29.2 33.4 20.8
situations more quickly.
 40

These activities offered

15 me a chance to talk in 12.5 4.2 20.8 25 37.5
English for a long time.

These activities helped

me to practice what I have
16 4.2 8.3 16.7 29.2 41.6
learned in real
conversations.

These activities offered

me an equal chance to
17 16.7 12.5 8.3 29.2 33.3
contribute to the
discussion.

The remaining survey items focus on the perceived benefits of IGA in

terms of language development and communication skills. Item 12 suggests
that the activities created a real need for the cadets to communicate, with
41.6% of them strongly agreeing with this statement. Similarly, item 13
indicates that IGA helped the cadets to develop their speaking ability, with
45.8% strongly agreeing and only 8.3% disagreeing or strongly disagreeing.
Item 14 suggests that IGA helped the cadets to react more quickly to
speaking situations, with 33.4% agreeing and 20.8% strongly agreeing.
However, 16.6% disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Item 15
indicates that the activities offered the cadets a chance to talk in English for a
long time, with 37.5% strongly agreeing and 16.7% disagreeing or strongly
disagreeing.
Item 16 suggests that IGA helped the cadets to practice what they have
learned in real conversations, with 41.6% strongly agreeing and 12.5%
disagreeing or strongly disagreeing. Finally, item 17 indicates that the
 41

activities offered the cadets an equal chance to contribute to the discussion,

with 33.3% strongly agreeing and 16.7% disagreeing or strongly disagreeing.
3.3. Findings from the interview
In order to obtain more in-depth data, six participants: 2 cadets (C7 and
C16) with significant progress like most cadets in K47 during the intervention,
and 4 other special cadets: 2 cadets (C4 and C17) who had low pre-test scores but
achieved the highest increase in post-test scores; 2 cadets (C13 and C24) who also
had low pre-test scores but did not gain any changes in the post-test scores. They
were asked and answered in Vietnamese. This was to guarantee the truthfulness of
the information in case the cadets were not confident enough to answer in English
or they might get confused in understanding the interview questions and in giving
answers to the asked questions. The interview was transcribed for analysis and
translation. The full transcript of the interview is presented in Appendix 5. The
contents of the interview are summarized and analyzed below.
In general, when asked about the cadets’ voluntary participation in
lessons before the intervention, all six cadets shared that they hardly
volunteered to take part in the speaking activities of the lessons with normal
tasks before the intervention. When 3 of them (equal 50%) admitted that they
never volunteered to speak. Two cadets confided that they rarely were active
to speak in the lessons. Only Cadet 7 replied he sometimes initiates speaking
in the lessons. For example, Cadet 4 said: “I feel too confused and nervous to
speak in front of the class so I always keep silent. I don’t dare to volunteer to
speak.” Cadet 17 added: “I never speak English in speaking lessons although
my teacher asks me to do because I don’t know how to start to talk.”
When asked about the cadets’ active participation in lessons before the
intervention, most of the participants replied that they did not participate in
speaking in lessons frequently before the new technique was applied. Three
 42

cadets said they sometimes spoke in the class but they only spoke a bit: one or
two short sentences. They also gave their reasons such as “I don’t know how
to express my ideas, so I can’t speak English fluently.” Or “Because my
teacher asks me to speak, I only participate a little bit.” And three other cadets
stated they had no participation in the speaking activities.
In short, from the responses to the two first questions, it can be referred
that the cadets did not volunteer to speak as well as did not participate in
speaking in the lessons with normal tasks before the intervention in which the
IGA was applied to the lessons.
After using IGA in the speaking lessons, cadets said that IGA helped
them to be more interested in speaking, to last more time for their speaking,
and to express their ideas more fluently. Based on the respondents from
Question 3, in general, they all shared their positive attitudes towards using
IGA in speaking lessons. Cadet 16 said: “Many real situations are introduced
into the lessons, which are necessary for our daily conversations.” In addition,
Cadet 17 also expressed: “Thanks to IGA, I feel more confident to speak in
front of the class.” Especially, another gave his witty answer that “IGA
enhance cadets to participate in speaking in the lessons. I am a typical
example. I have never volunteered to speak 3 or 4 times in a lesson.”
However, there were a few opposite ideas when Cadet 24 said he felt
less motivated and interested in speaking for the two last lessons of the
intervention. Hence, besides the enormous benefit of IGA, their limitations
also prevail. The teacher should not use IGA constantly in many speaking
lessons for a long time. He or she can add other kinds of speaking activities in
the teaching process to change the atmosphere in the class.
When asked about the cadets’ interest in IGA, the majority of cadets
 43

responded that they were highly motivated and enjoyed these lessons applied to
IGA. They agreed that IGA could enhance their motivation in speaking
although each of them gave their reasons. For example, Cadet 7 replied: “I am
excited at these speaking lessons and I don’t have to think a lot thanks to the
information my partners provide.” Cadet 13 gave another reason that is “we
can communicate more fluently and smoothly thanks to role-play or pair-work
situations in these lessons.” Moreover, Cadet 24 said that “I look forward to the
lessons in which I have a chance to share my knowledge with my classmates.”
Even Cadet 16 claimed that the lessons applied to IGA create a comfortable
atmosphere in the classroom which makes me more confident and interested in
speaking.”
However, a few opposite ideas emerged when one of them shared that
in some lessons at the end of the intervention, he felt less motivated because it
became uninteresting due to IGA which were used constantly for a long time
in these lessons. In addition, Cadet 13 truthfully answered “If the night before
the lesson, I have to guard the late shift or study outdoors, which makes me
tired so I am not interested in participating in the lessons though they are so
interesting.” It means that the objective factors may affect negatively cadets’
participation in the lessons no matter if the lessons are interesting or not.
3.2. DISCUSSION
With the findings from the three data collecting instruments: tests,
questionnaire, and interview, the two research questions of the study are to be
addressed and discussed.
3.2.1. Research question 1
The content of the first research question is: To what extent does using
information gap activities improve the cadets’ speaking skills at Air Defense -
Air Force Technical College?
 44

To test the hypothesis: using information gap activities could improve

the cadets’ speaking skills, a t-test was run with two variables the pre-test and
the post-test scores. The returning results, with a mean difference between the
post-test and the pre-test scores being 2.41, proved that there was, in fact, an
improvement in the cadets’ speaking capabilities. Moreover, a t-score of 9.23,
as well as a p-value <0.01, further concreted that the improvement in test
scores was statistically significant, and did not happen by chance. From the
findings from the t-test, it is safe to reject the null hypothesis and accept the
hypothesis: using information gap activities could improve the cadets’ speaking
skills. Nonetheless, the effects IGA had on different speaking components were
varied. With the results of the t-test, it is clear that pronunciation gained the
most improvement with a mean score difference of 0.75. This is followed by
comprehension and vocabulary, with mean score differences of 0.63 and 0.50
respectively. Fluency also improved with a mean score difference of 0.38. Yet,
the improvement in grammar was minor, leading to a mean score difference of
only 0.17. In short, after the intervention, all speaking components enjoyed an
increase in test scores, and most of the results were statistically significant,
with the sole exception of grammar, with a p-value more than 0.05.
Nevertheless, an increase of 0.17, though insignificant, was still a positive
outcome.
Furthermore, the data collected from the questionnaire also supported
the hypothesis. More specifically, for items 4 to 7, which were used to
investigate the cadets’ self-assessed competence in speaking, 56% of the
answers were positive, being either agree or strongly agree, and only 23% of
the responses were disagree or strongly disagree. Especially, for item 5, which
addressed whether the cadets themselves thought that they improved their
fluency thanks to IGA, more than half of the cadets agreed or strongly agreed,
 45

and only about one-fifth of the class had the opposite opinion. Additionally,
75% of the cadets shared the idea that IGA helped them improve their
speaking ability, which was reflected in the results of Item 13. Overall, the
cadets generally agree that IGA played an important part in developing their
speaking skills. This sentiment was also reflected during the interview with
some of the cadets. Such was the case for Cadet 16, who claimed that he was
“improving with every lesson”, or for Cadet 4, who managed to “have more
confidence speaking in English”.
The findings solidify the statement that using IGA help improve the
cadets’ speaking skills and is in line with the benefits of IGA, which facilitate
vocabulary expansion and language development (Liao, 2018). Furthermore, On
the same research topic, these findings corroborate the study of other scholars
such as Jondeya (2011), whose experimentation pointed to a statistically
significant difference between the post-test and pre-test scores; or Nguyễn Thị
Thu Trang (2009), who also proved IGA had been effective at enhancing
speaking skills for cadets; or Sari (2008), the results of whose research also
affirmed how IGA improve cadets’ achievements in speaking, as well as Ismaili
and Bajrami (2016) whose research’s participants gained an improvement in
their vocabulary.
However, there are still some discrepancies between the findings of this
research and other scholars. Most notably, in the study of Jondeya (2011), it
was found out that IGA helped improve the cadets’ speaking skills
significantly in all five components: comprehension, grammar, vocabulary,
fluency, and pronunciation, with grammar earning the greatest improvement.
On the other hand, from the findings of this research, even though IGA did
have positive effects on cadets’ speaking skills across five components, the
effects were not all significant. Grammar, despise gaining the greatest
 46

improvement in Jondeya’s research, was the skill that was least improved
upon in the study, and the increase in scores, though positive, was statistically
insignificant. This discrepancy might stem from the inherent differences
between the participants of the two researches; from the choices of IGA
employed by the teachers in lessons; or even from the amount of time
allocated to each research. All in all, the study reaffirmed the results of other
scholars’ research: IGA helps improve cadets’/students’ speaking skills,
though the extent of the improvement for each speaking component may vary.
3.2.2. Research question 2
The content of the second research question is: What are the cadets’
attitudes towards using information gap activities to study speaking skills at
Air Defense - Air Force Technical College?
The findings from the questionnaire reflected the cadets’ positive
attitudes towards IGA and lessons with IGA, as the majority of the cadets
agreed or strongly agreed with many statements in categories 1, 2, and 4. It can
be seen in Item 1 of Table 8 that more than 70% of them were involved in the
activities. Besides, 68% of cadets admitted they preferred working with other
cadets (Item 3). In particular, 17 cadets (accounting for 72%) claimed that they
were very excited about participating in IGA. Over 60 % of them shared they
felt more confident in speaking and satisfied with their performance.
Additionally, the data from Category “Effort” show that most cadets assert they
prepared and put a lot of effort into these activities.
This positive outlook is supported by the findings from the interview.
For example, Cadet 16 said “I am excited at these speaking lessons”, and
Cadet 17 also shared that people in the class felt comfortable speaking in
English. Cadet 7 and Cadet 4 had the same feeling that they found IGA very
interesting, even Cadet 4 added “I always look forward to the speaking
 47

lessons coming to take part in speaking English”. Cadet 17, thanks to IGA,
had the chance to share his knowledge with others. Regarding the cadets’
participation in lessons, it can be drawn out that the collaboration in class also
improved considerably when most cadets claimed that they took part in
speaking more frequently and longer. For example, Cadet 1 said “IGA
promotes cadets to speak more. I have ever volunteered to speak 3 or 4 times in
certain lessons.” Cadet 7 shared “I constantly initiate to participate and speak
so long.” Sharing the same ideas with Cadet 7, Cadet 16 said, “I usually take
part in speaking and speak quite much.”
Overall, the attitudes of cadets towards using information gap activities
to study speaking skills are quite positive, with them more willing to take part
in lessons, and more motivated to speak English. These findings are consistent
with the aforementioned benefits of IGA, specifically, its tendency to increase
speaking practice and promote authentic communication and cooperative
learning. This outcome is shared with previous studies on the topic. The
research conducted by Lại Thị Đua (2011) yielded similar results that students
are much more motivated to take part in speaking lessons with IGA. Moreover,
the same effects were shown in the study of Sari (2008), in which students
from different levels were encouraged to use the target language during IGA,
and their participation in class was much improved. The research carried out by
Sỹ Thị Thơm in which the participants were also non-English-majored cadets
shared the same results: cadets were more inclined to participate in the lessons
with IGA, and they showed great interest in learning English through these
activities.
However, as the classroom is not in a vacuum, it can also be seen from
the interview data that the extent to which IGA can promote students’
motivation and participation can be affected, either positively or negatively, by
many factors, including mutual understanding between members in the
 48

working pair, learning styles of cadets, the contents of the activities, cadets’
personal preferences, or cadet’s health. For instance, Cadet 24 said, “If on the
night before the lesson, I have to guard the late shift or study outside, I will be
too tired to take part in the lessons even though they are interesting.” Another
example is in the case of Cadet 13 truthfully shared “The activity in lesson 2:
Shopping is not my favorite topic, so I don’t like taking part in them.” He also
gave the reason that he was a cadet in the army; therefore, he seldom went
shopping. In addition, Cadet 11 honestly said “I participate in speaking less in
the last lessons”. His reason is that he felt IGA boring after quite a long
implementation. The same problems were observed in the research of Nguyễn
Thị Thu Trang (2009), in which the teacher had difficulties choosing the most
suitable topics for IGA, and the students sometimes lacked interest due to
personal reasons. These issues were also shared in the study of Jondeya (2011),
for which relying on the textbook for topics to be used in IGA was deemed
inappropriate and unauthentic. Hence, the student’s motivation and willingness
to participate in these activities were considered low in some lessons
concerning unfamiliar topics.
Summary
To sum up, this chapter presents a comprehensive analysis and
discussion of the collected data, providing answers to each research question
and comparing the findings to previous studies on similar topic. The data
from pre- and post-tests as well as the questionnaire and interview had been
meticulously collected and analyzed, and the findings had been presented in
the form of tables and charts. These results served as the foundation for the
conclusions drawn in the next section.
 49

CONCLUSION
1. Recapitulation
The research project was carried out at ADAFTC involving 24 cadets
belonging to class K47, with ages ranging from 18 to 25 years old. The
study aimed to find out the effects of improving English speaking skills for
the first-year non-English-majored cadets at Air Defense - Air Force
Technical College through the use of information gap activities. The
research approach involved action research and three research instruments,
including tests, questionnaire, and semi-structured interview. The results of
the study showed the impact of using information gap activities in the
instruction and acquisition of speaking skills. The collected data was
analyzed, and the study led to the following concluding remarks.
Initially, the study investigated the effects of using IGA on improving
the speaking skills of cadets at ADAFTC. A t-test was conducted to compare
pre-test and post-test scores, showing a statistically significant improvement
in speaking skills after the IGA intervention. Pronunciation showed the most
improvement, followed by comprehension, vocabulary, and fluency, while
grammar had a minor improvement. Results from the questionnaire also
supported the hypothesis that IGA helped improve cadets' speaking skills. The
study's findings were in line with previous research, but there were
discrepancies in the extent of improvement for each speaking component.
Overall, the study concluded that IGA can enhance speaking skills but with
varying degrees of improvement.
In addition, the research examined the attitudes of cadets towards using
information gap activities to study speaking skills at Air Defense - Air Force
Technical College. The findings from the questionnaire and interview show
that the majority of cadets have positive attitudes towards IGA and lessons
 50

with IGA, as they felt more motivated to speak English and more willing to
participate in class. However, factors such as mutual understanding between
working pairs, learning styles of cadets, contents of the activities, personal
preferences, and health can affect their motivation and participation. It is also
noted that some topics may be unfamiliar or uninteresting to some students,
which may lower their motivation and willingness to participate. The positive
outlook is consistent with previous studies on the topic.
2. Limitations of the research
The study has several limitations that must be acknowledged. To begin
with, the study was conducted with a small group of cadets consisting of only
24 participants at ADAFTC. This could lead to insufficient data collection
and a lack of a comprehensive understanding of the studied data.
Furthermore, due to the limited time frame, only a single cycle of
action research was conducted, which also lacked the final step of the
research involving exploring alternative solutions to the problem. As a result,
it was not possible to thoroughly examine the impacts of IGA on cadets’
speaking skills.
Finally, it is important to acknowledge that this paper was written with
the author's limited academic knowledge and methodology, and therefore
errors and mistakes are likely to have occurred.
3. Implications
To effectively teach speaking, teachers must be creative in finding
suitable methods. To promote motivation and participation among cadets, it is
important for teachers to understand the advantages of using IGA in teaching.
Various IGA can be implemented in speaking lessons, but careful preparation
is necessary to ensure the activities are well-structured, especially at lower
levels. It can be difficult for cadets to come up with ideas while
 51

simultaneously focusing on the language, so handouts with photocopies

should be provided to provide a topic or purpose for language use. Teachers
should also ensure that each pair of cadets receives different parts of the
exercise and that they do not share information with one another. Adapting
these activities for use in a large class can also be challenging and requires
careful consideration. In addition to these factors, teachers should create a
friendly classroom atmosphere, promote cooperative learning, respond to
cadets' work, and provide clear explanations to motivate cadets to speak
English while using IGA.
4. Suggestions for further study
Based on the limitations of the study, there are several suggestions for
further research that could address these issues.
Firstly, future studies should aim to recruit a larger sample size to
increase the validity of the findings. This could involve selecting participants
from a wider range of military academies or language schools to obtain a
more diverse group of cadets.
Secondly, conducting multiple cycles of action research with a follow-
up step to explore alternative solutions would be beneficial in investigating
the impacts of IGA on cadets’ speaking skills. This would allow for a more
in-depth examination of the effectiveness of IGA in promoting cadets'
motivation and participation in speaking.
Finally, future research could also focus on investigating the impacts
of IGA on other language skills, such as listening or writing. This would
provide a more comprehensive understanding of the potential benefits of
using IGA in language learning.
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APPENDIX 1
SAMPLE SPEAKING TEST
(Adapted from Cambridge A2 Key Speaking Test)
Part 1 (2-3 mins)
Interlocutor
To Cadet
Do you work or are you a
student?
Where do you come from?
Where do you live?
Thank you.
Back-up prompts
How often do you see your
friends?
What do you like doing with
your friends?
where do your friends live?
When do you see your
friends?
Extended Response
Now, please tell me
something about one of your
friends.
APPENDICES
Good morning / afternoon / evening.
Can I have your mark sheets, please?
Hand over the mark sheets to the Assessor.
I’m …………, and this is …….…
What’s your name?
Back-up prompts
Do you work? Do you study? Are you a
student?
Are you from (Spain, etc.)?
Do you live in … (name of district / town,
etc.)?
Do you work? Do you study? Are you a
student?
Are you from (Spain, etc.)?
Do you live in … (name of district / town,
etc.)?
Do you see your friends every day?
Do you like going to the cinema?
Do your friends live near you?
Do you see your friends at weekends?
Back-up questions
Do you like your friend?
Where did you meet your friend?
Did you see your friends last weekend?
Part 2 (5-6 mins)
Now, in this part of the test, we are going to talk together. Please take a
topic card from this stack.
Signal either cadet to take a topic card from the stack on the table to
choose their topic. The chosen topic will be random.
Please give me the card
Ask the cadet to hand over the card. Then place it on the table, facing the
cadets.
Here are some pictures that show different places to eat.
Do you like these different places to eat? Say why or why not. I’ll say that
again.
Do you like these different places to eat? Say why or why not.
All right? Now, let’s talk together.
……………………………………………
…………..
Cadets  Allow a minimum of 1 minute (maximum
of 2 minutes) before moving on to the
following questions.
Do you think…
Interlocutor /
….eating on the beach is fun?
Cadet
… eating in restaurants is expensive?
Use as appropriate.
….eating at home is boring?
Ask the cadet at least one
… eating at college/work is cheap?
question.
… eating in the park is nice?
So, which of these places to eat do you like
Interlocutor best?
Thank you.

Interlocutor
 Allow up to 2 minutes
Now, do you prefer eating with friends or family? (Why?)
Do you prefer eating at home or in a restaurant? (Why?)
Thank you. That is the end of the test.
 APPENDIX 2
PAIRED SAMPLE T-TEST RESULT FROM IBM SPSS

Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Pair 1 POSTTotal 11.542 24 2.9632 .6049
PRETotal 9.125 24 3.3920 .6924

Paired Samples Correlations

N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 POSTTotal & PRETotal 24 .927 .000

Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences

95% Confidence
Std. Interval of the
Std. Error Difference Sig. (2-
Mean Deviation Mean Lower Upper t df tailed)
Pair 1 POSTTotal - 2.4167 1.2825 .2618 1.8751 2.9582 9.231 23 .000
PRETotal
 APPENDIX 3
QUESTIONNAIRE
BẢNG CÂU HỎI KHẢO SÁT
Bảng câu hỏi này được soạn ra nhằm tìm hiểu hiệu quả của việc sử dụng
hoạt động khoảng trống thông tin và thái độ của học viên đối với việc sử dụng
khoảng trống thông tin trong giờ học nói tiếng Anh của Trường Cao đẳng Kỹ
thuật Phòng không - Không quân. Không có câu trả lời nào là sai, do đó đồng
chí chỉ cần đánh dấu X vào câu trả lời phù hợp nhất đối với đồng chí. Mọi lựa
chọn của đồng chí đều được ẩn danh.
Cảm ơn sự hợp tác của các đồng chí!
1. hoàn toàn không đồng ý 2. không đồng ý 3. trung lập
4. đồng ý 5. hoàn toàn đồng ý
Muc Nhận định 1 2 3 4 5
Hoạt động trống thông tin rất thú vị.

Tôi hào hứng khi tham gia nói trong các giờ học có
1 Hứng thú hoạt động trống thông tin.

Tôi thấy thích thú khi được tham gia nói cùng các
bạn trong lớp.

Nhờ vào những thông tin đã có của hoạt động trống

thông nên tôi thấy dễ tham gia vào bài giảng hơn

2 Khả năng Tôi có thể nói trôi chảy hơn nhờ có hoạt động trống
thông tin.

Tôi cảm thấy hài lòng với những gì mình đã làm

được trong các hoạt động khỏng trống thông tin
 Nhờ các hoạt động trống thông tin mà tôi thấy tự
tin hơn khi nói.

Tôi nỗ lực nhiều vào các hoạt động nói này.

3 Nỗ lực
Tôi đã chuẩn bị kĩ cho các hoạt động khoảng trống
thông tin.

Tôi cảm thấy thoải mái khi được nói trong các giờ
học có các hoạt động khoảng trống thông tin.
4 Áp lực
Tôi chủ động tham gia nói chứ không cần giáo viên
gọi như trước.

Hoạt động trống thông tin đặt ra nhu cầu thực cho
tôi giao tiếp bằng tiếng Anh

Các hoạt động khoảng trống thông tin giúp tôi phát
triển khả năng nói tiếng Anh.

Các hoạt động khoảng trống thông tin giúp tôi phản
ứng nhanh hơn trong các tình huống giao tiếp.
5 Giá trị
Các hoạt động khoảng trống thông tin giúp tôi có
thể nói được dài hơn.

Các hoạt động khoảng trống thông tin giúp tôi thực
hành những gì đã được học vào các tình huống hội
thoại thực.
Các hoạt động khoảng trống thông tin tạo cơ hội
cho tôi được thảo luận cùng các đồng chí khác
trong lớp.

CẢM ƠN SỰ HỢP TÁC CỦA ĐỒNG CHÍ!

APPENDIX 4
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Bảng câu hỏi này được soạn ra nhằm cung cấp thông tin cho nghiên
cứu của tôi “Sử dụng các hoạt động khoảng trống thông tin để nâng cao kỹ
năng nói tiếng Anh cho học viên không chuyên năm thứ nhất tại Trường
Cao đẳng Kỹ thuật Phòng không - Không quân”. Tôi ghi nhận sự hỗ trợ của
các đồng chí cho việc trả lời những câu hỏi phỏng vấn sau đây. Tôi cam đoan
những thông tin mà các đồng chí cung cấp chỉ được sử dụng cho mục đích
nghiên cứu của tôi và mọi câu trả lời đều sẽ ẩn danh.
Cảm ơn sự hợp tác của các đồng chí!

1. Trước khi học nói theo phương pháp mới này, đồng chí có thường chủ
động tham gia các hoạt động nói hay chỉ nói khi được yêu cầu?
2. Trước khi học nói theo phương pháp mới này, đồng chí có thường
xuyên tham gia vào các hoạt động nói trong giờ học không?
3. Sau 7 bài học (trong 7 tuần) vừa qua, đồng chí có thể cho tôi biết ý kiến
của đồng chí về việc sử dụng các hoạt động khoảng trống thông tin vào
giờ học nói như thế nào? Như là:
- thời gian tham gia nói
- tần suất lần tham gia
- sự tự tin hay lo lắng bối rối trong khi nói
Đồng chí có hứng thú với các bài học nói có hoạt động khoảng trống
thông tin vừa rồi không? Tại sao có? Tại sao không?
 APPENDIX 5
INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS

Người phỏng vấn: Trước khi học nói theo phương pháp mới này, đồng
chí có thường chủ động hay xung phong tham gia các hoạt động nói hay chỉ
nói khi được yêu cầu?
Cadet 1: Dạ. Thưa đồng chí giáo viên, thỉnh thoảng tôi cũng chủ động
nói nếu nội dung đơn giản.
Cadet 2: Ui! Tôi chưa chủ động bao giờ cả, trừ khi giáo viên yêu cầu.
Tôi có biết nói gì đâu mà xong phong, mà chủ động ạ.
Cadet 3: Tôi luôn run sợ, bối rối khi nghĩ mình phải đứng lên nói trước
lớp nên tôi luôn ngồi im. Tôi không dám xung phong bao giờ.
Cadet 20: Thưa đồng chí giáo viên là tôi không bao giờ xung phong
tham gia nói đâu ạ, kể cả giáo viên gọi vì tôi không biết bắt đầu như thế nào.
Cadet 11: Chủ động xong phong trong giờ nói thì ít lắm ạ. Tôi nhớ có
1 hay 2 lần gì đó thôi.
Người phỏng vấn: Trước khi học nói theo phương pháp mới này, đồng
chí có thường xuyên tham gia vào các hoạt động nói trong giờ học không?
Cadet 1: Dạ! thì tôi cũng có tham gia nói: bài thì 1 lần, bài thì đôi lần,
nhưng cũng có bài tôi không tham gia. Tóm lại thì tôi cũng ít nói lắm ạ.
Cadet 2: Hiếm lắm tôi mới tham gia. Do giáo viên yêu cầu nên tôi nói
vài lời nhanh chóng thôi ạ.
Cadet 3: uh! Tôi cũng thỉnh thoảng nói nhưng còn ấp úng chưa biết
diễn đạt ý như thế nào.
Cadet 20: Tôi hầu như không tham gia nói mấy khi. Hiếm lắm ạ.
Cadet 11: Hi! Tôi không nghĩ ra được gì để nói cả nên tôi không dám
tham gia. Tôi thấy e ngại.
 Người phỏng vấn: Sau 7 bài học (trong 7 tuần) vừa qua, đồng chí có
thể cho tôi biết ý kiến của đồng chí về việc sử dụng các hoạt động trống
thông tin vào giờ học nói như thế nào? Như là: - Thời gian tham gia nói
- Tần suất lần tham gia
- Số người trong lớp tham gia nói
- Tự tin hay lo lắng bối rối trong khi
nói
Cadet 7: Dạ! Khi dùng hoạt động nói kiểu mới mà đồng chí giáo viên
áp dụng vào những bài học vừa qua, tôi thấy đã thúc đẩy học viên trong lớp
tham gia nói nhiều hơn. Như tôi, có bài xung phong đến 3-4 lần.
Cadet 16: À! Riêng tôi thì thấy sử dụng hoạt động trống thông tin, tôi
thấy rất nhiều các tình huống thực trong hoạt động hàng ngày được đưa vào
bài học nên nó tương đối thiết thực cho hoạt động giao tiếp thực tế của chúng
tôi. Tuy nhiên, tôi thấy chủ đề nói của bài 2 không phù hợp với chúng tôi lắm.
Cô biết chúng tôi là bộ đội có đi mua sắm mấy khi mà biết nên giờ học hôm
đó tôi cũng không tham gia gì nhiều
Cadet 4: Càng học, tôi càng thấy các bài học nói kiểu này hiệu quả. Tôi
đã tiến bộ qua từng bài. Các hoạt động nói này giúp tôi triển khai ý nhanh
hơn, diễn đạt mạch lạc hơn.
Cadet 17: Vài bài học đầu, tôi chưa quen với hình thức này nên tôi
cũng không thấy khác gì so với các bài học kiểu cũ. Tuy nhiên dần dần, tôi
bắt đầu thích thú với bài học. Tôi bớt lo lắng và thấy tự tin hơn khi nói và
diễn đạt mạch lạc hơn ạ.
Cadet 13: Các bài học có hoạt động trống thông tin vừa rồi đã thúc đẩy
được nhiều người trong lớp nói hơn đặc biệt là những bài đầu mới áp dụng
kiểu mới này ạ. Mấy bài đầu tôi liên tục xung phong nói và nói dài dài đấy ạ.
Vài bài cuối thì tôi ít tham gia hơn ạ.
Người phỏng vấn: Đồng chí có hứng thú với các bài học nói có hoạt
động trống thông tin vừa rồi không? Tại sao có? Tại sao ko?
Cadet 7: Dạ! Tôi thấy rất hào hứng tham gia các hoat động nói này ạ vì
tôi không mất công suy nghĩ nhiều để nói nhờ có những thông tin mà các bạn
tham gia với mình đã cung cấp.
Cadet 16: Có cô ạ. Vì các bài học nói này tạo không khí thoải mái và
giúp mọi người tự tin khi nói. Có khi giờ học cuối buổi, nhưng tôi vẫn hào
hứng tham gia nói. Quên mệt và đói!
Cadet 4: Càng học, tôi càng thấy các bài học nói kiểu này hiệu quả. Tôi
đã tiến bộ qua từng bài. Các hoạt động nói này giúp tôi triển khai ý nhanh
hơn, diễn đạt mạch lạc hơn và nói được lâu hơn ạ.
Cadet 17: Dạ phải nói, lúc đầu khi chưa quen tôi thấy chúng chẳng có
gì thích thú. Nhưng càng về sau, tôi càng thấy nó hay ạ. Tôi quen dần và thấy
có nhiều tình huống thực tế nên dễ hiểu, dễ nói do đó tôi và nhiều bạn trong
lớp có thể tham gia nhiều hơn nên tạo lớp học rất sôi nổi ạ.
Cadet 13: Dạ. Lúc đầu được tiếp cận với những hình thức hoạt động
nói mới đó, tôi thấy thật tuyệt. Tôi rất mong chờ đến giờ học nói để tôi có cơ
hội được chia sẻ thông tin liên quan đến hiểu biết của tôi cho mọi ngươi và
lĩnh hội được kiến thức từ các bạn trong lớp. Nhưng sau đó, các bài học cuối
có những nội dung tôi không rành lắm, với lại cũng thấy kiểu này cũng hơi
nhàm nên tôi cũng không hứng thú lắm nữa ạ.
Người phỏng vấn: Trước khi học nói theo phương pháp mới này, đồng
chí có thường chủ động hay xung phong tham gia các hoạt động nói hay chỉ
nói khi được yêu cầu?
Cadet 24: Dạ! Thưa đồng chí! Thường thì tôi cũng ít xung phong chủ
động tham gia nói trong giờ học. Tuy nhiên có hôm bài học vào chủ đề mà tôi
biết thì tôi cũng xin tham gia nói đôi ba lời.
Người phỏng vấn: Trước khi học nói theo phương pháp mới này, đồng
chí có thường xuyên tham gia vào các hoạt động nói trong giờ học không?
Cadet 24: Tôi thì ít tham gia hoạt động nói trong lớp. Lâu lâu giờ học
có chủ đề tôi biết thì tôi cũng nói nhưng chỉ một chút thôi ạ.
Người phỏng vấn: Sau 7 bài học (trong 7 tuần) vừa qua, đồng chí có
thể cho tôi biết ý kiến của đồng chí về việc sử dụng các hoạt động trống
thông tin vào giờ học nói như thế nào?
Cadet 24: Thưa đồng chí giáo viên! Khi đồng chí sử dụng hoạt động
nói mới này, tôi thấy thoải mái hơn khi nói và tôi thấy tự tin hơn đấy a.
Người phỏng vấn: Vậy đồng chí có thường xuyên tham gia nói không?
Và nói có được nhiều hơn không?
Cadet 24: Dạ! Thưa đồng chí! Cơ bản, bài nào tôi đã tham gia là tôi rất
chủ động và nói thường xuyên. Tôi cũng nói được lâu lâu đấy a. Tuy nhiên
một số bài tôi tham gia ít, thậm chí không tham gia ạ
Người phỏng vấn: Tại sao vậy?
Cadet 24: Chả là hôm đó tôi mệt và buồn ngủ, đồng chí giáo viên ạ.
Người phỏng vấn: Đồng chí có hứng thú với các bài học nói có hoạt
động trống thông tin vừa rồi không? Tại sao có? Tại sao ko?
Cadet 24: Dạ nói chung là tôi cũng hứng thú với các bài học này. Vì
các tình huống đóng vai giúp chúng tôi giao tiếp theo cặp đôi lưu loát và ăn ý
trong các hoạt động. Tuy nhiên, cũng còn tùy vào từng buổi.
Người phỏng vấn: Đồng chí trình bày cụ thể hơn? Sao lại tùy vào
từng buổi?
Cadet 24: À! Chả là: Nếu mà tối trước tôi phải gác ca khuya, hoặc lớp
phải học kĩ, chiến thuật tác chiến ban đêm, thì hôm sau, trong giờ học nói đó
dù hay nhưng tôi mệt và buồn ngủ nên cũng không còn thấy hứng thú nữa ạ.
 APPENDIX 6
SAMPLE LESSON PLAN
Textbook: New Headway Elementary
UNIT 2: MEETING PEOPLE
A. Objectives:
By the end of the lesson, cadets will be able to improve their speaking
skills by asking and answering basic questions relating to prices and orders.
B. Language Focus:
- Speaking: This section practices the language required in a restaurant.
For grammar, “Can I have...?” is taught idiomatically. Vocabulary to do with
food and drink is introduced, and prices are practiced.
C. Resources:
Textbook, laptop, board, projector, pictures.
D. Procedures:
I. Pre-task activities: (15’)
- Introduction to the topic of prices and orders.
- Ask cadets to brainstorm the types of activities one may include when
going to a cafe (eg. Ask for the menu, order drinks, pay the bill, etc.). Write
the ideas on the board.
- From the ideas, the teacher provides sample questions and answers
one may use for each of the categories. (Focus on the form Can I have...? for
ordering items.)
- The teacher explains the tasks to the students, reminding them to try
to use the target language as much as possible.
II. The task cycle: 90’
1. Task 1: Completing the grid:
a. Task:
 - Cadets work in pairs. One cadet in the pair holds the paper containing
the different phrases used by the customer and the waiter/waitress. The other
holds an empty table with 2 columns. The first cadet will say the phrases. And
the second cadet will try to put the phrases in the correct column. They switch
roles after 6 phrases.

CADET 1 CADET 2

A table for two, please. Are you ready to order?

What do you recommend? Can I have some mineral water?

And here’s the menu. I’ll have the lamb chops.

Can I have some chips? Can we have the bill, please.

I recommend the steak. The lasagna for me, please.

Rare, medium or well done? Would you like anything to drink?

WAITER/WAITRESS CUSTOMER

................................................ ................................................

................................................ ................................................

................................................ ................................................

................................................ ................................................

................................................ ................................................
- Teacher walks around and monitors and encourages students to use
the target language. Teachers may help cadets formulate what they want to
say, but should not intervene to correct errors.
b. Planning:
- After all the pairs finish with the phrases, the teacher asks the cadets
to formulate a dialog using the given phrases. They will continue to work in
pairs.
- The cadets then proceed to create a dialog from those phrases and
practice the dialog.
c. Report:
- The teacher asks some pairs to share their findings with the class, and
for random pairs to practice their dialogues in front of the class.
2. Task 2: Shopping list:
a. Task:
- Cadets assume roles as the customer or the waiter. Cadets then work
in pairs to order items from the menu and calculate the bill. One cadet will
have the menu, the other will try to order the food and drink that he wants.
After he finishes ordering, the cadet in the role of the waiter should calculate
the bill. They then switch roles.

- Teacher walks around and monitors, and encourages students to use

the target language. Teachers may help cadets formulate what they want to
say, but should not intervene to correct errors.
b. Planning:
- Cadets choose a different role and prepare to answer questions in
front of the class. They may write down the questions and answers.
- Teacher goes around the class to advise cadets on language and suggest
phrases.
c. Report:
- The teacher asks some cadets to role-play using the menu, with one
being the customer and the other the waiter. They are free to ask for items, not
on the menu.
III. The language focus: 15’
1. Analysis:
- Teacher summarizes the grammar used in the lesson: phrases to order
items, or ask for prices.
- Students should take note and may raise questions.
2. Practice:
- The teacher asks some cadets to act as customers and waiters and
have them practice ordering. Their peers may provide feedback.
IV. Homework
Ask cadets to remember to practice the grammar at home and try to
apply different vocabulary relating to food and drinks.
 Evaluation
Grammar Fluency Comprehension
Criteria
-Makes few errors in the
following areas:
-Student demonstrates full
-Verbs in utterances, -Effective
comprehension by
4
when necessary, with communication in short
APPENDIX 7

answering all questions with

appropriate subject or terms
explanation and elaboration.
verb agreement
-Noun and adjective
agreement
-Makes several errors in -Student has no difficulty
structure which don't -Gets ideas across, but with expected answers to all
3

affect overall hesitantly and briefly questions, without

comprehensibility elaboration.

-Student is uncomfortable
-Makes several errors -Very hesitant and brief
with information and is able
2

which may interfere with utterances, sometimes

to answer only simple
comprehensibility difficult to understand
(Adapted from Brown (2003))

questions.

-Makes utterances which

are so brief that there is -Speech irrelevant to topic.
-Little or no
1

little evidence of -No answer, or may sighs or

communication
grammar and nonsense utterances.
RUBRIC FOR EVALUATING ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS

comprehensibility
 Pronunciation Vocabulary

-Incorporates a variety of old

-Speaks clearly and imitates and new vocabulary.
accurate pronunciation. -Uses idiomatic expressions
appropriate to topic

-Utilizes a variety of old and

-Speaks clearly and attempts limited new vocabulary.
accurate pronunciation. -Attempt to use idiomatic
expressions appropriate to
topic.

-Speech is comprehensible in
-Relies on basic vocabulary.
spite of mispronunciations

-Mispronunciations impede
-Uses limited vocabulary.
comprehensibility