.

7
4
intermolecular forces Van der Waal's Forces

↳ forces within molecules are

strong is instantaneous induced dipole forces
(temporary) dipole -

:
covalent : intramolecular forces ↳ Cid-id) London dispersion forces

↳ Forces between intermolecular are weak

weakest bond o
: van der Waal's forces I

= )
electron charge cloud in non polar molecule are

constantly moving
one side has higher charge density than the other

creating temporary dipole that induce on

neighbouring
molecules

id-id increases with

· number at electrons/proton

· increasing contact point(to induce e/os

id-id can be used to explain the trend in bp/mp

2)
pemanent dipoles (pd-pd)

stronger than id-id forces

,

!* strongest intermolecular bonding

HYDROGEN BONDING
 Hydrogen bonding (strongest intermolecular
bonding (

13 a species with
really high electronegativity (+ Conepairs)
H
① lone pair

Go
H
2) a species with -OH or NH
group H
↓
-

&

3) bond angle must be 180 highy polarised

F
S
t
S-
H
ND : H
ND
depends on :
availibity at H attached to OI H
-

S
number of lone pairs on O/N & - HSt " H ②Y
&
Hydrogen
a
OH CoF .F
St
C
H
·
Ammonia can form G
·
Water can form

Proporties of water Intramolecular Forces

1 I High Melting Pointa Boiling Point ·

Metallic Bonding
attraction at &
4 If held super electrostatic positively metal
-

bonds
Hydrogen are
really strong right together charged ion

delocalised electrons in metal Lattice

2) I High of
enthalpy change vaporization
S +
e
-
+
c? +
e-
t

↳ X3 times
i her compared to hydrides 2
-

+ e
-

+
+
e-
e
-

t e-

e-e + -

e
-
+
e +
3 I
High surface tension .

the af
ability a liquid to resist
any external forces
covalent
bonding
& the the surface bonded electron at 2 atoms
-

water molecules at at the liquid outer are shared

are
by
hydrogen bonds
by the molecules below

Ionic
bonding
·
Pulled downward to become the electrostatic attraction between cation & anion in
compressed causing
-

4 I surface tension ionic crystal lattice

Density

↳ Ice are
packed in 3D
hydrogen bonded network in a

rigid lattic >

longer bond length
-

as water

Further than liquid

molecules are
slightly as
 Chapter 2- Ionization Energies
"
> first Ionisation energy CIE kj/mol) Successive lonization
energy of an element
the needed to electron from
energy remove an
-

each electron in 1 mole at om at state. *

removing an electron from positive ion is harder
gaseous
element than from neutral ion
.

Es

:Ffetfete ↳ as more electrons

attractive ferces
are removed ,
the

END the period increases Down the group =>

decreases

O increase in ① Increase in
nuclear charge shielding
↳ atomic radius decreases ↳ distance from nucleus increases
distance between nucleus
a outer electron decreases weaker nuclear attraction

stronger nuclear attraction electrons easily removed

= > harder to break : more

energy needed
Determinants
② Shielding Constant

↳
= Across the period
l

78
slight decrease in I at N + 0 .

&
E
O
,

spin-pair repulsion
↳ thats because despite the
increasing nuclear
charge ② different quantum shell
③ nuclear
charge
O has a paired electron in 20 subortital
=
>
-

Spin pair repulsion Down the group

0 1111 N 177 D weakens the attractive force

Shielding Crepulsion
② Atomic radius ( ↑ distance = ↓ bond strength (

slight decrease in IE at Be >

-

B .

↳ different subshells Be 20 B2P

 sp3 retrahedral sp linear
&
Orbitals Hybridization
= =

I
H -
C -
H

H C = C
it
-

the
greater the atomic orbital overlaps : the stronger the bond
2 sp2 triagonal
-

hybridisation =
mixing at orbitals = planer

Hi
* double

J
C =

Hybridisation HI
bond

O bonds
-

p orbitals can overlap end on to form

-

direct overlap at orbital (end to ends 8 bonds

t
* * ↳ must be modified to
gain s orbital
character first
↳ the electron density is symmetrical
↳ changes the shape : p Orbital lobes

bigger
IL bonds
·
sp3 = S + 3D
-

sideway overlaps of adjacent porbitals ↑ ↑ tetrahedral

Ins 3 uP
↳ 2 lobes make
up the I bond lie above
and below the plane ot
O bond

& a
single it bond arises two electron cloud
triagonal planar
From each of the p
orbitals/ (
2) bond containing 2 electrons

linear

He
orbital orbit
only s o

Y
is is +
&& Double bond
Triple bond
:

:
1

25116
Je Id
 Bond length VESPR THOERY

of electrons
in the molecule the
bonding pair
-

① the shorter the bond

,
the stronger the bond strength will repel with other electrons around the centrel
atom
forcing molecules to adapt a shape which

↳ triple bonds are shortest

& strongest due to these repulsive forces are minimized

large electron
density between 2 nucleus
↳ lone pairs repel more than bonded pairs

=>
Reactivity at bond ·
more concentrated with electron cloud
than bonding pair of electrons
Bond Polarity
BondStrength ·
charge cloud wider a closer
Bond type 20/TL)

↳ repulsion between the pair of double

is
bond greater

-
 Chapter 4-State of Matter

Kinetic Theory at
gases

IE
---
"gases

Y
moving" Gases
-

Ideal
are
alway /

① moving :
e Randomly
fastly
-

volume it occupies depends on :

& hardly
no
any volumes

intermolecular forces O
pressure
o temperature
① elastic collision (no kinetic lost (
energy
At low pressure of high temperature
=> limitations of ideal ↳ zero attraction
gases
not all
gases follows
↳ volume at
gas smaller negligible)
↳ there is zero attraction between the
molecules

↳ volume cannot be ignored Ideal

gas equation

E
Real Gases PV = nRT

At high pressure
a low temperature volume : m3 = am3 + m3 = x+
1000
pressure : Pa
R 8 31 5/k molt cm3 dm3 +
↳ together
> X
molecules close
-

are : . =

1000
temperature c + 273K
·

↳ id-id & pd-pd forces between

causing
4) these attractive Forces the molecules

from container volume

away wall >
-

becomes unnegligible
 Chapter 7 -

Equilibria
Dynamic Equilibrium
① reactant
a products are always dynamic moving Habour Process conditions
& rate at backward and forward reaction are the same

③ concentration of reactant & products are the same / ·

400 -
500
·

200 atm
↳
involving liquids only system is allowed as Feiron catalyst
·

negligible materials can be lost

Contact Process
↳
involving gas :
equilibrium only reached in closed system
-

450 C .

* the same = constant 2 atm

= equal Vanadium (v) oxide catalyst

·

[J
① Effect on pressure &
3 Effects at catalyst

increasing pressure shifts

↳ to the side with less mole/volume ↳ increases rate at reaction

② Effect on temperature ↳ no effects on position

of equilibrium
↳ increasing temperature increases ot reaction
both rate
↳ helps reach equilibrium
4 Favors the endothermic side faster

k, 10-10 = does not happen

N2 +
3Hz -
2NHz DH =
-@K5/mo 0 I

=
- .

= reactant s product
-

= equilibrium
mole ratio 4 : 1 exothermic
= product reactant
completion
Increase yield of
NHz : lower temperature
higher pressure
 Equilibrium Constant

KC Concentration Mole Fraction

2A + B = 3 4D the at of A the total mole of

ratio mol
gas to
+
-

the gas

ke <C33x[D2" * of mol at gas A

at equilibrium mole fraction
=
cone = number

[A]2 x B
mixture
total number of mol of gas in

↳ solids ignored Kp Pressure

↳ only controlled
by temperature
Ptotal =
PA +
Pz + Po
↑
Partial pressure

Partial Pressure = mole fraction x total pressure

2 A
-
+ B = 3 + 4D

3 4
KP = P(C) X PCDC *
partial pressure
p(AS XP'CBS
 o 2

290
250
2
+
97 3

initial 2 2 O

equilibrium ? ? 1. 98
-

2X E -
X & + 2x 0 02 .

2- 1 98 2-0 99 C= 0 99 1 01
.
.
.

So = 0 02
.
O = 1 01
.

2
2

98/4032
= ton
[ 1
KC =
.

[0 02/4072
.
x (1 . 01 x 40]

3 .
88x105
dr/ma
 Chapter 13-
Nitrogen
(78
Nitrogen % at air ) Ammonia Calkaligass weak base

I
diatomic molecule
N2 +
3 Hz 2NHz
-

!
Mainly unreactive ① Basicity of Ammonia

↳ intramolecular bond ↳ Bronsted Lowry Base :

proton acceptor

Nitrogen has a triple bond of 1000k/mo

NHz + H- NHpt Y acid base reaction

4
polarity :
-

N =
-

N :
Equilibrium is to the left :

Non polar : even number of electrons

NHz +
H20 = NHyt + Oh -

charges cancelled out

=> Oxidation of Nitrogen Gas G Ammonia :

Pyramidal 3 Is 7 lone pair
Ammonium ion : Tetrahedral 3 Hs /dative H
① Step 1 :

↳ positive charge evenly spreads

↑
2
+
&2 >
-
2NO
nitrogen ( + 2) oxide

↳
lighting provides high activation energy) Making at Ammonia

& Step 2 : further oxidation !. ammonium salt + base >

-

ammonia
gas
+
CNH4 C
2NO +
02 >
-

2NO nitrogen (+ 6) oxide

① ammonium chloride + calcium hydroxide
⑤ Step 5 :
hydration neat
2NHpC1, get CaCOt >
-

cace +
H20 +
2Nt3(3)
3
No +
+0 + CHN Cs)

↳ conditions : heated at solid state

↳ combines with water droplets +air >
-
acid rain
* Acts as an acid
 UNIT 8 Equilibna
8.3Rever sible Reachon
Qrea choY in htcnpro ducH ▇ beChcnged ba CK
ohtoreactanH by revevsin 9Hh e conci on
xSv
torb0Y ▇ ▇rLo
C Ha e reacho n Vol rVS)/ O)

o
H3 + 3H.
1
2 2NH3 HC- 92 mo - )y
bs isd arusb s
pln yeMld o am9 moniaubo o 07SI
N7b

lo vertempevafe ▇ ▇ veachon ▇ temic

C p ralue increases )

higher pYes s re a there les mole to He vgnt,

inerea sin3 pres sure will shf+to gh▇

&
ContacF Proces

2S0 2) g2
S03 C3 ) H C- 19 l mol
inc reasirs PreSs u e
hi F to the #->
rignte less mole

ho e e Y n 9
Kp value s very highe l prachsed
just oboUe the ATP

decheasinsHhe ter perature

p value increases
-

↳ exother mic
 ondilup

da laiaae9 . S 8
o Ad quitibv ▇ reachon o1 ▇ nol den2▇
a Yeachon thal do not under g co peon
and in hìch produci veactanHs ave fxed
co cevtvh Ya

Dynamtc quilibyum HC
reactonts Qre being converted to *roducH3 a He

same rate as produc ve beiing Conuerfed into

eactanH

0 D O Nol 02▇ ▇ ▇
2 I 2HI .

a orh o puxrple vap ▇ ▇

Aa pt-H Di 2 Yg▇

u ibur

rea cbo Hondtrol

ha - H C20
0
yL 2 2i0s
upi 2

HSuodp eu

dero nLe▇ ▇ ▇ ▇
0oe l o1 ▇
8.GAcid -Base Equilibria
1O -ン o い
rHiu2a0sr9e0d ア 0ebio0 ( 9rl
Newtro(iSabion:thereachon o4an acidwHh analkaLi to
forma 9altand watey
0 コ月
acid +0IKCl/ 一 3 alFー+ い aler
『ofgmo21euonle ・のの ri0n D0Jvo)
H ca9 2 +OHca92 H20
ロH H eHW
Cん
リ
S a|t a3ubstOnnce
formed whe れ Nnacid rea ch wJfh
Aor 2 pr
ar3aI,analalia の ime talい Y a年carbovale
Niod9lgmonJ「レ 0/0H

「Ie6YOY3 Fe ロ LocrgHheory（Cronio5 =2 acidり-2bbA

even 」0alorg reaction
,

I
may acts as an acid
Bron 3 led LouUryacid = proloY aonoY as a base

Bransled Lo い rybase- pvoton acceptor

ad b08e
十,
り HC れ + H2 HO + C 人
'3
cg つ Cい Ca9? C0）

HF donoled

hove Fo
ByOnsHec LO し 1 ナ acid and base does not inVoluea9 eouS

Sol uhon 3 Ht donated

HC エ O + CHa CooH =cLO CH っ COOH

3
ocid ba3e

bothchlortcCVIacid an d ethanoic acia are

acids 月 bu CaY ach3 0 9QctdL & ba se based Ov

いれl chregen ト ackla9 proton Oonor a4 prohon

Occeprov
 Dhdiip 0 eA
a
he n acid Or Þ se reacHwit aten
equ ibri mix tue Re▇
to bhc da2
Hc eg Q9 Ht C
1g
9-lo l b
foreard arYow sho S compe Hion

20.T
oH
NH3 c H 0
C
= NH4 *

Hi abDí20 L amzd ondedu do2

stebda2a eq ui librum sho His reachn ha s not

gone th ou n comple hon

Acids C proton donors )turng anion inHe reach ▇

tiabe de Ll

d
lD

MA
tiaelt
5t ento dle )
tbcetta
 St ong Weak acia s

O
Frdd .09YNorH o1 vno) T 1H 5rH
SEYongaci d=com petely dis Sociates strong acid/
base irreversible
eokacid ol =parHy dissocio tes a
:

weak acid I base

reversible reaction
o b1▇ No2 btao 3 90A
position to the

S rong Acid C in equiltbvium 2 bio Dingro backward

b.0 tri0▇ ▇ ▇
E : HC H H " + C H

Hoo HO
the posihon ofequilib m 3 3o far over to the
tinol n ⑧ignt ar hou n by i reversible reachon

the louer Hne pH ,Hhe Ihighev He concen tr hon

hydr onium lons
Hhts Is beca ▇ e He ▇ or pH S determine l
byHhe con centrQh H3 t ion3 CpH
o o
!Ican be simp kedasHC Ht+ Cs
Jalu
3 ,0rtsd .0 O

EXA M LE3

HC t92 r tor

12 30
H,
o : 3
HNO3

L, od earo ebizozb rl Jkbm e qt

eak cid
ndSekCrbpnto ort or)oebnoer TH
H3 CoO +Ha CH Co" H3a

Hhe posihon al equilib u îsequally erto the

le f
 Dato:

tbin0 dloa enc:t

the pH ts relahvely 1oler Hnan reacho
it HC at . 9 CpH shouing Hat
Hhe con ot Hg 0 kds o *fo0

E AmPLE

organic actd SANDivdlli nt

HCNChydro cyan te acd
H 3

CH 3 CoOH
NH cy vo o2L d liup9 o dd▇ ▇
sulPtunc acid has 2 hydrogen tons Haf can fonise

ore nee 1H▇ ▇Ht + H 0 Sr

LNaa i0zOnbnla
firsh ton ds d sSoctafec lmo▇
Hg ai 10ai0 ted rłr 0e ndHd
H S04 H t + HS04
O HH stete_sd
HS04 ack9 / benave lik e ueakQe

23Jdl
StrongBase H

E : NOH+a — Nat+ oH

Gro p 1 metal hydroxides are shyong bas

Htgher concentyato n of hydroxide ion

present a

h o
 Wlea Bases

NHs
+
H0 NH O

htgher concentra on ofammonia

HO to arshnguun

pH value

Elechi caC con duc vity

s/rong aclds have greaterelechrc ( conduch ity
-

-
Ihan ol u0a acd
hi h c o Y( l t(C tion )

Re0chon łhreachve mefa(8

FaSter pr duchon of H + lon in styon g nacd

Cmore / faste r bubbl eS ) Faster

8. Iindłcohorgand tityahns

acid - base indtcato V

a dye of mi xture afdyes that char Coloux

over a speciAc pH range

HJ H In

Co lour a ini di CatoY Colour a conf cate b se

 Conjucate acid-base pairing

Eg :
CHICOOH +
H20 = CH
, 00 +
Ho
acid base 2 basel acid 2

① -

① CHICOOH CHgCOO- Ht

3
>
-

↳ acid :
proton donor

Conjugate Acid & Base

+
Pair
CH C00- + H >
CHzCOOH
-

↳ base :
proton acceptor

Conjugate acid base pair

a pair of product of reactant linked transfer at proton

by a
-
 Chapter 8 -
Collision
Theory
Activation Energy Ea

the minimum amount of needed to have successful collision & start reaction
energy
-

↳ Standard Enthalpy change :

pressure : 101kPa

#
temperature 298K (25 C)
·

Catalyst
Boltzmann Distribution curve
-

provides an alternative path

-

shows distribution of energies at a certain temperature with a lower activation

of
making higher proportion
molecules above the Ea
↳ At a higher temperature -

the curve flattens

& peak shift to the right

of

·-
# no . molecules

X
-
with
energy) E at
TC a
TC

Y
· /
/
/// # no

with
at molecules
Ec at
energy
Ea T + 10 C

molecular
energy

of molecules with
=>
greater proportion higher kinetic energy than
the activation
energy
 Nitrogen Compounds

Catalytic Converter
Making of sulfuric acid

-
Fitted to reduce pollutants from exhaust O Step 1 : oxidation

O nitrogen oxides are reduced on the surface S02 + 10 - so3

at the not catalyts : platinum
② Step2 : W/rainwater
200 N
+ 2N0 - 2C02 +
2

50z +
H0
>
H2SO4
-

↳
high pressure & temperature
③ Step 3 : sulfuric acid

Nitrogen oxides <primary pollutant)

So
, H2S0
>
HS04
-

4 VOCS (volatile organic compound)

· unburnt hydrocarbon and its products =>
NO2 as catalyst
· from exhaust
Fumes
PAN NO
Forms VOCs
So Soz + NO
-
by + NxOx +
·

2
↓
>
CHCONO2
-

sunlight
~catalyst not used up :

PAN
↳ (secondary) No +
10 - NO
2
sunlight
S VOCs +
Nitrogen Oxide > PAN
-

· found in photochemical smog

10.2 | Periodicity of the physical properties

Atomic Radii

– measurement taken from an element’s single covalent radius

Metallic radii or van der Waals’ radii can

also be obtained but as covalent radii can
be obtained for most elements, it is used to
keep the consistency in the comparisons

↳ the atomic radius decreases across a period because the

increasingly positive nuclear charge pull the electrons in the outer shell
closer to the nucleus

↳ the atomic radius increases down the group because the number of
shell increases so the distance from one nucleus to another nucleus is
also greater

● It is not possible to gain the atomic radius of noble gas groups 18. These
gases are inert and do not form covalent bon ds with each other. It has to be
determined from their van der Waals’ radius
○ Van der Waals’ radius is measured by the distance between the nuclei
of two neighbouring, touching atoms which are not chemically bonded
together
○ Usually van der waals’ radius is bigger than atomic radius as there is
no overlap of electron clouds involved in van der Waals’ radius
Ionic Radii

↳ the ionic radius decreases across a period as the positive charge on

the ion increases and the negative charge on the ion decreases.
○ Ions with net positive charge will be more attracted to
their nucleus, pulling in their electrons in the outer shell
closer.
○ Ions with net negative charges have one more electron
shell (as they attract the electron from cations, the shell
remains in anions), the outer electrons are further from
the nucleus and more shielding

↳ Na+ → Si4+
○ Ions get smaller due to the increasing nuclear charge
attracting the outer electrons in the second principal
quantum shell nucleus (which has an increasing atomic
number)

↳ P3- → Cl-
○ Ionic radii decreases as the nuclear charge increases
across the period and fewer electrons are gained by the
atoms (P gains 3 electrons, S 2 electrons and Cl 1
electron)

● Anions on the same period cations has one more shell than cation.
○ In ionic bonds, the cations loses their outer shell of electrons from
their original atom

● Anions are bigger than its original atoms because they are gaining electrons
in ionic bonds, the repulsions between the electrons are increased

● Cation are smaller than its original atom

Melting point & Electron conductivity

●
● ↳ the melting point generally increases across the period until Silicon at the
highest melting point and then decreases significantly
●

● ↳ the electrical conductivity increases across the period until Silicon where is
drops dramatically (semi conductor) and falls even further closer to 0 with
non-metallic insulators
 ● Both the melting point and electrical
conductivity increases for metallic elements
and it is explained by the number of electrons
each metal donates into the ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons and increasing charge
on the metal ions.
○ The number of the charge on these ions
increases across the period making its
metallic bonds stronger and hence the
melting point.
○ The more delocalised electrons available
to drift through the structure when the
metal conducts an electron current, the
greater the electrical conductivity it has

● Silicon has very high melting point and very low

electrical conductivity
○ Silicon exists as a giant moleculer
strucure with every silicon atom are bonded to another silicon atom
using strong covalent bonds.
○ Its electrical conductivity is low because there is no delocalised
electrons - silicon is a metalloid

● Both the melting point and the electrical conductivity is weak for non metals
in the period because they do not carry delocalised electrons and exists in
relatively small molecules. The covalent bonds may be strong but the weak
id-id forces makes it easy to break their weak intermolecuolar forces

First Ionisation energies

↳ There is a general increase in the first ionisation

energy across a period because
○ Because of the increasing nuclear charge
and decreasig atomic radius making the
attractive forces between the nucleus and
the other electrons greater.
○ [ G13 and G16 may not follow the general
rules ] G13 because different orbitals

● Rules of “half filled or full filled” still applies here

 10.2 | Peroidicity of the chemical properties

Reactions of Period 3 elements with oxygen

Element Equation Expirement Observation

Sodium Reacts vigrously when - Burns in bright

heated in a glass jar of yellow flame
oxygen - White ppt

Magnesium Reacts vigorously - Burns in bright

white flame

Aluminium Reacts vigorously - Burns in bright

white flame
- Forms protective
layer

Silicon Reacts slowly with oxygen

Phosphorus Reacts vigorously -

Burns in yellowish
white flame
- Clouds of white
Fume P4H10 is formed

Sulfur Reacts gently in a gas jar - Burns in blue

of oxygen gas flame
- Toxic fumes of
SO2 is formed
- Furhter oxidation
produces SO3

Chlorine electronegativity difference

* tiny
is
Do not react with oxygen
 Reactions of Period 3 elements with chlorine

Element Equation Expirement

Sodium Reacts vigrously when heated in a glass jar of chlorine

Magnesium Reacts vigorously

Aluminium Reacts vigorously

Silicon Reacts slowly

Phosphorus Reacts slowly with excess chlorine gas

Sulfur Does not form chlorides

Reactions of Sodium and Magnesium with water

Element Equation Expirement Observation

Sodium Reacts vigrously - Produces

with cold water into Hydrogen gas
a ball of molten - Forms alkaline
solution [pH14]
metal and moves
across the surface of
the water

Magnesium Reacts extremly - Produces

slowly with cold Hydrogen gas
water - Forms weakly
alkaline
Reacts vigrousy with solution [pH11]
steam as Mg(OH) is
only slightly
soluble

10.4 | Oxides of Period 3

 10.5 | Reaction of Period 3 oxides and hydroxides in water

Oxides Equation Experiment

Sodium Forms hydroxide

- Makes the solution alkaline
Magnesium - Due to presence of excess OH-
ions

Oxides and Hydroxides of Group I and II

forms basic compounds that
neutralises acids

Aluminium Does not react with water due to the

protective oxide layer that protects the
metal from corrosion

! amphoteric compound (forms salt)

Silicon Acts as a base to react with an acid

Acts as an acid to react with a base

Silicon dioxide is insoluble in water as

the water cannot break down its giant
moleculer structure

Phosphorus Reacts vigrously with water to form

acidic solution (pH2)

Sulfur Reacts and forms acidic solution

# (pH1) S
02 + Hz0 >
-

H2S03
So
2
+H20 -H2S04
Electronegativity

↳ As we go across the Period 3, the structure of the oxides changes from

ionic metal oxides to giant covalent oxides to simple molecular oxides
○ The greater the electronegativity between the Period 3
○ elements and oxygen, the more it is likely to form ionic
bondings
○ The electrons will be transferred from basic ions to acidic
ion(O2-) while other elements will form covalently shared
electron shells

● Basic oxides and water

○ The oxide ion (O2-) of the basic oxides is turned into hydroxide ion
(OH-) in the reaction with water
○ The oxide ions behaves as a base by accepting H+ ion from the water
to form OH- ions

● Acidic oxides and water

○ They forms acid by donating H+ ion from the oxide to water molecule

● Amphoteric oxide and water

○ These oxides like silicon and aluminium are insoluble and are neither
purely ionically or covalently bonded to oxygen
○ They forms soluable salt in reactions with either acid or base

10.6 | Chlorides of Period 3 elements

Oxidation numbers of the Period 3 chloride

10.7 | Reaction of chlorides of Period 3 elements with water

↳ ionic chloride of sodium or magnesium does not react with water. However, they
are soluble in water as the water polar molecules are attracted to the ions dissolving
the chlorides by breaking down the giant ionic structures. The solutions formed to
contain the positive metal ions and the negative chloride ions surrounded by water
molecules
* soluble
↳ forms hydrogen
● These metal ions and chloride ions are called hydrated ions bond with Ho

● Solid hydrated aluminium chloride ions are ionic

giant lattice
○ AlCl3

● Anhydrous aluminium chloride exists as a dimer

and is covalently bonded
○ Al2Cl6
○ Once we add water, the dimer is broken
12.1 | Physical properties of Group 17

● None-metal
#
● Exists as diatomic molecules at RTP
● There are covalent bonds
● Oxidising agents

Boiling point

↳ the melting point and boiling point of the halogens increases going down
the group. ↓ the ability to vapourise
● Volatility of halogens decreases down the group
● All the values are relatively low because they have simple
molecular structures
○ Weak van der Waals forces (id-id)
● The larger the molecules, the stronger the id-id forces between
the molecules
● The larger the atomic number is, the greater the opportunities
for id-id forces
Colours

● Gets darker down the group

● Colours of halogen molecules are hard to differentiate in solutions but in

solution(dissolved) with colourless cyclohexane, it appears in two separate
colours
● Halogens are insoluble in water
Chemical properties of Group 17

Oxidising agents

● Chlorine in household water acts as an oxidising agent to oxidise the organic

compounds such as bacteria or in foods
○ These chlorate I ions ( ClO-) in the forms of sodium chlorate I, NaOCl

● Oxidising power decreases down the group

○ Shelling increases
○ Electronegativity decreases
○ Going down the group, the atomic radii of the elements increase which
means that the outer shells get further away from the nucleus
○ An ‘incoming’ electron will therefore experience more shielding from
the attraction of the positive nuclear charge
○ The halogens’ ability to accept an electron (their oxidising power)
therefore decreases going down the group

Reducing agents

● Reducing power increases down the group

[explained by displacement reactions]
○ Chlorine would displace Bromine from its compound
○ Chlorine is a better oxidising agent making it reduced in the reaction
○ The larger the halide ion, the easier it is for it to donate electrons and
therefore the more reactive it is - increases because of the increasing
ionic size
○ As a result of this, the outermost electrons are held less tightly to the
positively charged nucleus
○ Therefore, the halide ions lose electrons more easily going down the
group and their reducing power increases

Reactions of Halogens

● UV is used as a catalyst to increase the speed of bleaching by halogen

 Thermal
Thermal stability Stability-bond length

● Decreases down the group

○ The sizes of the halides grew as they went down the group making the
covalent radius from the nucleus bigger
○ Hence as the bond length gets larger, the weaker the bond is, making
-
-
it easier for heat to break the hydrogen-halide bonds
 12.3 | Reaction of Halide ions

Silver ions & ammonia

● Halide ions can be identified in an unknown solution by dissolving the

solution in nitric acid and then adding a silver nitrate solution followed by an
ammonia solution

● The halide ions will react with the silver nitrate solution as follows:
AgNO3(aq) + X-(aq) → AgX(s) + NO3-(aq)

(general equation)

Ag+(aq) + X-(aq) → AgX(s)

○ If the unknown solution contains halide ions, then a precipitate of the

silver halide will be formed (AgX)

○ If the precipitate dissolves in dilute ammonia the unknown halide is

chloride
○ If the precipitate does not dissolve in dilute but in concentrated
ammonia the unknown halide is bromide
○ If the precipitate does not dissolve in dilute nor concentrated ammonia
the unknown halide is iodide

*
Cl2 Bu
Testing
= 2
Iz
① Silver Nitrate AgNO : white ppt creamppt yellow ppt
& Dilute Ammonia NHz :
soluble insoluble insoluble
concentrated soluble
:
soluble insoluble
 # finding reducing power
Reaction of halides with concentrated sulfuric acid

● HCl can be produced with this method

○ White fumes
● Concentrated sulfuric acid
○ Chloride, bromide and iodide ions react with concentrated sulfuric acid
to produce toxic gases
○ These reactions should therefore be carried out in a fume cupboard

H2SO4(l) + X-(aq) → HX(g) + HSO4-(aq)

– where X- is the halide ion

Equation Experiment Observations

White fumes of HCl

* acid-base reaction gas

The concentrated sulfuric acid Reddish brown gas

-

oxidises HBr which of bromine

-

& acid-base reaction decomposes into bromine

① white fumes
hydrogen gas and sulfuric acid atHce
itself is reduced to sulfur
*
↓ ②
oranga
orange
dioxide gas
② redox
choking gas apour

The concentrated sulfuric acid Violet vapour of

acid-base reaction
oxidises HI iodine gas

& Itself reduced to sulfur dioxide Yellow solid of sulfur

gas. concentrated sulfuric acid
Further oxidises HI and is itself The strong pungent
redox reduced to hydrogen sulfide smell of H2S like bag
* strong OA eggs
12.4 | Disproportionation reactions

● Chlorine goes through the redox reaction of self-reduction and self-oxidation

in reaction with alkali
○ Depends on the temperature

Chlorine in cold alkali (15’C)

Chlorine in hot alkali (70’C)

Chlorination of water
Group 2

- Below calcium is insoluble because it forms insoluble sulfate over the metal
- Calcium Sulfate
- Strontium sulfate
- Barium sulfate

● Charge
 Unit 10-Group 2 (Trends (

~
Physical Trends Chemical Trends
-

① Metallic Radius
= helps determine the size ① Reactivity
e ionization
energy
-

increases down the group

-

Reactivity increases because

ionization energy decreases
↳ more
shielding
② Melting point (Beryllium highest 2nd ionization energy) Ist

decreases down the ↳ I/HCl

group
-

↳ Less nuclear attraction reacts more vigorously down the group

③ Density * more bubbles of

He gas produced

increases down the group ↳ w/ 02

more reactive down the group

=> Carbonates / Nitrates =>

Hydroxides = Sulfates

① Thermal
Stability increases ① Alkalinity increases ① solubility decreases

charge density decreases 02 + CGH ↳ soluble sulfates

H0
>
-

↳ ↳ XO w/water
-
:

Carbonate ions are less >

-
Be Mg
distorted- > more stable · the more alkaline the solution
form ↳ insoluble sulfates
is can more hydrogen
bonds with water :
>
-

Su Ba Ra

↓
solubility increases Calcium sulfale can

be a hydrated salt
but not soluble
 Reaction of Group 2 Elements

① With
Oxygen
*
only Magnesium burns easily
X 2x0
0
+ -

*
/
2Mg 02 2MgO Burn
easily 1 white flame
G
+ >
-

2(a 2Ca0 1 ignite I flame

+
0 Difficult to red
· +

28r 25ro 1 ignite I flame

+
0 Difficult to red
G -

2Ba 2Bac 1 ignite I green flame

+
0 Difficult to
G -

② With klater

x H20 X(0H +z
+
+ +

~
Mg +
2H20
cold
MgCOt) ,+ He I React slowly ageous
steam
>
-

>
*
-

I
MgO Hy Reacts
steam solid
+
Vigorously

Ca +
·
2H20 >
-
CalOt +
He
/ reacts moderately) ageous

Sr 2H20 SrCOH I Reacts I

+
He rapidly solid
·
+ >
-

Ba 2H20 Balot I Reacts I

+
He rapidly solid
·
+ >
-

↳ Beryllium does not react with water

 ⑤ With HCl

X + Ha +
x(z +
Hz
Reacts
·

Mg + 2HCl >
-

MgC +
He vigorously
↳ All group 2 reacts the same
way
4 All group 2 chlorides are soluble

⑰ With H2SO4
X
H2S XSO
He
->
+ +
,

/ I
Mg +
HS0 >
MgS +
He reacts
vigorously soluble salt
-

I Reacts slowly I formation of insoluble sulfate

Ca H
so easo +
He coating layer
C +
+
, ,

Reaction
Sr
H2S0 Sr80 +
He immediately insoluble coating formed
C +
+
,
stopped
 Alcono
Alkene >
-

* SNz : ConcHzP04 Catalyst

H (steam
& H
C= + o
-H H
H C = C

bond
l
10

1 it bond -> weaker

p
sideway
H -
o - -
o -
H
overlap
'

11////

esterification
 -
RX + NaOH SN2 primary + 20) >
-

Aldelyde +
Ho
H (steam ( It alcohol
↑
Alkene >
- Alcono & H
+
OH H- C
C -

H Oh Kare04/
=
C >
-

+ EBr5
I I
-

- H 1 KMwOn C4OA)
concHzP04 catalyst c c c
* EA q Bu
= + OH + NaBr
-

:
-
- - -
-
-

H OH Ho
I
1
secondary + <03 >
-
Ketone +

&
-

H alcohol
H NaOH-
H I
c/t
1
&
H
u · acidified Ker 04
>
-
H - C- C -

c= + * R-OH > RX
H ↓ colourless green
-

- +
dative >

H
-

H SNI orSt · acidified KMnO4

l
carbocation
intermediate
-

Child- 7
-

CHE purple >

-
colourless

H
H
che
H b C
OH Cl

C
-
0 - -
0 -
H C = - I
24 +
04 CH
-

11 C-
Hz0
:
10 bond
-
CHz +
I 3

CH3
O
1 it bond -> weaker

O
H sideway
CH3

-
H c C H
overlap
- -
-

Ho-p" need
i
no
-
Oh
I
·

OH group accepts H+ from acid

0- H H
--

· makes C-OH bond to be

broken
kmn04
↳
11//// at Ester
strong OA Hydrolysis
↳ to colourless ↳ w/Hz0
purple or acid/alkali

O Ht
as ethenoic acid

Mor - C 0
CHCHz + He0
CHz

esterification
-

HH
-

T
ethanol

Alkene + [02 +
H20 >
-
Ho-C C -
-
OH O O
11

CH3--o-CHICHz
-

H + + NaOH-
>
CHjC-eNa
Reaction at sodium
ethanoate

+ ethenae
reagent :
LAIHa/NaBH4
hydride
stronger R moderate R A
·

.
A .

[highly exothermic] caters

1)
Aldehyde to 1 alcohol
NaBH4 Reduction at Carboxylic Acid
OH

-H
↳

0H4
stronger bond I
# LiAIH4
CH3 CHz CH3-c** H
NaB C H
-

+ -
-
-

Nat is
highy positive +
4(H)-CHzCHzOH + H20
is more reactive
②
Ht
i
ethanol
ethoxide ion
ethano
1) protonation a
LiAlHy used at rtp
-
Ht
GAINING HYDRIDE St
ost A
I
+ &
NaBHy not
strong
CH3-
I
2) ketone to 2' alconol >
" c H
-
- -

+ BH 3 to reduce
O NaBHy it enough
# GHH
....
< -

H 0 H
I
11 I
OH + NaOH
propanoane c H
H -
C -

C -
C -

H I
H c c + 2CH)
-

Nat--f
- - -

H
-

H
it CH3-c
↑
-

it GacCh
↑

(secondary) i
 " Electrophilli Addiction Electrophilic Addition
Production of Alcohol
H
H
H H H
I
HzPO4
I
-C Ct - H - H c c H
1) Alkene HeO
-

+
Alcohol
-

CC H H
-

H
-
= -
-

Csteam) St
↓
· e- Nice
reagent :
H3PO4
0 = Ny ↓ nucleophile
ce8-
electrophile
condition : Heat in refux
HH
1
2) Alkene 50)
+
H20 + HO-C -

C -

OH
2kMnO4)
(DioK i i
reagent :
kMn04
condition :
cold ditute acidified

LiAlH4/NaBH4
3) primary
Aldehyde + 2CH] +
Hz0 + salt
· Furthur
heating >
-

carboxylic acid
alcohol
H+ cailute acid) 2 ↳ oxidises
or other complex
reagent : 1 .

NaBHy (adding hydrides compound

.
2 Dilute Acid (protonation)

condition :

LiAlH4/NaBH4
4) Ketone + 2 CH] secondary +
He Otsalt
alcohol
+
H cailute acid) 2
or other complex
reagent : 1 .

NaBHy (adding hydrides compound

.
2 Dilute Acid (protonation)

condition :

LiAIH4
5) Carboxylic Acid + 4[H]
+
primary +
H2
H alconol
 nucleophilic substitution
overall negative charge

① RX + OH
-

> ROH + salt CSN2)

>
2 nucleophiles in the intermediate conditions : refux
Naut NaOH
reagent · IOH /

HH HH
H H
1

-
I
St t
H-c-c- H
-

H - C -
c -
H + Na : 0H >
H -
- + Nach

is I &H

②
-

RX + CN > Nitrile + HY CSN1 > +

K : Br
conditions : heated under reflux
CH2CH3
CHzCHz GHzCH3
CHz-lt-CH3
I
reagent ethaloic KCN
KCEN
St 8- :
CH C CH3 RBr
t -
CH3-1 CH3 +
-
-
-

, -

Is-
Bu : C = N- =N

Ammonium ion
3 RX +
NH3-Amine +

CH2CH3 CH2CH3
Is
SNI
CH2CHz
CH3-Ct-CH3
St
I
+: NH3
NH4t
CH C CHz >
CH3-1 CH3 +:
NH3
-

C Hz
-
-

c
-

, CHz +
-
-

Is- 1
I
t
I
Bu H N H
NH3
-
-

NH2
H H it : NH
z
Ist HH
Bys- N I N H
CH3 C- H 1
-

H
- -
-
-

CHg-C-N-H
-

I H -

C C
-

it + HB
it
-

H
ii Br
4 Hydrolysisot Halogenoalkane
↳ with silver nitrate solution ageous acting as water

: slower than alkali

CHzCHeBr H20 Ht Bri

CHICHOH
+ +
>
-

Anos
silver chloride : White

silver bromide : cream

silver iodide :
pale yellow
 Addition (c Loving (
Electrophilic

x8-
+
x8

HzP04
& Allzene + H2G Alcohol

steam hydration (

H H H
H HH
I 11
I 1 It
C C H c H H C C -
H Alcohol
H-
H
- -
- -
- -
-

HS
it !
--

I
S
O H
I

0
H -
0 -

P
Il
-
0 -

H
H- H j
I
O
Ho-P -
OH

"
& Alkene + Ha Alkane

H
I
H

H H
H - C = c -
H H - 2 -
C -
H

i it IH
5-
8+
H - H

3 Alkene + HX
Halogenoalkane

4 Alkene Halogenoalkane
+
X2
 Nucleophilic Addition

1) with HCN + KCN (catalyet (

>
-

H-CN
H
-
H OH CN
Hg8- O :

11
1911st 11
C H > H c C H
H c
- - -

C- H
- -
-
- -

H -
C -

it
M

kt it in it in
: CN-

(from catalyst (

ChaCheChCh+ PCs-CHCHCHO

-
Primary Alcohol Halogenoalkane Alkene

Aldehyde Nitrile

Carboxylic Acid Carboxylic Acid

 O
OH

He
1) LiAIH4 I

C
He CH3
>
-

H3
H He

NaBH4
>
-

H CHOH
O
Il

17

2)
LiAt4

H20
& * carboxylic acid [ product +
H2O
=

& ↓
CH 11 C
+H
c - H
>
-
-OH
1) NaBH4 #
2)
CHzOH
 asteam (

2a) propene +
H20 -
propanol
conc HzPO4

ii) co] Propane - 1 , 2 dia

propene + >
-

cold ditule KMn04

bi)
CHzCHeCH2OH + 02 -320 +
4HeO
ii) CuHaOH +
602 >
-

402 + EH2O

Brosted Lowery Acid :

proton donor

Leuis Acid :
-

e-acceptor
ar-
S
·
 CHAPTER 17 REVISIONS

Alcohol

1) Reaction with Na metal chains reactions

* longer => less
vigourous
alcohol + Na-+ sodium alkoxide +
He
go Breaks OH bond

Produces H2 + basic ion

CHCHOH
+ 2Na2CHgO Not
12
sodium ethoxide
ethanol + sodium
> +
H2

2) Esterification Cacid)
H2SO4
alchol + carboxylic acid >
-
Esther + H20
ethanol +
Eg : propanoic acid >
-

ethyl propanoate

3) Hydrolysis of esters

↑ heating under reflux with : acid/base

↳ with acid Creversible)

Ht
ester + water = alcohol
carboxylic acid +
* both reactant
a
aci d
products are present

H5 C
-
co E O condition Heat under reflux
H20
- :
o
CHCz +
+z +
CHzCHCH
-

o H acid
reagent catalyst
-

strong
:

↳ with alkali c
fully hydrolysed (
ester + alkali-
> alcohol sodium salt at acid
carboxylic
+

c
o
/ sodium
H5 c
-
-

Hz) CHzCHOH
C ethanoate +
+ NaOH -
0
CHCHz
-
-

0-Nat
4) Dehydration

alcohol
Al2O3 alkene + water
>
-

HEAT

# catalyst :
Al2O3 /
pumice/concentrated acid
 Carboxylic Acid

1)
primary alcohol -
> aldelyde >
-

Carboxylic Acid
z z
2[0] 4 [O]

condition : heat with reflux

reagent : acidified
K2CrO7/ KMNO4
2)
nitriletHCltHO >
-

carboxylic acid + ammonium chloride

RCN -

En
H
CHCHCN + HCl +
2HO-
> CHzCHCOOH +
NHyC Hist S-
0
-

-
d
C O
H
-

>
-

> -

acid
-

propanitrile propanoic
=

In

HI
-

CN I >
-

refluxed HCN St
reagent : dilute HCl for KCN +
H C= NS-
CEN-
-

3) Acts as acid

↳ + alkali-> salt + water

↳ + reactive metal - > salt +

He
-
> + carbonates - > salt-water + CO2

4) Reduction at acid
carboxylic
H
I

H
-
C-cooH + 4(H) -
CH,CHOH +
Ho * reduction => + [H]

i oxidation => + [0]

LiAlHy
alcono
carboxylic + >
primary
-

condition ether
:
dry
r+
p
 Pt/Ni
Hydrogenation Alkene +
He Alkane
HEAT

Alkene
Addition Halogenation X2 HEATY Halogenoalkane
+

Halide Alkene + HX Halogenoalkane

Hydrogen Heat

FURTHER
Primary Alkene + [0] CO2 O XIDATION
Hot concentrated

Secondary Alkene + 20]

acidified KMnOp
-

CHO caldenyde) -

COOH <carboxylic acid (

Oxidation Tertiary Alkene + [0] R-C-R (ketone)

Cold dilute
"
acidified KMnO4 Alkene +
Heo [O] HO-R- OH (did)
 Chapter 18

Oxidation at -OH to Carbonyl

1) From primatry alcohol Conditions

primary alcohol + COS >

-

aldehyde + water ·

Oxidising Agent * Better OA

acid
excess
KMnop >
-

Carboxylic ↳ acidified kMnO4 & acidified with

H2SO4
1) From secondary alcohol o MnOci >
- Mu2t

alcohol + COS > Ketone + water

↳ acidified K
, Cr207
secondary
-

·
Cr
=
0 - >
-
cust

+
H OH H
HEAT

H -
c - c -
c -
H + [O] >
-

ItI h H
Reduction at -OH to Carbonyl H

aldenyde reagents
HC C
I
O + 2H
primary :
- -

>
Is -
-

31 H

alcohol H
NaBrHa
2) ketone >
-
secondary LiAlHa H

Nucleophilic Addition
accono
HC -
C
I

-
O
-
+ 2H
3 I
H CH3
1) with HCN + KCN (catalyet (
-
HEN
OH

↑ O H - I I
: CN-

C H > H c C H
H c
-
-

H
-

C-
- -
-
- -

-
-

kt it in it in
: CN-

C from catalyst (

ChaCheChCh+ PCs-CHCHCHO
CO2 + CHz -

c 0
CH3 H

~
= I
I

/ >
- ketone C = C
CH3
O it H
11
C OH
(02 CHz CHI secondary
-

+
-

O
Il
secondar
CHz C OH
- >
-

PH3
Sa
/ H
-

H H C -
H
H
-

c
I I
Z C = C 1
C C COOH
I it
-

1
P =
tertiary acconoc/nitrile
& = ketone >
-
secondary alcono (

R =
aldelyele >
-

primary alcond

P R

I /deeporange I
2
Na fizzing reaction reaction

reaction deeporate
2-4ANPH no

acilitied no recution green green

K2Cry 07

Testerifications
. AA
1 4A .
.

2
. AE .
5 D
3
.
 OH

-c - O
c -