(

*
Malaria
- Plasmodion comes
Malaria is caused by Plasmodium-

from monkey carried by female vector

<mosquito (
↳ caused by prototistic

·
Plasmodium species ·
falciparum
site of infection
- . . .

important
↓
· malaria
Genus : Vector
· Ovale ↳ liver/red blood cell/brain
vivax
① prevention :
·
·
difficult to make vaccines liver
·
protoctists enters the
↳ ↳ ways
many different antigen making gene and replicates within the
↳ problems
liver cells
·

Habitats · social
.

↳ above 20 °

C
·
Then its carried in the blood
· economical
↳ to
tropical are a ·
biological
attack the red blood cells

· lakes swarms
& How it spreads
Symptoms
treatments. ③ Treatments ↳ fever/aneamialnausua/sweating
muscle pain/headaches
↳ Anti Malarial
drug
Method of
·

=> taken before visiting the site with malaria endermis diagonising
↳ blood test for malaria
antigens
Quinine
Prophylatic drug
3
·

Chloroquine infection Preventations

·
taken before
-

↳ reduce number of mosquitos

↳ inhibits the protein synthesis
wes jde ↳ increase uses of mosquito nets
Proguamil
·

·
s

strongeffect
↳ increase use of mosquito
* ↳ inhibits sexual reproduction of Plasmodium
repellent
in
mosquitos
 HIV/AIDS
Human immunodefencey virus
Method of transmission

↓
: AIDS acquired immunodeficiecly
-

↳ semen/roginal fluid
retrovirus ↳
=
genetically RNA sharing needles

= ) transformed into DNA inside the host cell ↳ placenta + breast milk
& coperated human chromosomes

virus binds to
Symptoms
·

are hard to detect

spikes of CD4 proteins
·

and allow it to fuse

·

Diagnosis
through viral envolope
.

↳ Blood test for antibodies

>)
=

Difficult to cure
# risk
groups Treatments
·

High mutation rate

anal sex antivirals
↳ Expensive
·

↳ antigens on surfaces
practioners replication of virus
prevents
hard to make vaccines
unprotected ↑ side effects
Long latent stage Sex
↳ Post Exposure
time to show sharing needle Prophylaxis
↳ takes symptoms
Control
·

social stigma
↳ Protections (condom)
>
=

Risk of infection
↳ less sex
↳ opportunistic infections
↳ don't share
needles
cannoFight back t
=> low
immunity ↳
screening
lower T helper
lymphocytes
·

↳ contact
tracing
B
prevents cell activations
 Cholera
-

Bacteria :
Vibrio Cholerae (waterborne
contaminated
-

water/food

)
=
Site of infection

↳ extreme loss of water from cell & leaves as diarrhoea

!! outbreaks common in

·
refugee shelters

Symptoms
↳ severe diarrhoed Preventation & control

↳
dehydration ↳
sewage treatment
↳ weakness ↳ chlorination of
drinking water
I Treatment :

↳ antibiotic

↳ boiled water

↳ oral rehydration treatment

Diagnosis

↳ microscopic analysis of feccas

 Tuberculosis a

Bacteria :
Mycobacterium tuberduosis Diagnosis
Mycobacterium boxis
↳ microscopic examination of sputum
for bacteria
have
Method of transmission ppl
* most at a
TB Chest
↳ x ray
↳ Air borne droplets
format is
that
uncooked meat age life Treatments
↳
young later
in
↳ unpasteurised milk
activated immunity ↳ Antibiotics
low
Site of infection at
·
Preventation/Control
↳ enters through lungs at infection
(first site (
↳ DOTS -
Direct observation treatment
↳ spreads through body
·
lymph nodes
↳
killing infected cows

·
bones
& guts ↳ BCG vaccination at 12-13

↳ Heat treatment of milk

Symptoms
↳
coughing blood

↳ Small variole virus

cheast pain pox :

↳ weight loss

↳
pale Morbillvinces
 Anti
Bodies
-

chemicals made
by microrganisms to attack
-

pathogens
·

Action of Antibiotics Penicillin (broad spetrum antibiotic

A

↳Interfere => inhibits the of the formation of crosslinks

metabolic reaction enzymes synthesis
between the cell of bacteria
peptidoglycan polymers in wall

↳ inhibitors
↳ bacterial its autolysis
protein Synthesis cellwall is
growing secretes
·
When new

·
membrane which makes holes in the cell wall to allow new
peptidoglycan
chains to link up
cell wall synthesis
·

·
transcription
1. increases of the bonds
pencillin autolysis holes no links

bacteriostatic
A -
-

stops the growth of bacteria

↳ weakened cell wall bursts during osmosis and bursts

bactericidal B
-
kills bacteria not even a cell !! Penicillinase is an
enzyme that bacteria
has that breaks down penicillin
<

Antibiotics cannot attack virus or animal cell

* no cell wall

Advantages Disadvantages
↳ uses host cell's mechanism to replicate but

doesn't bind to protein synthesis sits to do

many diseases Bacterial resistence
· ·
so cure

· reduces symptoms
·
Diffcuties arises in

4 cannot stop its growth it doesn't have nucleus to killing bacteria

as a
quickly
inhibits its transcription .
·
reduces death · Live stocks
being given
with antibiotics gives
exposure to develop
the resistance
 Antibiotic Resistance 80 jobe ⑪ -
G I
Vertical Transmission
-

O
% through random mutation of natural selection

Of-resistantpresent
gene
in

Is chromosome
1 After the antibiotic kills the suspectible bacteria, OO 2) plasmid
bacteria will resistance allele survives

2) The resistent bacteria reproduces with more than earision

sufficient resources/space

⑧
= each

daughter cell
3) This in the population
increases allele
frequency receives

resistant
4) The gene
next infected person may fall victim to bacteria
resistant allele
carrying

Method at transmission Cot resistence)

overuse at antibiotic
& Horizontal Transmission
of bacteria
↳ result in strain
being resistant
to antibiotic

⑧⑧
↳ increases allele frequency of resistance
resistant cell non-resistant cen

conjuction
↳ plasmid (containing resistant alleled is

transferred/exchanged
Conjucting Bacteria
↳ contain antibiotic
a
single strand of
plasmid may many

O
DNA of plasmid

conc
is
resistant it unbectable
gene making

S p
=> transferred

Each boateria synthe-

O sizes a
complementary
O
strand-both cells v
↓
2) Outlines how penicillin acts on bateria

1
punch holes into peptidoglycan cell walls (weakens)

Inhibits
enzyme synthesis of transpeptidases that
2)
joins
for
the
crosslinksof polypeptide chains growing
cell wall Formation

3)
prevents formation of cross linkage
 indigested
G
specific Responses
I
Non nucleur lobes

material
-

L
⑮
I
I
-

golgi apparatus
Inflammation OO
o specific
↳ Neutrophils granuales
(Lysosomes (
-

caused by release of Histamine from

-
60 % of White blood cells in the blood
damaged cell
can squeeze through walls of capillaries
↳ Histamines causes
released in large during infections but
·
number

Short lived
·
capillaries to dilate o become
leaky
killing

F
dies after and
digusting
·
pathogens
O
complement protein attracts
phagocytes
! Dead often form to form
-

Fever neutrophils collects

pus at the site of infection

-
-

caused Histamine
by
-

increase body heat in order to kill invaders ↳ Macrophages

their
by denaturing protein
found in organs such as
lungs/liver/spleen
-

Phagocytosis and lympt nodes rather than Blood

·

and
action of white blood cell Leaves bone marrow as
monocytes develops
·
-

into at
organs
macrophages
↳
Phagocytes longlived
·
Cut up antigens to display antigens that can be

O
produced in bone marrow stored ( regionised by lymphocytes
displayed -

C
engulfs &
digust and dead cells
pathogens
·
U : N
antigen ( - :

⑦ Neutrophils attracted ③ Endocytosis ⑤ Fusion of lysosome &

-
&
O
↓ 1) ⑪
D

lysosomes ↳

N
~
C Chemotaxis C
phagocytic vacoule

Ei E
l - C

&
:

teria ②O
&
⑪ & I

·
*
Iu S f⑧ O
&
>
-

= I -

N
: I
" III
⑧
Recognitional
attachment
& ④ Phagocytic Vacoule
↳
III
I
Digestion !!
 Ho
iji
:

⑪
Specific Immune Response J
&

<Lymphocytes) I
do
n
·
↳ immune distinguish & non-self
between self infected
system can
body cell

Antigens (protein) Killer T

⑩
-

foreign substances that stimulates immuno response [mitosis] cells

↳ it
↓ ↓
cell surface markers , can be a (covers the surface of
:
pathogens (
/
lipid
/
/ ↓
· ·
protein
&

I
glycoprotein
·
polysaccharides
g

Secretes

=
O
↓
(glycoprotein/ immunoglobulin (
Antibody Cytokines that stimulate
divides to &
from B
-
made
by Plasma cells derived
lymphocytes B cell to divide plasma
cell
memory
Cantibodies) &
phagocytes ↓
divides to de
cell :Si
memory
Lympncytes => Helper T cells
O
1/I
-

B lymphocytes & T lymphocutes both produced in bone marrow I activate T cells

mature differently/different
and
organ 2) divides to produce cytokines
37 cytokines activates B lymphocytes
·
circulates in the blood & lymph & responds by inflammation

-Lymphocytes (nature in thymus ( picks up the presented antigens on the

surface at the phagocyte (macrophages)

during maturation it differentiated to different lymphocytes
>
activates T cells
·
-

can

each specialised is specific to response I

antigen
-
can
reagonise
all types of pathogen the body could receive => Killer T cells (Apotopsis (

T cells have T cell receptors 17 infected cells

(including cancer (
·

attacks
O
Helper T cell 2) have receptors that search for infected cells

Killer T cell
swifty-tiny traces on surface
C
& kills
3)
punch holes in plasma membranes of infected cell
 / #
[bone marrow] mature B
immee
cells
↑ 0
B lymphocytes (bone marrow

, · >
=

production of antibody
Mature B lymphocytes make one
type of
antibody receptors
↳ that code change in variety of ways to code Mature B cells &
circulate
genes

I
concentrate &
liver
spleen
different antibodies
in
for

·
=>
antibody receptors on

the cell surface membrane

↳ then divides (mitosis) into a small number of cells C &
the antibodies
capable of making same -

cloning

O
I
Primary response

↳
only one of B cells have the specific antibodies to the antigens I S
= 8

=
2) the selected B cell divides by mitosis & daughter cell

develops into plasma

↓ &
> cell Y
-

onrise
> cell
memory
-

3) Plasma cells secretes antibodies that specifically bind to the

,
 Monoclonal Antibodies Cartificial (

Uses for diagnosis

Artificially cloning of 1 specific antibodies in the lab from 1 B cell
-

detecting
Problems before Hybridoma method
presence at pathogens
·

done by plasma cell (

E antibiotic in milk
·

Extracted B cells that divide by mitosis do not produce antibodies

·

don't
Extracted plasma cells multiply
·

·
detecting cancer cell Cumor/blood
clotting)
HIV
·

diagnosing
* Hybridoma Method

blood tying
I inject a mice with antigens that stimulates the production of blood tying is done to find out which
·

antibody producing plasma cells [removed from spleen]

antigens the blood cells have

22 isolated membrane of plasma cells are fused with immortal

Eg : B blood group has antigen-B
cancer cell
using fusogen/hybridogen by electric current
antibodies -
anti A
↳ myeloma
=>
Hybridoma cells

Antibodies
Monoclonal Group
3) grown in selective medium & screened for the production of Anti A ~

desired antibody Anti B v AB +

Anti D CResusc ~

4) Cultured of
to produce large numbers monoclonal antibodies

Monoclonal
Antibodies
Group
Use of Monoclonal Antibodies (Treatments Anti A

*
Anti B A -

mAbs acts directly on target cells Anti D CResusc

· do not damage other cells

test
pregnancy
can be
radioactively tag to locate blood dots/tumor then ·
presence of HGC hormone present
only during
scanned by gamma ray camera
will
change color of the bar
pregnancy
in the urine test
monoclonal
cancer/autoimmune disease can be treated
antigens in hormones are specific to the antibodies
 Active
Immunity

immunity developed after

contacting pathogens inside the
body
-

infection
Naturally Artificially Injection of weakenend similar
·

: : or
pathogens

lymphocytes activated entrance of

by taken injecting antigens
& ·

orally or by
Pathogen known as vaccination
· &
Body actively producing antibodies
T cells to fight infections

Passive Immunity
...
c[/
immunity provided by antibodies antitoxins provided from outside
-

or

milk/placenta of antibodies/antitoxins
Naturally breast
Artificially :
injection
· ·

O
Colostrum thick
yellow liquid emergency antibodies given quickly injections
·
-
are as

produced by mom's breast 4-5 post birth ↳

Eg : Tetanus antitoxins
↳ full of immunoglobins
>
before
primary
=

tetanus patient could die immune

·
Antibodies received through placenta lasts response

for several months

seed/en/men/protocol
I Active

temporary
 Responses
Vaccinations/ Immune

suspension of antigens that are internationally primary response (naturally/artificially

put into the body to introduce artificial active >
↳ takes 1-2 weeks for the mass production of
antibodies specific to the pathogen
immunity ↳
memory cens are produced
· live , attenuated ·
orally
immune response
· inactivated ·
injection secondary
↳ shorter time period
levels
↳
↳ higher produced
injected into vein or muscle - -
primary secondary
·
live annuated

·
long lasting memory cell/stronger
O unsuitable for people with weak immunity

inactivated vaccines <killed/subunits of pathogens

· do not trigger a
long lasting event · repealed closes/booslers needed (
- -

Problems with Vaccinations

Herd immunity
·
cannot minic infection (dead pathogens ( ·

indirect protection from infectious diseases that

not effective and need boosters to
↳ as
may immune/racination
stimulate
when higher population is
secondary immune response
disturbing the transmission
Poor responses
↳ vaccination ineffective as some cannot
produce sufficient antibodies
 unstables
Eradication of Small Pox
C omparism
Small Pox : Variola virus (direct transmission A
Cold
·

very
= > Reasons for success
-

115 strains I expensive to make vaccines

for
everyone

I
Stable Virus
↳ small C
varients cheaper to produce) Influenza virus (mutates regularly)
·

mass

different
↳ same vaccine be used in region antigens it harder to
-

can makes
every
be immune even
by previous vaccines
Can be freeze dried -

↳ could be stored for 6 months (in tropical areas) Protoctists

-

many hundreds of antigens on the

Easy to (blisters
identify ( cell surface
↳ perform vaccination efficient & ↳ Plasmodium
can
ring : more
~

in 3 different
- -

- -

effective : exists

stages & hard to control

·

Does not infect animals (break transmission cycle ( ↳ Parasites

hosts
:
Wrapped around
·

Enthusiastic vaccinators protein -

hard to eliminate
·

~
HIV virus
Problems with Measles vaccination program
-

suppres T helper cells so antibodies

/immune response cannot be produced
must be
weak vaccines
given to malnuviced childrens as
quickly as HIV
hiding into hosts DNAs

↳ need at boosters >

-
hard to case track
·
Chlorea
·
Large populations -
hard to give boosters -

far inside the intestines & cannot be

reached
by antibodies

Highly infections Herd

:
immunity of 93-95% needed

Migrant workers : New popolutions to vaccinate

 Endocytosis

Ingestion of large partiles a uptake by forming resides

-

'
Translocation

13 At source

Sugars are
actively moved into the serve tube
cytoplasm
-

↳ decrease the water potential

Water moves into sieve cell

by Osmosis
Increases Hydrostatic
pressure inside the phloem
·

↳ Water moves down to decrease this pressure

2) At Sink

Assimilates are
actively moved out of the serve cen
T

Increases water potential

Water by Osmosis
moves out

Decreasing Hydrostatic pressure

=> Pressure difference is generated by actively loading sucrose into

seve elements of source

↑
sucrose moves in : lowers water potential
C
2
water moves in
③ phloem sap travels down by osmosis

④ the preservice of water in the sieve tube element

③
increases the hydrostatic pressure at the source
decreas the
hydrostatic pressure at the sink
↳ hydrostatic pressure gradient

IJ resulting in : mass flow

② sucrose unload
⑥ water that carried the sucrose leaves the phloem

,
movement of water
1) Transpiration + air)
Cleaves
↓
&
water enters the leaves & passes into the mesophyll cells by osmosis

D
1) -

water evaporates from the leaves to form water vapour

diffuse through
~

&
·

large airspaces between mesophyll cells allow water vapour to

the leaves
>
-

causing waterpotential ↓
to creating water potential gradient

2) Action (water
Capillary up the stem > leaves (
-

I
Evaporation of water from the leaves the water inside the air spaces
·

decreases potential
Water
·

moves into the air spaces from adjacent cells from the xylem
Capillary (by
action tension & cohesion (
·

3 Cohesion Tension Theory Cup the stem)

Transpiration pull
· Adhesion It bonding : between
20 & cellulose lining
2) Cohesion H
:
bonding between 20 &
#20 molecules

↳
Up the transpiration pull
3) continuous column of water

!
4) Root pressure Translocation
--
-

A
·

Con HUMID days/night]

S force hydrostatic generated in the roots that help in

driving the fluids
·

or pressure
and other ions from the soil in upward directions into the plant's vascular tissue xylem
↳ Osmotic pressure

Due to active absorption of mineral ions in xylem sap

Provides a push
 Transpiration [Model Answers]

KEYWORDS

& .

Hydrogen bonding in movements of water

·

transpiration pull

adhesion/cohesion 1) Adhesion It
:
bonding between
20 & cellulose lining
Cohesion
2) H
:
bonding between 20 &
#20 molecules

↳ the transpiration pull

Up
3) continuous column of water

O . Describe &
explain how the transfer of sucrose into a phloem tube from companion cell leads
to transport of sugar to sink

~ ~
sucrose moves from companion cell to serve tube lowering the water potential
.

causes water to move in

creating a pressure difference ~
·

- in
↑

increase hydrostatic pressure the sire tube than sink creating hydrostatic gradient
sucrose unloaded in the sink by Osmosis
mass flow