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The Urban Book Series

Mahmoud Tavassoli

Form,
Space and
Design
From the Persian to the European
Experience
The Urban Book Series

Editorial Board
Fatemeh Farnaz Arefian, Bartlett Development Planning Unit, University College
London, London, UK
Michael Batty, Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London,
London, UK
Simin Davoudi, Planning & Landscape Department GURU, Newcastle University,
Newcastle, UK
Geoffrey DeVerteuil, School of Planning and Geography, Cardiff University,
Cardiff, UK
Andrew Kirby, New College, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
Karl Kropf, Department of Planning, Headington Campus, Oxford Brookes
University, Oxford, UK
Karen Lucas, Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
Marco Maretto, DICATeA, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Parma, Parma, Italy
Fabian Neuhaus, Faculty of Environmental Design, University of Calgary, Calgary,
AB, Canada
Vitor Manuel Aráujo de Oliveira, Porto University, Porto, Portugal
Christopher Silver, College of Design, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Giuseppe Strappa, Facoltà di Architettura, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome,
Roma, Italy
Igor Vojnovic, Department of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing,
MI, USA
Jeremy W. R. Whitehand, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of
Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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Mahmoud Tavassoli

Form, Space and Design

From the Persian to the European Experience

123
Mahmoud Tavassoli (emeritus)
University of Tehran
Tehran, Iran

ISSN 2365-757X ISSN 2365-7588 (electronic)

The Urban Book Series
ISBN 978-3-030-15830-9 ISBN 978-3-030-15831-6 (eBook)
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…
Knowledge, language, virtue, earthly beauty.
Heavenly beauty descends from the unseen
world,
…
GOLŠAN-E RĀZ (The Rose Garden
of Mysteries) Mystic poet Shabistari,
14th century
Acknowledgements

I would first and foremost like to express my gratitude to the old masters, local
architects, and people of the towns and cities and villages of the hot arid regions in
Iran, who provided invaluable aid in giving information about the life and spaces
of their traditional fabrics. Concerning European historic cities that visited and
referred in this book, I really learned from the amount of written knowledge of the
past and care that have been taken to create places of quality and identity.
I am indebted to the late Profs. Ernst Emil Herzfeld, Andre Godard, Arthur
Upham Pope, and Mohammad Karim Pirnia, for their highly influential works on
archaeology, art, and architecture of Iran. I would like to thank my colleagues and
students at University of Tehran, and colleagues at Urban Planning and
Architecture Research Center of Iran. It is impossible to name everyone across
many years.
This book would not have been possible without great support of my wife
Nayyereh and my son Babak. My wife shared many of my research journeys to the
remote towns, cities, and villages in Iran, from the beginning in the early 1970s.
Finally, I would like to thank the Springer team for their fruitful collaboration.
I wish particularly to thank Ms. Juliana Pitanguy, Publishing Editor, for her kind
support and encouragement from the start, and the kind cooperation of Ms. Carmen
Spelbos Editorial Assistant during the review process. Ms. Corina van der Giessen
at Springer Publishers for overseeing the publishing process. Anonymous reviewers
gave helpful and wise comments on the book’s content. Mr. Balaganesh Sukumar,
Project Coordinator and Books Production, provided invaluable help and great
effort for preparation of this illustrated book. I also wish to thank Ms. Divya
Prabha K for her careful overseeing of the production process.

vii
Introduction

In this book, the aim is to define qualitative criteria. The interpretation is artistic and
sociocultural. Discussion is not concentrated on singular urban space but on
interrelated spaces and elements across the city and complexes. Information is
based on long local studies in hot arid environments including comparative
analysis.
In Urban Structure in Hot Arid Environments, I discussed that how history,
culture, and climate have had impact in shaping urban form in hot arid environ-
ments. And the argument was also concentrated on how the wealth and values of
architectural forms are not confined to masterpieces, which have long been con-
sidered as Persian Architecture, and concentrated on ordinary buildings, on spaces
where ordinary people live. Simple normal spaces could not be discarded.
Considering the comparative aspects of study, we notice that despite cultural
differences, there is a common understanding in artistic creativity and sensibility in
the presented examples.
Illustrations have an important purpose. The foremost is that it visually repre-
sents the space–form, and integrated with explanatory text gives a better under-
standing of the visual analysis. Concentration is on the study of specific urban
fabrics or complexes in order to better understanding of spaces. Spaces which bring
together people in contact. The aim is to refer the importance and utility of
knowledge and experience of different cultures in the field, academics and practi-
tioners alike in understanding the values of the past and solving the problems of the
ever-changing present. The subject is explored through interconnected chapters,
each address to some important aspect of form–space and design values, and our
present problems.

ix
x Introduction

Chapter 1 terrace the origin and continuous line of forms: portico (ivan), and
vaulted space, discussed by scholars and archaeologists. Architectural design based
on semi-open vault space: the ivan, was widespread during the Parthians.
According to Godard they invented, or took over from their predecessors in the
Iranian East. Furthermore, a different hypothesis has been proposed by scholars,
concerning the origin of ivan. The ivan continued as the most important part not
only in the mosques and madrassas, but in the courtyard houses before the advent of
modernism.
The most distinctive form of ivan is in the Zoroastrian houses in Iranian hot arid
towns and cities such as Yazd and Zaware, which is called Soffe. The author was
first researcher who studied this type in Zaware in 1972,1 and the two connected
four-ivan/Soffe courtyard Zoroastrian house which have been presented here is
based on our local studies. This spatial form is popular in the old Zoroastrian houses
in Iran. Only through considering the origin of ivan we can understand the form
value of Taq-i-Kisra at Ctesiphon, the Royal Sasanian monument, pre-Islamic
architecture, probably built in the second half of the third century. A building as a
symbol of power, its main element is a notable parabolic vault space, an ivan.
The message here is that our experience of form–space has a flowing charac-
teristic over the ages. Return to origins of forms will help us rediscovery shaping
principles and meaningful forms and spaces, with a sense of cultural/climatic
identity. The mountainous feature of Persian land symbolizes an architecture
manifesting constancy, eternity, firmness, and stillness. This is visible from temples
built in the form of mountains, such as ziggurats, to powerful composition of
Islamic mosques.
Chapter 1 also refers to Origin of European urban space: Agora the dynamic
center of the Greek city, and Roman Forum as a place of assembly. The form value
of great urban spaces of Medieval and Renaissance has origin in the knowledge
of the past. For example, we can consider uniting the parts and harmony in the great
works, such as Michelangelo’s Campidoglio that I have referred in Chap. 3.
Considering the written records, in comparison with survived Greek and Roman
works on architectural concepts and theory, nothing has survived in Iran. This study
benefits from remained works and archaeological findings, and researches by great

1
For this study see Urban Structure in Hot Arid Environments, Springer, 2016 p. 155, and for an
in-depth spatial analysis of an aristocratic family’s housing in Yazd, pp. 76–77.
Introduction xi

scholars such as Herzfeld,2 Godard,3 Pope,4 and Pirnia.5 Their works are instructive
and educational. Considering Iran, attention is given to relationship between
spatial structure of ancient ordinary buildings, from old Zoroastrian houses, to the
oldest Muslim known house in Yazd, fourteenth century. Development of
vaulting space shows the continuous process of space and forms. Vault space,
ovoid arch, was first appeared in king’s tombs. Semi-open vault space: the ivan,
was widespread during the Parthians. I believe one of the basic reason of present
undesirable design condition is that little importance is given to origin of forms
and space in education and profession, the forgotten knowledge, which has both
cultural and climatic basis.
Chapter 2 refers to the concept of flowing form–space in the works of art and
spatial structure of two European historic cities, Bologna and Bruges, in compar-
ison with the historic city of Yazd in Iran. In Bruges, the special characteristic of
form–space of the medieval street patterns with harmonious changes of facades
leading toward main squares. And in Yazd, elemental parts: City Center and
Neighborhood Centers, connected through Main Passageways/Streets. Porticos in
Bologna as a system of connected active sociocultural form–space elements move
around the historic city. Under different climatic conditions, they also as a public
space functions properly. We see how, the fundamental characteristic of these

2
HERZFELD, ERNST EMIL (1879–1948), “Archeologist, philologist, and polyhistor, one of the
towering figures in ancient Near Eastern and Iranian studies during the first half of the 20th
century. To him we owe many decisive contributions to Islamic, Sasanian, and Prehistoric
archeology and history of Iran, Iraq, and Syria.” (See Encyclopedia Iranica). Two prominent works
include: Iran in the Ancient East, 1941, and Zoroaster and His World in 2 volumes 1947.
Chapter 1 of the book: Iran in the Ancient East, presents artistic values of prehistoric Iran’s
artwork. In the search of flowing forms, Chap. 2 of the present book has benefited from his in-depth
studies. See also the article by Jennifer Jenkins, including details on Herzfeld’s life and works,
Excavating Zarathustra: Ernst Herzfeld’s Archaeological History of Iran in Iranian Studies, 2011.
3
GODARD, ANDRÉ (1881–1965), French architect, archeologist, art historian, and director of the
Archeological Services of Iran. Two prominent works include: The Art of Iran originally in
French, and Athar-e Iran (a collection of articles in French by scholars published in six volumes.
“He was also instrumental in designing the campus of the University of Tehran in collaboration
with Maxime Siroux, Moḥsen Foruḡi, and Roland Dubrul, and in establishing the Faculty of Fine
Arts, which included the first professional school of architecture in the country. Godard became its
first dean, … and influenced the education of the first generation of Persian architects
professionally trained in Persia.” (See Encyclopedia Iranica).
4
POPE, ARTHUR UPHAM (1881–1969), Author of Persian art and architecture. Two prominent
works include: Persian Architecture as author, and A Survey of Persian Art (a collection of articles
by scholars published in six volumes). Pope’s Persian Architecture is a superb book in the field,
emphasizing the artistic and spiritual factors in shaping the great masterpieces. “Pope was the
driving force behind five international congresses held between 1926 and 1968.” (See
Encyclopedia Iranica).
5
PIRNIA, MOHAMMAD KARIM (1920–1997), Iranologist and architectural historian. His
prominent works include his articles, mainly in Bastan Chenasi va Honare-e Iran, where in
no. 5 of this journal he published his theory about Friday mosque at Fahraj, early decades after
Islam, a structure which has remained intact even after centuries, reminder of elemental forms of
Sasanids, especially the arches were elliptical. Chapter 1 discusses this mosque.
xii Introduction

cities, each reflecting special feature of local culture, secular or religious space, and
different aesthetic manifestation. In Bologna, it appears in the connection of por-
ticoes, in Bruges a powerful relation of street and square facades, and in Yazd
integrated neighborhood centers through main passageways.
To have a better understanding of flowing forms, I have referred to other fields of
art. Considering the concept of flowing form–space in the work of art, refer is to
strong flow of integrated line shape in remarkable composition of prehistoric art-
works presented by Herzfeld, and ceiling and roof pattern of two mausoleums in
Yazd. Painted potteries of prehistoric Iran can be considered as the source and
origin of flowing forms. The example of Moorish arabesque is from the great
physicist and thinker of the twentieth century, David Bohm, referring to his
argument on ordered structure. This jump from urban form–space to works of art
may sound desultory, but it is not losing the thread, the essence of flowing forms.
This chapter emphasizes that without understanding design knowledge of the
past generations we are unable to response to our present problems. “New systems
emerge from debates on older systems; there is no such thing as an entirely new
system, and a system claims to be such, it is either stupid or dangerous.”6
In Chap. 3, a comparative study is made. In order to penetrate into the essence of
harmony and uniting the parts, Examples of European experience including
Michelangelo’s remodeling of Capitol in Rome, Piazza San Marco in Venice, and
Piazza del Campo in Siena, and development of a new urban block in Berlin have
been discussed. Socio-historically there is a distinctive difference between the
public/urban space in the European and the Persian culture. This difference can be
seen in the two elements: street and square. It seems that, in addition to climatic
factors in the hot arid environments, other factors such as sociopolitical obstacles
inherent to the geopolitical condition of the region, and special world view to inner
life rather than outer life, have also contributed to the poor growth of public space
in comparison with Europe. Aesthetic qualities of European urban space have
evolved with the history of life in outdoor space, while in Persian experience in the
past with inner space, the enclosed courtyards. Today although this structure has
been collapsed, the dominant western urban block type has not been able to
response to sociocultural and climatic needs. Especially in historic cities we see
how connected neighborhoods and communication spaces flow across the city,
moving from one place to another. This aspect has been discussed in Chap. 5.
Considering aesthetic, a discussion is held about perception of deep unity, unbroken
totality, that today we have faced because of fragmented aspects of human
endeavor. The idea and action of separation of urban and architectural elements has
brought about crises in the sociocultural relations of urban structure.
Chapter 4 expands the concept of space through some cases from Iran. It dis-
cusses some less visible and hidden aspects of a few important architectural
examples such as Shaykh Lutf Allah and Royal mosques in Isfahan. It discusses
that in addition to visible appearance, richly embellished, intricate ornaments;

6
See Hanno-Walter Kruft, A History of Architectural Theory, Princeton Architectural Press, 1994,
p. 16.
Introduction xiii

space, this amazing element is considerably important in understanding Persian

architecture. After discussing the viewpoints of some researchers such as Jane
Dieulafoy, Arthur Upham Pope, Andre Godard, Nader Ardalan, and Laleh
Bakhtiar, the discussion is concentrated on the importance of space. Space takes on
a mysterious aspect, assuming, independent from stylistic rules. In Shaykh Lutf
Allah mosque in Isfahan, the spaces created in the building have been discussed.
Considering the context, it is in relation with the space of Royal Square that the
spaces of this mosque appear so dramatic. Otherwise, were it located amidst, for
example, the slipshod builder developments, this same mosque would have lacked
its present values. In this chapter also Spatial characteristics of the Friday mosque
of Yazd have been discussed. Here we see how the mosque’s courtyard can be
considered as an urban space, connected to the three portal entrances of the Friday
mosque. The sequence of spaces of these portal entrances, contrasting spaces
leading to the courtyard in connection with the surrounding streets, is considerably
exceptional.
Chapter 5 discusses the design of urban block as the basic element of urban
fabric. It describes and analyzes the production of urban block in Persian experi-
ence. The study discusses morphologically four types of urban blocks in Iran from
distant past to the present. It also discusses the influence of historical and climatic
factors in shaping traditional urban structure.
Considering the influence of the West, after modernism, it puts forward some
design policy for the future. It clarifies how a fragmented soulless mode of living is
leading to the creation of soulless urban form. We see how car producers and
slipshod builders have a basic role in urban form. In such a state we are wandering
in a fragmented environment, including ourselves.
This chapter also discusses the noticeable experiences of Berlin renewing urban
block and the integration of three existing buildings and the independence of the
new buildings, and example of Careful Urban Renewal of Kreuzberg in Berlin. The
chapter refers to the abundance of critical material and design solutions which have
tried to tackle the problem of total disconnection with the past experience.
Therefore, avoiding mistakes, I believe we can build the future on the foundation of
collaborative research at global level, and understanding the local experience, and
circumstances.
Chapter 6 reviews the essence of origin and aesthetic knowledge and experience
discussed in the previous chapters. Through the value of original researches and
lifetime works of Iranian and foreign scholars and archaeologists, we understand
the relationship between pre-Islamic and Islamic form and space, the forgotten
knowledge of building constituting elements responsive to culture and climate. We
understand the origin of European urban space, Agora and Forum, as a dynamic
process, center of the cities, meeting and assembly places over the ages. We need a
deep, basic change of views, contributing to understand environmental knowledge.
A revival in politics and education is needed, understanding artistic creation of the
past, giving a fresh and vigorous personality to our decision-making and design
thinking. Before renewing urban spatial structure, it is necessary renewing thought,
view/attitude of decision makers, those in power.
xiv Introduction

Considering aesthetic knowledge and experience, through the ages, designers

and ordinary people, who are users of living and working spaces, have sought
correct solutions to many of their environmental problems. Here the gradual per-
fection of forms has resulted in beautiful forms and spaces. Here the beauty is part
of the designer’s skill, knowledge, and world-outlook. The remains of urban fabrics
show the past generation had strong imagination in process of aesthetic experience.
It argues that the development problem of today is partly stems from the for-
gotten knowledge, climatic, and cultural. The global problem to house people in
apartment blocks neglecting influential climatic and cultural factors in design has
resulted in deplorable conditions. To tackle this problem, an academic endeavor in
our urban design courses, teaching, and design as a dynamic process that can affect
our environment is important.
Considering development problems, in the first instance, two types need to pay
attention: poor quality high-rise housing, and renewing traditional urban fabrics.
Three factors are responsible: academic education, ignorant decision makers who
don’t understand what to do when confronted with problems, and profit-making
developers.
Accordingly as the first step, it studies the principles of urban spatial organi-
zation of the historic cities which can be considered as design guidance.
Considering the principle of contrasting spaces, a comparison has been made
between Campo in Siena and Friday mosque of Isfahan in Iran, and also the historic
street of Nuremberg, and York showing high degree of contrasting spaces.
It recognizes the necessity for a better arrangement of public space, considering
the precedents. Spatial arrangements of public spaces have to encourage outward
life. It discusses the aesthetic aspects of governing principle: the old city has been
structured into a collection of homogenous neighborhoods, each with a center,
connected to each other and to the city center through main passageways, a
principle that is the outcome of socio-economic, cultural, and climatic conditions.
The all-pervading issue that distinguishes the first part of my previous book is
this principle, but here the focus is on aesthetic knowledge and aesthetic experience
of this structure.
Contents

1 Origin and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . 1

1.1 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . 1
1.2 Ivan and Development of Vaulting Space . . . . .......... . . 6
1.3 Continuity of Pre-Islamic Forms in Early Islamic Mosques . . . . 15
1.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . 21
2 Flowing Spaces, Flowing Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 23
2.1 Flowing Spaces, Flowing Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 23
2.2 Process of Flowing Forms, Creating Geometrical Objects,
Ordered Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 32
2.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 39
3 Urban Space, a Comparative Look Between Persian
and European Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 41
3.1 Aesthetic Quality and Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 41
3.1.1 Uniting the Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 43
3.1.2 Building’s Façade Harmony: Harmonizing Street
Buildings, Integration of Old and New . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2 Persian Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4 The Concept of Space . . . . . . . . ..................... . . . . . . 57
4.1 The Concept of Space . . . ..................... . . . . . . 57
4.2 Spatial Characteristics of the Friday Mosque of Yazd . . . . . . . . 69
4.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... . . . . . . 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... . . . . . . 80

xv
xvi Contents

5 Design of Urban Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

5.1 Basic Block Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2 Inner Area Urban Structure and Urban Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3 Middle Area Urban Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.4 Modern Urban Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.5 Today Urban Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.6 Lesson from World Knowledge and Design Experience . . . . . . 86
5.7 Some of the Main Recommendations and Guidelines Dealing
with the Design of Urban Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.8 Berlin. Renewing an Urban Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.9 Berlin. Careful Urban Renewal, Kreuzberg Area . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2 Environmental Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3 Aesthetic Knowledge and Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.4 Development Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.5 Principles of Urban Spatial Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.5.1 Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.5.2 Dynamic and Static Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.5.3 Scale and Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.5.4 Contrasting Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.5.5 Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.5.6 Block Corner in Middle Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.5.7 Simplification of Street Façade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Chapter 1
Origin and Continuity

Abstract This chapter deals with the origin of forms: ivan (portico) and vaulted
space, discussed by scholars and archaeologists, but here simplified, illustrated, and
considered as a process of formation and continuity. The study draws attention to
some prominent historic and also ordinary buildings; little importance is given to
them in education and profession, the forgotten knowledge, which has both cultural
and climatic basis.

Keywords Origin · Continuity · Ivan · Forgotten design knowledge

1.1 Continuity

Origin may be understood as the source of something, here architectural forms.

Considering the origin, we face with an inquiry that how and when environmental
forms come into being. Can we say that present design problems demand that we
regain access to origin of forms?
Two basic different environmental and geographical characteristics: mountainous
and desert have shaped Persian life, art, and architecture. Considering these two
original features helps us to understand the aesthetic experience of Persians through
the ages. The mountainous feature of the western borders of Iran and sandy and
windy of the central desert under the hot and glaring sun have created two different
landscapes. Also in traditional cultures:
The mountain symbolizes constancy; eternity; firmness; stillness; … Temples built in the
form of mountains, such as Sumerian ziggurats, Borobadur and Inca temples, symbolize the
Cosmic Centre. The desert… a place of contemplation, quiet and divine revelation.1

1 SeeJ.C. Cooper (1993), An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Traditional Symbols, pp. 50, 109–110.
Mountainous feature of Persian architecture is one of the issues widely discussed by the
researchers. Pope writes:

…there existed throughout the ancient Near East a tendency to admire and worship the
mountain form. The huge ziggurats which relieved the flat monotony of the Mesopotamian
plain were but ritual imitations of the familiar sacred mountains which ring the Iranian
Plateau. See A.U. Pope (1965) Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, p. 16.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1
M. Tavassoli, Form, Space and Design, The Urban Book Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15831-6_1
2 1 Origin and Continuity

And the environment of desert offers resistance, patience, and ability to overcome
historical and environmental difficulties; endure harsh climatic conditions, and cre-
ative and innovative in responding to problems. Here the origin and the continuous
line of forms have been terraced (Figs. 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3). There is a thread between
Choga Zambil Ziggurat the earliest known Iranian monument rivaling the pyramids
of Egypt about 1250 BC; Temple at Musasir eighth century BC, recalling the early
ziggurats; Tomb of Cyrus the Great, built before his death in 529 BC; Neisar Chahar-
Taq third century AD, which continued in the form of domed space on four arches
buildings; Tomb of Ismail Samanid at Bokhara, or Masjid-i-Shaykh Lutfallah in Isfa-
han, and also structures that still to be found in many old cemeteries,2 such as the
old cemetery of the city of Birjand.
Primary information clarifies that ordinary architecture of people has also influ-
enced the great magnificent architecture, by producing more complete form and
spaces. Over the ages, forms perfected and had effected on subsequently built forms.
This process of perfection is clearly visible in the artworks.
Although our information about ancient settlement form is very limited, archaeo-
logical discoveries show the beauty of artwork in the design of pots, jars, or vase for
libations. Especially, in the fourth millennium BC, we see a skilful geometry in the
highly original workshops at Susa.3 Considering geometry, in ancient urban form:
The most instructive picture is that of Musasir, a town situated between Manai and Urartu,
west of Urmiya lake and north Assyria probably in Albagh. Three-storeyed tower like houses
are crowded together in the narrow town, and between them rises the temple with a court in
front. Standing on a high stylobate, six pillars support a gable roof. A geometric ornament
covers the entire gable, … The type of temples in north Iranian architecture of the ninth and
eighth centuries was in all respects that of Greek temple, but earlier than any Greek temple
and too early for any possible Greek influence.4

But the most artistic expressions are in the knowledge of Visionary Geography:

The Mazdean book of Genesis (Bundahishn) gives a striking description of the formation of
the mountains; under attack by the demonic Power of Ahriman, the Earth began to tremble,
it shook in horror and rebellion. As if to set up a rampart against these powers, the Earth
raised up its mountains. First the powerful chain of mountains surrounding it, which, in the
Avesta, is called “Hara berezaiti.” Etymologically this is the Persian Elburz, and it is the
name given until today to the chain of mountains bordering Iran on the north, from west
to east; and so it is here, amidst the peaks and high plateaus of that chain, that the Sasanid
tradition rediscovered the sites of the episodes in the sacred history of Zoroastrianism. See
H. Corbin (1990 edition, English translation from the French by Nancy Pearson), Spiritual
Body and Celestial Earth, I.B. Tauris, p. 25.

2 These structures have been widely discussed in three prominent works: E.E. Herzfeld (1941), Iran

in the ancient East; Oxford University Press, A. Godard (1962), The Art of Iran; George Allen &
Unwin, and A.U. Pope (1965) Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, and also by The
Asia Institute Pahlavi University Shiraz version, 1969). The continuous line of forms (Fig. 1.1),
from The Art of Geometry (2003), Payam, pp. 99–100.
3 See A. Godard, op. cit, p. 39.
4 See Ernest E. Herzfeld, Iran in the ancient East, pp. 198–199. Discussed in Chap. 2 of present

book.
1.1 Continuity 3

Fig. 1.1 The flow of forms. Here interrelationship between forms, from the ziggurats, as being
like mountains linking earth and heaven, to dome over a square space is depicted. a Choga Zambil
Ziggurat, about 1250 BC from A.U. Pope, Persian Architecture, 1969, p. 5. b Temple at Musasir
eighth century BC, from E.E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East, 1941, p. 199. c Tomb of Cyrus the
Great, built before his death in 529 BC; d Neisar Chahar-Taq third century AD, see Hardy/Godard,
Athar-e Iran, Tome III Fascicule I, 1938, pp. 163–165. Analytical drawing from my book in Persian,
The Art of Geometry, 2003, p. 59. e Tomb of Ismail Samanid, Bokhara, 907 AD, from A.U. Pope,
Persian Architecture, 1969, p. 42. f Masjid-i-Shaykh Lutfallah, from my book in Persian, Urban
Space Design Criteria, Urban Planning and Architecture Research Center of Iran, 1992, p. 101
4 1 Origin and Continuity

Fig. 1.2 Origin of architectural and urban space in two different cultures: Origin of European urban
space: a Agora The dynamic center of the Greek city, meeting and assembly place (see Fig. 1.3),
secular transactions, separated from temple. b Forum Roman, A place of assembly, athletic and
gladiatorial contests including temple and other elements (Mumford 1975, pp. 175–176, 257).
c Rock-cut tomb Naqsh-i Rustam, Tomb of Darius I, fifth century BC. Space hollowed out of solid
rock, with ivan (portico) space in front. d Fire Temple, Neisar Chahar-Taq third century AD. Origin
of spatial form of basic part of Persian architecture. Simple space created by dome on four arcades.
From outside “looks like a mountain of cubic masonry, pierced by four wide arches…” (Godard
1962, p. 184). Drawings based on Tavassoli/Bonyadi Urban Space Design1, pp. 13–14
1.1 Continuity 5

Fig. 1.3 Origin of values, urban space as a school of philosophy. Ancient Agora of Athens, where
the Peripatetics taught, teaching usually took place in space during walking. The Peripatetic school
of philosophy was founded by Aristotle in 335 BC. Drawing is based on combination of two
sources: Morris, History of Urban Form, p. 31 (simplified), and Papadogeorgos, Prominent Greeks
of Antiquity, p. 57

As we can see, architecture has been the most powerful and important innovation
for centuries and shows a high degree of culture. There is an interesting relationship
between spatial structure of ancient ordinary buildings and parts of Achaemenid
sovereigns palaces. Herzfeld (1941) and Godard (1962) have presented two small-
scale examples of ancient ordinary houses in Kurdistan and Tehran. Here we see that
both plans are the same as those of buildings at Pasargadae and Persepolis, and also
the megaron at Tiryns. Herzfeld gives an account of his studies about the constituent
elements of the complex buildings on the terrace which are spatially in the continuity
6 1 Origin and Continuity

of old houses of indigenous Iranian type, all with an interior hypostyle hall, open
portico (ivan) in front, and secondary rooms around.5 Three buildings including
Apadana, Had ish of Xerxes, Tachara: the residential Palace of Darius the Great
show the principle element: the portico. Hadish (palace) of Xerxes, and Tachara both
enclosed with front porticoes (ivans) (Figs. 1.4 and 1.5). This columned semi-open
space changed to a new and more original form: vaulting space.
At large scale, these spatial elements, and the whole structure express beauty
which is recognized as sovereign value:
…and that order and justice were primary aims; Darius declared: “I am one who loves
righteousness and hates iniquity … It is not my will that the strong should oppress the weak
… God’s plan for the earth is not turmoil but peace, prosperity and good government.” …
The beauty of Persepolis is not the accidental counterpart of mere size and costly display; it
is the result of beauty being specifically recognized as sovereign value.6

1.2 Ivan and Development of Vaulting Space

History of Persian architecture clearly shows the continuous process of space and
forms, persisting elements: four arched domed space characteristic of Sasanian times,
four-ivan courtyard, anticipated to Parthian times, domes, columned porch, a type of
talar.
Vault space, ovoid arch, was first appeared in king’s tombs, an example in Haft
Tape, and continued in the form of the vast ovoid arch at Ctesiphon, Taq-i-Kisra. The
emotional power, here is a simple arch, high and width, seems to be carved into the
mass.
Herzfeld, Godard, and Pope give an account of the fall of Achaemenids that
when Persepolis ended in flames, and Alexander left it in ruins, under his vision and
his successors, Hellenic design dominated but never completely observed. A new
epoch started. Epoch of vaulted and domed space architecture which continued and
perfected during Islamic period.
Architectural design based on semi-open vault space: the ivan, was widespread
during the Parthians. According to Godard they invented, or took over from their
predecessors in the Iranian East. Furthermore, concerning the origin of ivan a different
hypotheses can be proposed. The ivan continued as the most important part not only
in the mosque and madrassa, but in the old courtyard houses before the advent of
modernism.
The most distinctive form of ivan is in the Zoroastrian houses in Iranian hot arid
towns and cities such as Yazd and Zaware, which is called Soffe. The author was first

5 See A. Godard op. cit, pp. 105–107; and Herzfeld (1941), op. cit, p. 224. Herzfeld’s in dept
investigation considering ordinary vernacular houses as model for sovereign buildings, although is
very limited, but is of great importance in search the origin of basic constituting elements of ancient
architecture.
6 See A.U. Pope op. cit, pp. 30–33.
1.2 Ivan and Development of Vaulting Space 7

Fig. 1.4 Plan of Persepolis, 521–463 BC. Ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire. Two
buildings, M: Hadish of Xerxes, O: Tachara: residential Palace of Darius the Great, are spatially in
the continuity of old houses of indigenous Iranian type. After Godard, pp. 116–117, selection and
emphasis on the two buildings are made by the author
8 1 Origin and Continuity

Fig. 1.5 Origin and Continuity a Plan of a Kurdish house. b Plan of a house in the Tehran area.
c Plan of the megaron at Tiryns. d Plan of Hadish of Xerxes. e Plan of Tachara. Main spatial
composition follows the concept of ancient buildings, example of Kurdish house. Drawings have
emphasized the element of ivan, the basic sociocultural and climatic element in Persian architecture.
(Plans were redrawn based on Godard, pp. 105, 116–117)
1.2 Ivan and Development of Vaulting Space 9

researcher who studied this type in Zaware in 1972,7 and the two connected four-
ivan/Soffe courtyard Zoroastrian house which have been presented here is based on
local studies (Figs. 1.6 and 1.7). This spatial form is popular in the old Zoroastrian
houses in Iran.
A more in-depth study of the remains of spatial structure of the traditional Zoroas-
trian houses seems to be helpful in understanding the origin of four ivan court.
Considering Muslim houses, ivan is an important constituting part. The oldest
example is Husaynian house known as the Khan-i-Taq Bolanda (high vaulted house)
in Yazd, which the high vault is collapsed (Figs. 1.8 and 1.9). I was first led to this
house by late Iranologist MK Pirnia. This is a part of a large complicated old urban
block from thirteenth century, which has been studied carefully. Here the emphasis
is on the main northern ivan of the house which has been collapsed. Pirnia and later
Afshar the late professor of Tehran University have discussed this house. Afshar
writes the height of the Taq (vault) was nearly 15 m.8
It is important to pay attention to the role of climate and culture in creation of this
semi-open, shaded space which has been ubiquitous for centuries in the traditional
architecture of the hot arid environment (Figs. 1.10 and 1.11). Surveys of the remains
of the traditional fabrics show considerable examples of ivans. According to archae-
ological excavations, one of the oldest types of parabolic vault space which has been
discovered is the king’s tombs at Haft Tape (Fig. 1.12), now in Khuzestan province,
Iran, of Elamite period. Excavations have been carried in archaeological site between
1965 and 1979 by the late professor of Tehran University, Ezzatollah Negahban and
his team.9 The discovery of parabolic vault space of kings tombs at Haft Tape proves
that the history of this shape which is best expressed in the Ivan-i-Madaen goes back
long before the Parthians (Fig. 1.13).

7 See Urban Structure in Hot Arid Environments, p. 155. A more extensive study on housing and

urban elements in Zoroasterian regions, reveals many unknown design concepts as the origin of
form.
8 Iraj Afshar the late professor of Tehran University in his prominent work discusses the historical

aspects of this house, as the oldest in Yazd, and mentioning that its high vault is collapsed. In my
view, the high vault was a sign of noble family, landmark and symbol of the city, and like minarets,
domes and wind towers were important elements in the skyline of Yazd in thirteenth century.
9 Considering the first examples of parabolic vault space which has been discovered in the king’s

tombs at Haft Tape, now in Kuzestan province, Iran, see Haft Tape, in Iranian journal, Honar va
Mardom, no. 43, 1345/1966, pp. 2–5. Elam was an ancient country and a part of Persian plateau at
the end of third millennium B.C.E.
10 1 Origin and Continuity

Fig. 1.6 Origin of spaces in historic fabrics a Zaware Part of the fabric of the town and domed roof
of a Zoroastrian four ivan (soffe) housing space. b Yazd. An example of Zoroastrian house ivan
(pesgam-i mas), room set aside for religious observances. c A type of ivan with the back three door
room
1.2 Ivan and Development of Vaulting Space 11

Fig. 1.7 Zoroastrian house, Yazd Two connected house, four ivan/Soffe arranged around the central
courtyard. This spatial form is popular in the old Zoroastrian houses in Iran
12 1 Origin and Continuity

Fig. 1.8 The oldest Muslim known house in Yazd known as Khan-i-Taq bolanda (high vaulted/ivan
house) fourteenth century. The ivan is collapsed. Considering the form of this house in response to
climatic factors see Architecture in the Hot Arid Zone, 1973, and the house as the basic constituent
element of a large complicated block, see Urban Structure in Hot Arid Environments, Springer,
2016, pp. 72–73. For a detailed survey of plan and section of this house, see Naghsh-e Ajab,
Architectural Drawings Collection of Historical Monuments of Iran, vol. 1, (2003) Iranian Cultural
Heritage Organization Documentation Center (ICHO-DOC), pp. 127–128
1.2 Ivan and Development of Vaulting Space 13

Fig. 1.9 (continued) a Northern ivan vault is collapsed. According to theory of Pirnia/Afshar, the
height of the Taq (vault) was nearly 15 m. See note 8. b Southern part

Fig. 1.10 Yazd Role of climate and culture in creation of shaded space: ivan on the roof
14 1 Origin and Continuity

Fig. 1.11 Yazd Renovation of the old part, creating new ivan, a balcony type, middle decades of
the twentieth century

However, Sasanian period was the beginning of a new epoch, back to origin,
centuries after the burning of Persepolis, and the fall of Achaemenids system of
politics and arts. Hatra, first century A.D., the ruined of a large palace of the second
century A.D. is the first example of high barrel vault space substituted for the earlier
flat covering space, rested on columns. The second innovative spatial form is the
Palace of Ashur, including a four-ivan opening to the central courtyard, basic form
for later Islamic architecture of mosque and madrassa.
Later, in Sasanian period, Taq-i-Kisra at Ctesiphon, Royal Sasanian monument,
pre-Islamic architecture, probably built in the second half of the third century. A
building as a symbol of power, its main element is a notable parabolic vault space,
ivan, almost 36 m high, 25/5 m wide “spam,” and 43/5 m deep. Ibn Kordadbeh
geographer (ninth century), compared it as a mountain, which a palace has been
carved in it.10 This monument and its constituting elements have been discussed
widely by scholars and archaeologists. The most important elemental structure of
this building is its parabolic vault space in the tradition of Persian design which has
partly remained (Fig. 1.14). Pope writes:

10 See Isa Behnam, Ctesiphon, Honar va Mardom, no. 44, p. 14.

Another random document with
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Bendix paced back and forth, perspiration shining wetly on his face in
the light from the overhead bulb. "It's not fair," he said huskily. "It's not
a true election. It doesn't represent anything." He looked at
Kimmensen desperately. "It's not fair, Joe!"
Kimmensen sighed. "All right, Jem. I assume you brought the
necessary equipment—the screwdriver, the insulation, and so forth?"

After another half hour, Bendix looked across the room at

Kimmensen. The removed panel lay on the floor at his feet, its screws
rocking back and forth inside its curvature. "Joe, it's still not enough."
Kimmensen nodded, listening to the totals on the receiver.
"How many are you switching now?" he asked.
"One out of every three Messerschmidt votes is registering for me."
"Make it one out of two," Kimmensen said harshly.

They barely caught up with Messerschmidt's total. It was a close

election. Closer than any Kimmensen had ever been in before.
Bendix replaced the panel. They put out the room light and climbed
back up to the ground level offices, bringing the chairs with them.
"Well, Joe, it's done." Bendix whispered though there was no one
listening.
"Yes, it is."
"A thing like this creeps over you," Jem said in a wondering voice.
"You begin by telling yourself you're only rectifying a mistake people
would never make if they had time to think. You set a figure—one out
of five. One person out of five, you say to yourself, would switch his
own vote, given the chance. Then you wonder if it might not be one
out of four—and then three.... Joe, I swear when I first suggested we
go down there tonight, I hadn't a thought of doing—what we did. Even
when I put the insulation and wire in my pocket, I never thought I'd—"
"Didn't you?" Kimmensen said. He felt disinterested. They'd had to do
it, and they'd done it. Now the thing was to forget about it. "Good
night, Bendix."
He left him and walked slowly through the corridors left over from
another time. He went down the front steps and out into the plaza.
He found Messerschmidt waiting for him. He was standing in the
shadow of the plane's cabin, and the plaza lights barely showed his
face. Kimmensen stopped still.
Messerschmidt's features were a pale ghost of himself in the
darkness. "Didn't you think I'd make spot-checks?" he asked with pity
in his voice. "I had people voting at timed intervals, with witnesses,
while I checked the running total."
"I don't know what you're talking about."
Messerschmidt nodded slowly. "Mr. Kimmensen, if I'd thought for a
minute you'd do something like that, I'd have had some of my men in
that building with you." His hands moved in the only unsure gesture
Kimmensen had ever seen him make. "I had a good idea of how the
vote would go. When it started right, and suddenly began petering
out, I had to start checking. Mr. Kimmensen, did you really think you
could get away with it?"
"Get away with what? Are you going to claim fraud—repudiate the
election? Is that it?"
"Wait—wait, now—Mr. Kimmensen, didn't you rig the vote?"
"Are you insane?"
Messerschmidt's voice changed. "I'm sorry, Mr. Kimmensen. Once
more, I have to apologize. I ought to have known better. Bendix must
have done it by himself. I should have known—"
"No. No," Kimmensen sighed, "forget it, Messerschmidt. We did it
together."
Messerschmidt waited a long moment. "I see." His voice was dead.
"Well. You asked me if I was going to repudiate the election."
"Are you?"
"I don't know, yet. I'll have to think. I'll have to do something, won't I?"
Kimmensen nodded in the darkness. "Somehow, you've won and I've
lost." Suddenly, it was all welling up inside him. "Somehow, you've
arranged to win no matter what decent men do!"
"All right, Mr. Kimmensen. Have it your way."
"Whatever you plan to do now, I'll be home. If you should need me for
a firing squad or some similar purpose."
Messerschmidt made an annoyed sound. "Mr. Kimmensen, you're
notorious for your dramatics, but I think that's going too far." He
walked away into the darkness.
Kimmensen climbed into his plane, sick at the night that covered him,
and furious at Messerschmidt's ruthlessly sharp mind.

There was no one at home. He walked methodically through the

house, doggedly opening Susanne's empty closets. Then he sat
down in the living room with the lights off, staring out into the starlit,
moonless night. He nodded sharply to himself.
"Of course," he said in the dark. "She'd be one of his timed voters."
Then he sat for a long time, eyes straight ahead and focussed on
nothing, every fold of his clothing rigidly in place, as though he were
his own statue.

CHAPTER VII
Until, hours later, orange flowers burst in the valley below. He came
erect, not understanding them for a moment, and then he ran out to
the patio, leaning over the parapet. On the faint wind, he heard the
distant sound of earth and houses bursting into vapor. In the valleys,
fire swirled in flashes through the dark, and against the glare of
burning trees he saw bobbing silhouettes of planes. Men were far too
small to be seen at this distance, but as firing stabbed down from the
planes other weapons answered from the ground.
Suddenly, he heard the flogging of a plane in the air directly
overhead. He jumped back, reaching for his weapon, before he
recognized Jem Bendix's sportster. It careened down to his landing
stage, landing with a violent jar, and Bendix thrust his head out of the
cabin. "Joe!"
"What's happening?"
"Messerschmidt—he's taking over, in spite of the election! I was
home when I saw it start up. He and his followers're cutting down
everybody who won't stand for it. Come on!"
"What are you going to do?"
Bendix's face was red with rage. "I'm going to go down there and kill
him! I should have done it long ago. Are you coming with me?"
Why not? Kimmensen grimaced. Why wait to die here?
He clambered into the plane and buckled his seat belt. Bendix flung
them up into the air. His hands on the wheel were white and shaking
as he pointed the plane along the mountain slope and sent them
screaming downward. "They're concentrated around the office
building, from the looks of it," he shouted over the whine of air. "I
should have known he'd do this! Well, I'm League President, by God,
and I'm going to settle for him right now!"
If you don't kill us first, Kimmensen thought, trying to check over his
weapon. Bendix was bent over the wheel, crouched forward as
though he wanted to crash directly into the plaza where Kimmensen
could see running men.
They pulled out of the dive almost too late. The plane smashed down
through the undergrowth behind the office building. Bendix flung his
door open and jumped out while the plane rocked violently.
Kimmensen climbed out more carefully. Even here, in the building's
shadow, the fires around the plaza were bright enough to let him see.
He pushed through the tangled shrubbery, hearing Bendix breaking
forward ahead of him. Bendix cleared the corner of the building. "I
see him, Joe!"
Kimmensen turned the corner, holding his weapon ready.
He could see Messerschmidt standing in a knot of men behind the
wreckage of a crashed plane. They were looking toward the opposite
slope, where gouts of fire were winking up and down the
mountainside. Kimmensen could faintly hear a snatch of what
Messerschmidt was shouting: "Damn it, Toni, we'll pull back when I—"
but he lost the rest. Then he saw Bendix lurch out of the bushes ten
feet behind them.
"You! Messerschmidt! Turn around!"
Messerschmidt whirled away from the rest of the men, instinctively,
like a great cat, before he saw who it was. Then he lowered the
weapon in his hand, his mouth jerking in disgust. "Oh—it's you. Put
that thing down, or point it somewhere else. Maybe you can do some
good around here."
"Never mind that! I've had enough of you."
Messerschmidt moved toward him in quick strides. "Listen, I haven't
got time to play games." He cuffed the weapon out of Bendix's hand,
rammed him back with an impatient push against his chest, and
turned back to his men. "Hey, Toni, can you tell if those
Northwesters're moving down here yet?"
Kimmensen's cheeks sucked in. He stepped out into the plaza,
noticing Bendix out of the corners of his eyes, standing frozen where
Messerschmidt had pushed him.

Kimmensen came up to Messerschmidt and the man turned again.

His eyes widened. "Well, Mr. Kimmensen?"
"What's going on?"
Messerschmidt grunted. He pointed up the mountain. "There they
are. I suppose they knew they had to move fast once I repudiated the
election. They began airdropping men about a half hour ago. They're
thick as flies up there, and they'll be coming down here as soon as
they're through mopping up. That ought to be in a few minutes."
"Northwesters."
"That's right, Mr. Kimmensen.
"Well."
Messerschmidt smiled thinly. "I suppose you've guessed Susie's at
my house?"
"Will she be all right?"
Messerschmidt nodded. "It's fortified. That's our next holding point
when we fall back from here." His face was grave.
"Isn't there any chance of stopping them?"
Messerschmidt shook his head. "None. They're military specialists,
Mr. Kimmensen. We don't have any trained men."
"I see."
Messerschmidt looked at him without any perceptible triumph in his
eyes. "It seems, Mr. Kimmensen, that they have men like us in the
Northwest, too. Unfortunately, theirs seem to have moved faster."
"What're you going to do?"
Messerschmidt looked up the mountain and shrugged. "Nothing. We
got some of them in the air, but the rest are down. We may have
weapons as good as theirs, but they know how to use them in units.
It's quite simple. We'll try to hold and kill as many as we can when
they come at us. We'll keep retreating and holding as long as we can,
and when we reach the sea, if we get that far, we'll drown."
Kimmensen frowned. "Their men are concentrated on that
mountain?"
"Yes."
"And you're just going to stand still and let the League be wiped out?"
"Just what, Mr. Kimmensen, would you like me to do?"
Messerschmidt looked at him in fury. "I don't have time to train an
army of our own. They've got us cold."
"Messerschmidt, I see eight men here with weapons."
"As far as anything we can accomplish goes, we might as well use
them to toast sandwiches."
"We can scour that mountainside. Down to bare rock."
Messerschmidt blanched. "You're joking."
"I am not!"
"There are people of ours up there."
"There are people of ours all through this area. When the
Northwesters are finished up there, they'll fan out and burn them all
down, a little bit at a time."
Messerschmidt looked at Kimmensen incredulously. "I can't do it.
There's a chance some of our people up there'll be able to slip out."
"By that time, the Northwesters'll be down here and dispersed."
Messerschmidt started to answer, and stopped.
"Messerschmidt, if you're going to do anything, you'd best do it
immediately."
Messerschmidt was shaking his head. "I can't do it. It's murder."
"Something much more important than human life is being murdered
on that mountain at this moment."
"All right, Kimmensen," Messerschmidt exploded, "if you're so hot for
it, you give the order! There're something like a hundred League
families up there. Half of them're still alive, I'd say. If the election's
void, you're still president. You take the responsibility, if you can."
"I can."
"Just like that."
"Messerschmidt, the defense of freedom is instantaneous and
automatic."
"All right, Mr. Kimmensen," Messerschmidt sighed. He turned to his
men. "You heard him. It's his order. Aim at the mountain." He bared
his teeth in a distorted laugh. "In freedom's name—fire!"

Kimmensen watched it happen. He kept his face motionless, and he

thought that, in a way, it was just as well he hadn't long to live.
But it was done, and, in a way, his old dream was still alive. In a way,
Messerschmidt's hands were tied now, for in the end the Freemen
defeated the trained armies and no one could forget the lesson in this
generation.
He looked down at the ground. And in a way, Messerschmidt had
won, because Kimmensen was dying and Messerschmidt had years.
That seemed to be the way of it. And Messerschmidt would someday
die, and other revolutions would come, as surely as the Earth turned
on its axis and drifted around the sun. But no Messerschmidt—and
no Kimmensen—ever quite shook free of the past, and no revolution
could help but borrow from the one before.
Well, Bausch, Kimmensen thought to himself as the face of the
mountain slowly cooled and lost color, I wonder what we'll have to say
to each other?
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BURNING
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