Electrotechnology n3 Study Guide 2

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Electrotechnology N3 Study Guide 2
Electro Techniques (Damelin)
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ELECTROTECHNOLOGY N3 Damelin©
NATIONAL N CERTIFICATION IN ENGINEERING STUDIES
ELECTROTECHNOLOGY N3
STUDY GUIDE
2021

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Copyright © Educor 2020

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical
methods, without the prior written permission of Educor Holdings. Individual’s found guilty of
copywriting will be prosecuted and will be held liable for damages.

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1 Table of Contents
1 About DAMELIN ......................................................................................................................... 6
2 Our Teaching and Learning Methodology................................................................................... 7
2.1 Icons ................................................................................................................................ 10
3 Introduction to the Module ..................................................................................................... 13
3.1 Module Information ......................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Module Purpose............................................................................................................... 13
3.3 Outcomes ........................................................................................................................ 13
3.4 Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 15
3.5 Planning Your Studies / Resources Required for this Module: ........................................... 16
4 Prescribed Reading .................................................................................................................. 17
4.1 Prescribed Book ............................................................................................................... 17
4.2 Recommended Articles .................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Recommended Multimedia .............................................................................................. 17
5 Module Pacing ......................................................................................................................... 18
5.1 Week 1: DC MACHINES, GENERATOR AND MOTOR PRINCIPLES ........................................ 19
5.1.1 Introduction to Direct Current Machines .................................................................. 20
5.1.2 Construction of a DC Machine .................................................................................. 21
5.1.3 Armature reaction .................................................................................................... 22
5.1.4 Commutation ........................................................................................................... 23
5.1.5 Introduction to the operation of motors and generators .......................................... 24
5.1.6 Generator principle of operation .............................................................................. 25
5.1.7 Motor principle of operation .................................................................................... 26
5.1.8 Self-Assessment ....................................................................................................... 29
5.2 Week 2: DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS .......................................................................... 29
5.2.1 Types of generators .................................................................................................. 30
5.2.2 Load characteristics of separately-excited generator ................................................ 31
5.2.3 Load characteristics of series-wound generator ........................................................ 31
5.2.4 Load characteristics of shunt-wound generator ........................................................ 32
5.2.5 The basic operation of a shunt generator ................................................................. 33
5.2.6 Cumulative compound generator ............................................................................. 33
5.2.7 Self-Assessment ....................................................................................................... 34
5.3 Week 3: DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS ................................................................................. 35

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5.3.1 Introduction to Direct Current Motors ...................................................................... 36

5.3.2 Torque and speed of a DC Motor .............................................................................. 36
5.3.3 Types of dc motor and their characteristics .............................................................. 37
5.3.4 Methods used to control speed ................................................................................ 38
5.3.5 DC Motor Starters .................................................................................................... 39
5.3.6 Reversing the direction of rotation of DC Motors ...................................................... 39
5.3.7 Self-Assessment ....................................................................................................... 40
5.4 Week 4: AC THEORY, DC MACHINES EFFICIENCY & TRANSFORMERS ................................. 40
5.4.1 Introduction alternating current theory .................................................................... 41
5.4.2 Definitions of alternating current terms .................................................................... 41
5.4.3 The generation of an alternating current .................................................................. 42
5.4.4 The value of the induced emf ................................................................................... 42
5.4.5 Maximum, rms and average values........................................................................... 42
5.4.6 The mid-ordinate rule............................................................................................... 43
5.4.7 Alternating current circuits ....................................................................................... 44
5.4.8 Series circuits ........................................................................................................... 46
5.4.9 Series connected impedances ................................................................................... 47
5.4.10 Power and power factor ........................................................................................... 47
5.4.11 Series resonance ...................................................................................................... 47
5.4.12 Losses in dc machines ............................................................................................... 48
5.4.13 Efficiency of dc machines .......................................................................................... 49
5.4.14 Determination of efficiency ...................................................................................... 50
Transformers......................................................................................................................... 51
5.4.15 Construction and principle of operation ................................................................... 52
5.4.16 Double-wound transformer ...................................................................................... 52
5.4.17 The transformer ratio ............................................................................................... 53
5.4.18 Three-phase transformers ........................................................................................ 53
5.4.19 The auto transformers .............................................................................................. 53
5.4.20 losses in transformers............................................................................................... 54
5.4.21 Cooling of transformers ............................................................................................ 54
5.4.22 Self-Assessment ....................................................................................................... 55
5.4.23 Losses in dc machines .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.4.24 Self-Assessment ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.5 Week 5: MEASURING INSTRUMENTS & ELECTRONICS ...................................................... 55

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5.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 56

5.5.2 Measuring instruments have basically three mechanisms: ........................................ 57
5.5.3 Eddy-current damping .............................................................................................. 57
5.5.4 Air damping .............................................................................................................. 57
5.5.5 Moving –iron instruments ........................................................................................ 58
5.5.6 Moving-coil instrument ............................................................................................ 58
5.5.7 The dynamometer instrument .................................................................................. 59
5.5.8 Instrument transformers .......................................................................................... 59
5.5.9 Semiconductors devices ........................................................................................... 60
5.5.10 The p-n junction diode.............................................................................................. 61
5.5.11 Forward bias conditions of a diode ........................................................................... 61
5.5.12 Reverse bias conditions of a diode ............................................................................ 61
5.5.13 Ac to dc conversion (rectification) ............................................................................ 61
5.5.14 Transistors................................................................................................................ 62
5.5.15 Transistor configurations .......................................................................................... 62
5.5.16 The silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) ......................................................................... 63
5.5.17 Self-Assessment ....................................................................................................... 65
6 References............................................................................................................................... 65

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1. About DAMELIN
VISION
To lead and inspire quality private education and training throughout Southern Africa and the African
continent
MISSION
We pride ourselves on being the provider of quality learner focused education. It is our mission to
deliver innovative, yet relevant programmes on multiple NQF levels while contributing with integrity
and commitment to the community ideals of skills development and employability. Our mission is to
meet regulatory requirements as they apply to private institutions and exceed the expectations of
quality
Our core values are:

 Academic commitment
 Reputable and quality brand
 Innovative relevant programmes
 Skills development and employability
 Integrity
 Entrepreneurial spirit

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STUDENT SUPPORT
The support systems which we at Damelin have put in place to support to our students, aims to have
a significant influence on how well our students will achieve. Students Support will assist students to
achieve academically, to make the correct programme choices, and be oriented into Further Education
and Training opportunities at Damelin.
Damelin envisages to provide holistic services to students that embraces the full range of any single
student’s interaction with the College.
1. Selection and Placement into

Pre-entry appropriate programmes
Admission
2. Contract of enrolment
3. Orientation and Code of Conduct
4. Academic Support
Performance monitoring and
STUDENT On course feedback, Workshops, Study
SUPPORT Academic Guides, Academic Advising Centre
programme 5. Personal Support
Life skills, counselling, Health and
Wellness
Exit 6. Higher Education

7. Self-employment
Work
8. Employment
readiness 9. In-service Training
Students are encouraged to make use of the Student Support Services available on each of our
campuses. Each campus has Lecturer consultation times where you will be able to have a consultation
with your subject lecturer should you require additional support.
2. Our Teaching and Learning Methodology

DAMELIN strives to promote a learning-centered and knowledge-based teaching and learning
environment. Teaching and learning activities primarily take place within academic programmes and
guide students to attain specific outcomes.
• A learning-centered approach is one in which not only lecturers and students, but all
sections and activities of the institution work together in establishing a learning

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community that promotes a deepening of insight and a broadening of perspective with

regard to learning and the application thereof.
• An outcomes-oriented approach implies that the following categories of outcomes are
embodied in the academic programmes:
• Culminating outcomes that are generic with specific reference to the critical cross-field
outcomes including problem identification and problem-solving, co-operation, self-
organisation and self-management, research skills, communication skills,
entrepreneurship and the application of science and technology.
• Empowering outcomes that are specific, i.e. the context specific competencies students
must master within specific learning areas and at specific levels before they exit or move
to a next level.
• Discrete outcomes of community service learning to cultivate discipline-appropriate
competencies.
DAMELIN actively strives to promote a research culture within which a critical-analytical approach and
competencies can be developed in students at undergraduate level. DAMELIN accepts that students’
learning is influenced by a number of factors, including their previous educational experience, their
cultural background, their perceptions of particular learning tasks and assessments, as well as
discipline contexts.
Students learn better when they are actively engaged in their learning rather than when they are
passive recipients of transmitted information and/or knowledge. A learning-oriented culture that
acknowledges individual student learning styles and diversity and focuses on active learning and
student engagement, with the objective of achieving deep learning outcomes and preparing students
for lifelong learning, is seen as the ideal. These principles are supported through the use of an engaged
learning approach that involves interactive, reflective, cooperative, experiential, creative or
constructive learning, as well as conceptual learning via online-based tools.
Effective teaching-learning approaches are supported by:
• Well-designed and active learning tasks or opportunities to encourage a deep rather than
a surface approach to learning.
• Content integration that entails the construction, contextualization and application of
knowledge, principles and theories rather than the memorization and reproduction of
information.
• Learning that involves students building knowledge by constructing meaning for
themselves.
• The ability to apply what has been learnt in one context to another context or problem.
• Knowledge acquisition at a higher level that requires self-insight, self-regulation and self-
evaluation during the learning process.
• Collaborative learning in which students work together to reach a shared goal and
contribute to one another’s learning at a distance.
• Community service learning that leads to collaborative and mutual acquisition of
competencies in order to ensure cross cultural interaction and societal development.
• Provision of resources such as information technology and digital library facilities of a high
quality to support an engaged teaching-learning approach.

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• A commitment to give effect teaching-learning in innovative ways and the fostering of

digital literacy.
• Establishing a culture of learning as an overarching and cohesive factor within institutional
diversity.
• Teaching and learning that reflect the reality of diversity.
• Taking multi culturality into account in a responsible manner that seeks to foster an
appreciation of diversity, build mutual respect and promote cross-cultural learning
experiences that encourage students to display insight into and appreciation of
differences.

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2.1 Icons
The icons below act as markers, that will help you make your way through the study guide.
Additional Information
All supplementary and recommended learning resources
Announcements
Important announcements made via myClass
Assessments
Continuous and Summative Assessments
Audio Material
Audio recordings and podcasts
Calculator
Activities that require calculation and equation base solutions
Case Study
Working examples of concepts and practices
Chat
A live chat with your Online Academic Tutor
Discussion Forum
Topic to be explored in the weekly discussion forum
Glossary
Learning activity centered on building a module glossary
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Group Assignment
Assignments to be completed with peers
Help
Instructions on how to receive academic support and guidance
Individual Assignment
Assignments to be completed individually
Lesson Material
Learning content in myClass as per the units below
Module Information
Important information regarding your module like outcomes, credits,
assessment, and textbooks
Module Welcome
A welcome to the module in myClass to introduce you to the module and
important module information
Outcomes
Learning outcomes you will meet at the end of a section or module
Survey
A poll, feedback form or survey to complete
Practice
Indicates an activity for you to practice what you’ve learnt
Lesson/Virtual Class
Virtual Class links available via myClass
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Quote
A thought, quote or important statement from a thought leader in the
specialist field
Reading
Prescribed reading material and module textbooks
Revision
Questions and activities that will support your module revision
Self-Assessment Quiz
Weekly quizzes to complete to self-measure if you have a complete
understanding of the lesson material
Shout Out | Example

Examples and highlights to contextualize the learning material, critical
concepts and processes
Lesson Material
Indicates sections of learning material in myClass
Thinking Point
A question, problem or example posed to you for deeper thinking,
interrogation, and reflection
Time
The allocated time required per week, unit and module related to the module
credit structure as per your factsheet
Video
Additional videos, video tutorials, desktop capture/screen recording and
other audiovisual supplementary material
Vocabulary
Important words and their definitions that aid the development of your
specialist vocabulary
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3 Introduction to the Module

Welcome to Electrotechnology N3.
Electrotechnology N3 covers eight chapters which have been divided into 7 weeks of which the weeks
are listed as follows 1. Dc Machines, Generators and Motor principles; 2. Direct current Generators;
3. Direct current Motors; 4. Ac Theory; 5. Dc Machines Efficiency and Transformers; 6. Measuring
Instruments; 7. Electronics. The study guide was developed with the aim of assisting you and giving
you a better understanding all the content of your course. This study guide is not to be used in isolation
of a recommended textbook, recommended reading and research.
3.1 Module Information

Qualification title National N Certificate In Engineering Studies
Module Title Electrotechnology N3
NQF Level Level 3
3.2 Module Purpose

This subject covers the fundamentals of electro-technical control technology
and practical experience and is designed to be an asset to the electrical drive
technology field. It will equip you with machine installation and
control related skills for the manufacturing industry. Workshop and field work
procedures that conform to safety regulations and safe working practices
will be learned.
The industry is changing and growing at a rapid rate as technology advances

and develops in fields such as: data communication, home automation,
intelligent systems for industrial and facilities management and
renewable/sustainable energy.
3.3 Outcomes
At the end of this module you should be able to:
 Identify and solve problems in which responses display that responsible decisions using
critical and creative thinking have been made.
 Work effectively with others as a member of a team, group organization, community.
 Organise and manage oneself and ones activities responsibly and effectively. Collect,
analyse, organise and critically evaluate information.
 Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in the modes of
oral and/or written presentation.
 Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the
environment and the health of others.
 Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognizing that
problem solving contexts do not exist in isolation.
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 Describe the construction of a dc machine.

 List and discuss the components of a dc machine.
 Distinguish between wave and lap windings.
 Explain the function of brushes in a dc machine.
 Discuss the types of brushes in a dc machine.
 Understand what is meant by armature reaction.
 Discuss armature reaction fully with the aids of sketches.
 Explain the different methods used to improve commutation.
 Define the principles of a generator and motor
 Define Faraday’s law
 Explain Fleming’s right-hand rule.
 Define Lenz’s law.
 Name four factors that determine the magnitude of the induced emf in a conductor.
 Explain what is meant by back emf.
 Explain in detail what is meant by separate excitation and self-excitation.
 Draw load characteristic of a separately excited and series generator.
 Explain load characteristic of a separately excited, series and shunt generator.
 Explain residual magnetism.
 Explain basic operation of a shunt generator.
 Differentiate between cumulative and differential compound generator.
 Explain what is meant by level-compounded.
 Draw neat schematic diagrams of long shun and short shunt compound generators.
 Draw and describe the characteristics of an over and under compounded generator.
 State the purpose of a starting resistance in a dc motor starter.
 Explain with the use of a neat diagram the action of a face-plate starter for a shunt motor.
 Explain the action of a no-volt release fully
 Explain the action of a dashpot type and a bi-metal type overload device.
 Differentiate between the differential and cumulative compound motor.
 Explain why the differential and cumulative compound motor cannot be used for the same
purpose.
 Explain the load and torque characteristics of a shunt motor.
 Define instantaneous value, period and frequency.
 Explain the meaning of rms and average value.
 Define the form factor and crest factor of an ac waveform.
 Perform all the calculations in this unit.
 Define the term power factor of an ac circuit.
 Draw the phasor diagrams to show the relationship between voltage and current.
 Define efficiency.
 Discuss eddy currents and hysteresis losses.
 Discuss the basic losses in a dc machine.
 Explain the constant losses of a dc machine.
 Explain the rope brake test with the aid of a neat sketch.
 Deduce efficiency formula by means of a rope brake test.
 Differentiate between rope brake test and an indirect test.
 Define mutual induction.
 Define self-induction.
 Explain the operation of a transformer with the aid of a neat sketch.
 Name methods used to cool transformers.
 Purpose of instrument transformers.
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 Function of a deflecting, damping, and control mechanism.

 Explain with sketches aid air damping and eddy-current damping.
 Explain the purpose of hairsprings in an instrument.
 Explain what are current and voltage transformers.
 Explain operation of a moving-coil instrument.
 Differentiate between a dynamometer and a moving coil instrument
 Discuss the shunt.
 Explain why must the secondary winding of a current transformer be earthed.
 Recognize the importance of testing and measurements in electric circuits.
 Appreciate instrument ‘loading’ effect.
 Calculate periodic time, frequency, peak-to-peak values from waveforms on an oscilloscope.
 Appreciate forward and reverse bias of p – n junction.
 Importance of valence shell and valence electrons.
 Understand p – n junction.
 Recognize the symbols used to represent diodes in circuit diagrams.
 Understand the importance of diode characteristics and maximum ratings.
 Classify materials as conductors, semiconductors or insulators.
3.4 Assessment
You will be required to complete both formative and summative assessment activities.
Formative assessment:
The assessment of the theoretical component in ELECTROTECHNOLOGY Level 3

takes the form of observation, class questions, group work, informal group
competitions with rewards, individual discussions with students, class, topic
and semester tests and internal examinations. Lecturers can observe students
when marking exercises from the previous day and asking class questions.
Assignments, case studies and tests can be completed at the end of a topic. Tests and internal
examinations
must form part of the internal assessment.
These are compulsory internal assessments which are compulsory and contribute towards your
Term Mark.
1. NATIONAL TEST
 WEIGHTING TOWARDS TERM MARK: 30%
2. NATIONAL DP EXAMINATION
 WEIGHTING TOWARDS TERM MARK: 70%
Summative assessment:

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examinations
These are external assessments from the DHET. Students must be registered with the DHET in order
to write these assessments.
ENTRANCE TO SUMMATIVE EXAMINATION REQUIREMENTS:
MINIMUM TERM MARK OF 40%
Mark allocation

examinations
The marks are derived as follows for this module:
Test 1 30%
Test 2( Mock Exam) 70%
TOTAL 100%
3.5 Planning Your Studies / Resources Required for this Module:
What equipment will I need?  Access to a personal computer and internet.

 Access to academic journals
 Calculator
 Recommended textbook
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4 Prescribed Reading
4.1 Prescribed Book

Bakker P.JA. (1998). Electrotechnology N3, 1st edition. Northcliff: Troupant. ISBN: 9781919780269
4.2 Recommended Articles

Please refer to the additional resources that are mentioned throughout the various weeks.
4.3 Recommended Multimedia

Please refer to the video resources that are mentioned throughout the various weeks.
MODULE OVERVIEW – ELECTROTECHNOLOGY N3
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5 Module Pacing
NAME OF TOPIC FOR THE WEEK AS PER THIS GUIDE AND REFLECTIVE OF LMS
Weeks WEEKLY TOPICS FOR THE TRIMESTER

2021
1
Direct Current Machines, Generator and Motor Principles
Direct Current Generators

2
Direct Current Motors

3
4 AC Theory, DC Machines Efficiency & Transformers
5 Measuring Instruments & Electronics
Exam
Week
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5.1 Week 1: DC MACHINES, GENERATOR AND MOTOR PRINCIPLES

The first week of this module will introduce the construction of DC Machines,
Purpose Armature winding, Armature reaction, Commutation and applications of dc
motors. We also look at Faraday’s, Lenz’s laws and Fleming’s right-hand rule.
At the end of this week, you should be able to:
 Describe the construction of a dc machine.

 List and discuss the components of a dc machine.
 Distinguish between wave and lap windings.
 Explain the function of brushes in a dc machine.
 Discuss the types of brushes in a dc machine.
 Understand what is meant by armature reaction.
 Discuss armature reaction fully with the aids of sketches.
Learning
 Explain the different methods used to improve commutation.
Outcomes  Define the principles of a generator and motor
 Define Faraday’s law
 Explain Fleming’s right-hand rule.
 Define Lenz’s law.
 Name four factors that determine the magnitude of the induced emf
in a conductor.
 Explain what is meant by back emf.
Time It will take you 2 hours to make your way through this study week.
Prescribed Bakker P.J.A. (1998). Electrotechnology N3, 1st edition. Northcliff: Troupant.
Reading ISBN: 9781919780269
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5.1.1 Introduction to Direct Current Machines

When the input to an electrical machine is electrical energy, (seen as applying a voltage to the
electrical terminals of the machine), and the output is mechanical energy, (seen as a rotating shaft),
the machine is called an electric motor. Thus an electric motor converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
When the input to an electrical machine is mechanical energy, (seen as, say, a diesel motor, coupled
to the machine by a shaft), and the output is electrical energy, (seen as a voltage appearing at the
electrical terminals of the machine), the machine is called a generator. Thus, a generator converts
mechanical energy to electrical energy. The operation of DC motors and generators is not only the
same in principle, but the practical design does not differ much either. The construction of a dc
motor is the same as a dc generator. The only difference is that in a generator the generated e.m.f is
greater than terminal voltage, whereas in a motor the generated e.m.f is less than the terminal
voltage. Dc motors are often used in power stations to drive emergency stand-by pump systems
A DC motor can be used as a generator and vice versa. When we look at purpose and application of
each machine, there are a few differences in construction. Generators are normally installed in
buildings where they operate under ideal atmospheric conditions and may be of an open-type
design. While a motor maybe installed where it is subjected to abnormal weather conditions,
temperature changes, gases, etc.
Refer to page 1 in your prescribed textbook for a comprehensive dc machines introduction.
Let’s Watch!
YouTube. 2020. Construction of DC Machine and its components. [online]. Available

at: <https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=xsWNG-jds> [Accessed 16 December 2020].
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5.1.2 Construction of a DC Machine
The basic parts of any dc machine are shown as above, Comprise:

(a) A stationery part called the stator having,
 A steel ring called the yoke, to which are attached
 The magnetic poles, around which are the
 Field windings, i.e. many turns of a conductor wound round the pole core; current
passing through this conductor creates an electromagnet
(b) A rotating part called the armature mounted in bearings housed in the stator and having,
 A laminated cylinder of icon or steel called the core, on which teeth are cut to
house the
 Armature winding i.e. single or multi-loop conductor system and
 The commutator
Brushes and brush gear

brushes for use in dc machines mainly consist of a carbon and graphite mixture. The brushes are
obtainable in different grades of hardness which are determined by the percentage of graphite in
the mixture. Care must be taken that brushes of the correct shape, size, and grade are used for a
specific machine. The correct pressure on the brush is of great importance, because excessive
pressure damages the brush and shorten its lifetime.
The types of brushes normally used are the following:

 The electrographite brush
 Graphite brushes
 Copper-graphite brushes
 Carbon brushes
Armature windings
The choice of the type of winding is determined by factors such as the size and function of the
machine. Two very important factors concerning the design of an armature, and thus also the choice
of the windings, are:
 The pole pitch, i.e. the distance between the centre of the poles
 The coil pitch, i.e. the distance between the coil sides.
Armature windings can be divided into two groups, depending on how the wires are joined to the
commutator. These are called wave windings and lap windings (also known as an overlap or parallel
winding).
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(a) In wave windings there are two paths in parallel irrespective of the number of poles, each
path supplying half the total current output. Wave wound generators produce high voltage,
low current outputs.
(b) In lap windings there are as many paths in parallel as the machine has poles. The total
current output divides equally between them. Lap wound generators produce high current,
low voltage output.
The e.m.f generated by the armature is equal to the e.m.f generated by one of the parallel
paths.
Refer to pages 1 to 3 in your prescribed textbook for a comprehensive explanation of

construction of a direct current machine and components thereof PLEASE NOTE: The extra
information above has been added for your convenience.
5.1.3 Armature reaction
When the armature of any direct current generator or motor rotates, then the two fields of the
machine are acting upon each other, i.e. the one field has an influence on the movement and
distribution of the other. This effect is called armature reaction and it can be defined as follows:
Armature reaction is the distortion of the main magnetic field as a result of the current flowing in
the armature conductors, or it is the effect of the armature ampere-turns upon the value and the
distribution of the magnetic flux entering and leaving the armature core.
Armature reaction is the effect that the magnetic field produced by the armature current has on the
magnetic field produced by the field system. In a generator, armature reaction results in a reduced
output voltage, and in a motor, armature reaction results in increased speed.
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2. A way of overcoming the effect of armature reaction is to fit compensating windings, located
in slots in the pole face.
Armature reaction in a dc generator

By armature reaction is meant the effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on the
distribution of flux under main poles of a generator. The armature magnetic field has two effects:
(a) It demagnetises or weakens the main flux and
(b) It cross-magnetises or distorts it.
Armature reaction in a dc motor

Since current flows through the armature conductors of a motor, a magnetic field will be set up
around the conductors. This magnetic field will also distort the main field, just as in the case of a
generator. It is therefore obvious that the dc motor is also subject to the effect of armature reaction.

armature reaction.
5.1.4 Commutation
The emf generated in the conductors of a dc armature is an alternating emf. The current flows in one
direction when the conductor is moving under the N pole and in the reverse direction when it is
moving under the S pole. This reversal of current in a coil has to take place while the two
commutator segments, to which the coil is connected, are being short-circuited by a brush. This
process is termed commutation. (see page 4 for further explanation)
Methods of improving commutation

It is obvious that the commutation process is subject to various factors which may have a negative
influence on it. Four (4) methods are normally used to limit these factors
(a) Increasing the brush contact resistance

(b) Shifting the brushes
(c) Interpoles
(d) Compensating windings

commutation and the four (4) methods.
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5.1.5 Introduction to the operation of motors and generators
The principle of electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday. After several
experiments he defined the concept “electromagnetic induction” as follows
When a conductor cuts a magnetic flux or is cut by a magnetic flux, an emf is generated in the
conductor. The magnitude of this generated emf is directly proportional to the rate at which the
conductor cuts the magnetic flux or is cut by the magnetic flux.
The principle of generation is explained in an elementary way in the book on page 7.
The magnitude of the induced emf in a conductor therefore depends on:

 The strength of the magnetic field;
 The rate at which the magnetic flux is cut by the moving conductor;
 The number of active conductors connected in series;
 The number of pairs of poles used.
The direction of the induced emf depends on various factors. There are two ways to deduce the
direction of the induced or generated emf:
 Fleming’s right-hand rule
 Lenz’s law.
The former is empirical, but the latter is fundamental in that it is based upon electrical principles.
Fleming’s right-hand rule: If the index finger of the right hand points in the direction of the magnetic
flux and the thumb is pointed in the direction of the motion of the conductor relative to the
magnetic field, then the middle finger, held at right angles to both the thumb and the index finger,
indicates the direction of the induced emf (figure below)
Lenz’s law: The direction of an induced emf is the always such that it tends to set up current
opposing the motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that emf.
This law is used in all electric machines where the concept of induction applies, e.g. motors and
transformers.
Fleming’s left-hand rule: as shown in the figure below. In this figure the index finger indicates the
main field, the middle finger the direction of current through the armature conductors, and the
thumb the direction of rotation.
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The prescribed textbook covers this learning material on pages 7 – 15.
5.1.6 Generator principle of operation

An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into electrical
energy (or power). The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically
(or motional) induced emf. Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is
produced in it according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This emf causes a current
to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are(i) a magnetic field and (ii) a conductor
or conductors which can so move as to cut the flux.
Refer to page 7 in your prescribed textbook for a comprehensive explanation of operation

of dc generator.
Elementary dc generator
Fig. below shows an armature coil which is connected to a commutator with two segment. When the
armature rotates the flux is cut by the conductors and an emf is induced. This is an alternating emf
and the commutator changes the ac to a dc. The wave of induced emf is sinusoidal (Fig. 2.4 in the
book) and the output waveform of the dc generator is as shown in the book on page 8 Fig. 2.5.
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Refer to page 8 in your prescribed textbook for a comprehensive explanation of

elementary dc generator.
5.1.7 Motor principle of operation
A rectangular coil which is free to rotate about a fixed axis is shown placed inside a magnetic field
produced by permanent magnets in figure below. A direct current is fed into the coil via carbon
brushes bearing on a commutator, which consists of a metal ring split into two halves separated by
insulation.
When current flows in the coil a magnetic field is set up around the coil which interacts with the
magnetic field produced by the magnets. This causes a force F to be exerted on the current-carrying
conductor which, by Fleming’s left-hand rule, is downwards between points A and B and upward
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between C and D for the current direction shown. This causes a torque and the coil rotates
anticlockwise. When the coil has turned through 90 degrees from the position shown in Figure
above the brushes connected to the positive and negative terminals of the supply make contact with
different halves of the commutator ring, thus reversing the direction of the current flow in the
conductor. If the current is not reversed and the coil rotates past this position the forces acting on it
change direction and it rotates in the opposite direction thus never making more than half a
revolution. The current direction is reversed every time the coil swings through the vertical position
and thus the coil rotates anticlockwise for as long as the current flows. This is the principle of
operation of a dc motor which is thus a device that takes in electrical energy and converts it into
mechanical energy.
Please note: You can also find a similar principle of operation in the book on page 14 with relevant
figures.
Back emf
When the armature of a dc machine rotates, the armature coils cut the magnetic field and a voltage
or emf is induced in these coils. The direction of this induced emf is, according to Lenz’s law,
opposite to that of the applied emf. For this reason, it is termed back emf.
This back emf is dependent upon the same factors as the generated emf in a generator, namely the
speed, direction of rotation and the magnetic field strength of the machine. A stronger field and
higher speed will thus generate a larger back emf.
Please note: For back emf in a dc motor and generator refer to the book on page 15-16.
Now that we have covered some of the important foundational concepts, complete this
self-check activity to gauge your understanding:
1. State functions of the following as applicable to dc machines:

(a) Brushes
(b) Field winding
(c) Laminated iron sheets
(d) Main frame
(e) Pole core
2. Define the following terms as applicable in dc machines
(a) Commutation
(b) Pole pitch
3. What is meant by armature reaction?
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Refer to pages 1 - 8 & 14 - 15 in your textbook for a complete overview of the learning
content discussed up to this point.
We have covered important foundational concepts and terminology, so do make sure that you
isolate and highlight critical areas in your textbook for later study. The above summary of the main
areas should give you an understanding of the most important aspects to focus on.
Once you have read through the prescribed textbook, attempt the revision questions below.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Draw a neat, fully labelled sketch of a four-pole dc machine/ draw a sketch of a dc machine
and indicate pole pitch, interpoles and directions of rotation for a motor and a generator.
2. Briefly discuss the following components of a dc machine
a) Stator
b) field poles
c) armature core
3. Distinguish between wave and lap windings.
4. Name and discuss the four (4) methods of improving commutation.
5. Describe the action of a commutator.
6. Define Lenz’s law.
7. Define Faraday’s law.
8. Explain Flaming’s right hand rule.
9. Name four factors that determine the magnitude of the induced emf in a conductor.
10. Explain fully the basic operation of a motor and generator.
Refer to pages 6, 13 & 28 in your textbook for more questions regarding this chapter.
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5.1.8 Self-Assessment
Let’s see what you have learned so far by taking this short self-assessment.
The Self-Assessment for this unit is embedded within your

ELECTROTECHNOLOGY N3 in myClass. Head on to the quiz to see how you have
fared with this section of content!
Be sure to complete the self-assessment quiz before you move on to the next
section!
5.2 Week 2: DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS

This week focuses on the types of generators ,their characteristics, and
Purpose
methods of excitation.
By the end of this week, you will be able to:
 Explain in detail what is meant by separate excitation and self-

excitation.
 Draw load characteristic of a separately excited and series generator.
 Explain load characteristic of a separately excited, series and shunt
generator.
 Explain residual magnetism.
 Explain basic operation of a shunt generator.
Learning
 Differentiate between cumulative and differential compound
Outcomes generator.
 Explain what is meant by level-compounded.
 Draw neat schematic diagrams of long shun and short shunt
compound generators.
 Draw and describe the characteristics of an over and under
compounded generator.
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5.2.1 Types of generators

Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited. Generators
may be divided into (a) separately-excited generators and (b) self-excited generators.
(a) Separately-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized from an
independent external source of dc current. It is shown diagrammatically below
(b) Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized by the current
produced by the generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always
present some flux in the poles. When the armature is rotated, some emf and hence
some induced current is produced which is partly or fully passed through the field
coils thereby strengthening the residual pole flux.
There are three types of self-excited generators named according to the manner in which their field
coils (or windings) are connected to the armature.
(i) Shunt wound The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature
conductors and have the full voltage of the generator applied across them (see Figure
below)
(ii) Series wound The field winding are joined in series with the armature conductors. As
they carry full load current, they consist of relatively few turns of thick wire or strips.
Such generators are rarely used except for special purposes i.e. as boosters etc.
(iii) Compound wound It is a combination of a few series and a few shunt windings and can
be either short-shunt or long-shunt as shown below. In compound generator, the shunt
field is stronger than the series field. When series field aids the shunt field, generator is
said to be commutatively-compounded. On the other hand, if series field opposes the
shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially compounded
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Refer to pages 9 – 10 in your prescribed textbook for a comprehensive explanation on the

methods of excitation.
5.2.2 Load characteristics of separately-excited generator

The terminal voltage gradually decreases with an increase in load current. This decrease in terminal
voltage is due to armature reaction and the voltage drop in the armature circuit.
Application: This generator is often used in automatic motor control systems. In these systems the
field current is controlled by an amplifier and the output is used to drive a motor.
Disadvantage lies in requiring a separate source of direct current
5.2.3 Load characteristics of series-wound generator

Under no-load conditions there is no current flow and therefore only a very small emf will be
induced in the armature. This emf is due to the residual magnetism and is indicated on the curve.
If load is connected there will be a flow of current and the field strength and terminal voltage will
increase. A further increase in current will increase the field strength and a high voltage will be
generated in the armature winding.
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Application: The series generator is seldom used but its normal application is as a booster on dc
transmission lines. The fact that its supply voltage is proportional o the armature current makes it
suitable for this type of application.
5.2.4 Load characteristics of shunt-wound generator

When a shunt generator is loaded the maximum terminal voltage is obtained in a very short period
of time.
This is shown in Fig. when the load is increased there is a decrease in terminal voltage which is
partly due to the increased IaRa voltage drop in the armature winding and partly to armature
reaction. The shunt current is also decreased and therefore the flux and the generated emf are
reduced, thereby causing a further reduction in terminal voltage.
If the load current is increased beyond there will be a sharp drop in terminal voltage and therefore is
the ultimate point for generation.
Application: The shunt machine is the type of dc generator most frequently used. However, the load
current must be limited to a value well below the maximum value, thereby avoiding excessive
variation of the terminal voltage. It is therefore used where a constant voltage is required e.g.
battery charging and excitation for ac generators.
Let’s watch this video on the types of generators, to see these aspects clearer:
YouTube. 2021. Types of DC Generators in detail #1. [online] Available

at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wPyyTKJy780> [Accessed 05 January 2021].
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5.2.5 The basic operation of a shunt generator

 The armature of the generator is driven up to the required speed.
 The lines of force due to the residual magnetism in the main poles are cut by the armature
conductors.
 The initial cutting of flux induces an emf in the armature conductors.
 This induced emf is applied across the field since the field is connected in parallel with the
armature.
 A current flows in the field coils causing a field which strengthens the residual field.
 The armature conductors are now cutting a stronger field and the induced emf increases
until maximum voltage is obtained.
 At this stage the magnitude of the terminal voltage can be controlled by the rheostat.
5.2.6 Cumulative compound generator
In this case the series and shunt field coils are connected in such a way that the fields support each
other. The two coils carry currents in the same direction so that the total magneto-motive force is
the sum of the mmf’s in the two coils (Fig. 2.16 in the book).
The machine reacts to a light load in exactly the same way as a shunt generator under no-load
conditions. When the load increases, the effect of the series coil automatically increases the
excitation. By suitable regulating it can be arranged that the series windings provide only the
additional excitation necessary to maintain a constant voltage. The machine is then called “level-
compounded”.
Please note: For series-parallel, cumulative compound and Differential compound generators refer
to the book on page 11 - 13.
Let’s watch! The interconnected operation of DC Shunt generators.
YouTube. 2021. Interconnected operation – DC shunt generators. [online] Available

at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YaQ_BIBXEpA> [Accessed 05 January 2021].
Once you have made your way through that content, you should be able to answer the
following self-check questions:
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1. Explain the basic operation of shunt generator?

2. What is meant by residual magnetism?
3. Mention the applications of series, shunt, and compound generators.
Refer to pages 9 - 13 in your textbook for a complete overview of the learning content
discussed up to this point.
We have covered important foundational concepts, so do make sure that you isolate and highlight
critical areas in your textbook for later study. The above summary of the main areas should give you
an understanding of the most important aspects to focus on.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain what is meant by separate excitation and self-excitation.
2. Draw and describe the load characteristics of a separately excited generator.
3. Draw and explain the load characteristics of a series generator.
4. Explain fully the load characteristics of a shunt generator.
5. Differentiate between cumulative and differential compound generators.
6. Draw neat schematic diagrams of long-shunt, and short-shunt compound generators.
7. Draw and describe the characteristics of an over and under compounded generator.
8. What is meant by “level-compounded”.
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section!
5.3 Week 3: DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS
This week focuses on the dc motors in detail, the types of dc motors, speed
Purpose
control and overload protective devices.
 State the purpose of a starting resistance in a dc motor starter.

 Explain with the use of a neat diagram the action of a face-plate
starter for a shunt motor.
 Explain the action of a no-volt release fully
 Explain the action of a dashpot type and a bi-metal type overload
Learning
device.
Outcomes  Differentiate between the differential and cumulative compound
motor.
 Explain why the differential and cumulative compound motor cannot
be used for the same purpose.
 Explain the load and torque characteristics of a shunt motor.
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5.3.1 Introduction to Direct Current Motors

Typically, these motors are deployed in equipment that requires some form of rotary or motion-
producing control. Direct current motors are essential components in many electrical engineering
projects. Having a good understanding of DC motor operation and motor speed regulation enables
engineers to design applications that achieve more efficient motion control.
Unlike AC motors, DC motors operate on DC power-non-sinusoidal, unidirectional power.
Let’s watch this video on DC motors and the types of DC motors, to see these aspects clearer:
YouTube. 2021.Types of DC motors #1. [online] Available

at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ASnDSEeWADk> [Accessed 06 January 2021].
5.3.2 Torque and speed of a DC Motor

It will be proven that though torque of a motor is admittedly a function of flux and armature current,
yet it is independent of speed. In fact, it is the speed which depends on torque and not vice versa. It
has been proven earlier that
V – IaRa KEb
N = K =
ɸ ɸ
Also, Ta α Ia
It is seen from above that increase in flux would decrease the speed but increase the armature
torque. It cannot be so because torque always tends to produce rotation. If torque increases, motor
speed must increase rather than decrease. The apparent inconsistency between the above two
equations can be reconciled in the following way:
1. Back emf Eb (= Nɸ /K) drops instantly (the speed remains constant because of inertia of the
heavy armature).
2. Due to decrease in Eb, Ia is increased because Ia = (V – Eb)/Ra. Moreover, a small reduction in
flux produces a proportionately large increase in armature current.
3. Hence, the equation Ta α Ia, a small decrease in ɸ is more than counterbalanced by a large
increase in Ia with the results that there is a net increase in Ta.
4. This increase in Ta produces an increase in motor speed.
It is seen from above that with applied voltage V held constant, motor speed varies inversely as the
flux. However, it is possible to increase flux and, at the same time, increase the speed provided I a is
held constant as is actually done in a dc servomotor.
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5.3.3 Types of dc motors and their characteristics
.1. Shunt-wound motor

In the shunt-wound motor the field winding is in parallel with the armature across
the supply as shown below
Characteristics
The two principal characteristics arte the torque/armature current and speed/armature current
relationship. From these, the torque/speed relationship can be derived.
(i) The theoretical torque/armature current characteristic can be derived from the
expression Ta α Ia. For a shunt-wound motor, the field winding is connected in parallel
with the armature circuit and thus the applied voltage gives a constant field current, i.e.
a shunt-wound motor is a constant flux machine.
(ii) The armature circuit of a dc motor has resistance due to the armature winding and
brushes, Ra ohms, and when armature current Ia is flowing through it, there is a voltage
drop of IaRa volts
.2. Series-wound motor

In the series-wound motor the field winding is in series with the armature across the
supply as shown below.
Characteristics
In a series motor, the armature current flows in the field winding and is equal to the supply current,
I.
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The torque/current characteristic

Torque is Ta α ɸIa, since the armature and field currents are the same current, I, in a series machine,
then T α ɸI over a limited range, before magnetic saturation of the magnetic circuit of the motor is
reached, (i.e. the linear portion of the B-H curve for the yoke, poles, air gap, brushes and armature in
series)
.3. Compound-wound motor

There are two types of compound-wound motor
.3.1. Cumulative compound, in which the series winding is so connected that the field due
to it assists that due to the shunt winding.
.3.2. Differential compound, in which the series winding is so connected that the field due
to it opposes that due to the shunt winding.
Characteristics
A compound-wound motor has both a series and a shunt field winding, (i.e. one winding in series
and one in parallel with armature), and is usually wound to have a characteristic similar in shape to a
series-wound motor. A limited amount of shunt winding is present to restrict the no-load speed to a
safe value. However, by varying the number of turns on the series and shunt windings and the
directions of the magnetic fields produced by these windings (assisting or opposing), families of
characteristics may be obtained to suit almost all applications.
Let’s watch!
YouTube. 2021. Characteristics of DC Motors. [online] Available at:

<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cNI-G8gKsyU> [Accessed 06 January 2021].
5.3.4 Methods used to control speed

Although the speed of all dc motors is controlled by a starter during the starting process, it is not the
purpose of a starter to control the speed during operation. The design of any starter is such that it
cannot allow a high current for a long period of time, and therefore the following methods are used
to control the speed of dc motors:
 Varying the voltage supplied to the armature;

 Varying the strength of the magnetic field; and
 Varying the effective number of armature conductors.
The third method is seldom used, because it involves changing the brush positions. The first two
methods are mainly used to keep the speed normal, above normal or below normal.
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5.3.5 DC Motor Starters

If a dc motor whose armature is stationary is switched directly to its supply voltage, it is likely that
the fuses protecting the motor will burn out. This is because the armature resistance is small,
frequently being less than one ohm. Thus, additional resistance must be added to the armature
circuit at the instant of closing the switch to start the motor.
As the speed of the motor increases, the armature conductors are cutting flux and a generated
voltage, acting opposition to the applied voltage, is produced, which limits the flow of armature
current. Thus the value of the additional armature resistance can then be reduced.
When at normal running speed, the generated emf is such that no additional resistance is required
in the armature circuit. To achieve this varying resistance in the armature circuit on starting, a dc
motor starter is used
5.3.6 Reversing the direction of rotation of DC Motors
The direction of rotation of a direct current motor depends on the direction of the main magnetic
field and the direction of the armature current in the conductors cutting the field. If either of these
can be changed, the motor will run in a reverse direction. To reverse the direction of rotation of a dc
motor, the rule is therefore to reverse the connections of either the field or the armature, but not
both. If both connections are reversed, the motor will run in the same direction as before.
All dc moors can be reversed by changing over only the armature connections at the motor terminal
box, treating interpole coils as part of the armature winding.
It may be necessary to move the brushes when the motor is reversed in order to achieve sparkles
commutation. Many manufacturers mark the brush position for both directions of rotation.
We have covered important foundational concepts, so do make sure that you isolate and highlight
critical areas in your textbook for later study. The above summary of the main areas should give you
an understanding of the most important aspects to focus on.
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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain back-emf.
2. Discuss Fleming’s left-hand rule.
3. Deduce the speed equation of a dc motor.
4. Deduce the emf equation for a dc machine.
5. Deduce the formula used to calculate the torque of a dc motor.
6. Discuss the properties of a series motor.
7. Name two applications of a shunt motor.
8. Explain the load and torque characteristics of a shunt motor.
Refer to pages 28 - 29 in your textbook for more questions regarding this chapter.

section!
5.4 Week 4: AC THEORY, DC MACHINES EFFICIENCY & TRANSFORMERS

This week focuses on the efficiency of dc machines, transformers, cooling
Purpose methods of transformers and the generation of an alternating current, the ac
components, resonance and power factor correction.
 Define instantaneous value, period and frequency.

 Explain the meaning of rms and average value.
 Define the form factor and crest factor of an ac waveform.
Learning  Perform all the calculations in this unit.
Outcomes  Define the term power factor of an ac circuit.
 Draw the phasor diagrams to show the relationship between voltage
and current.
 Define efficiency.
 Discuss eddy currents and hysteresis losses.
 Discuss the basic losses in a dc machine.
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 Explain the constant losses of a dc machine.

 Explain the rope brake test with the aid of a neat sketch.
 Deduce efficiency formula by means of a rope brake test.
 Differentiate between rope brake test and an indirect test.
 Define mutual induction.
 Define self-induction.
 Explain the operation of a transformer with the aid of a neat sketch.
 Name methods used to cool transformers.
 Purpose of instrument transformers.
5.4.1 Introduction alternating current theory
Electricity is produced by generators at power stations and then distributed by a vast network of
transmission lines (called the National Grid system) to industry and for domestic use. It is easier and
cheaper to generate alternating current(a.c.) than direct current (d.c.) and a.c. is more conveniently
distributed than d.c. since its voltage can be readily altered using transformers. Whenever d.c. is
needed in preference to a.c., devices called rectifiers are used for conversion.
Direct current (DC) is the flow of electric charge in only one direction.
Alternating current (DC) is the flow of electric charge that periodically reverses direction.
5.4.2 Definitions of alternating current terms

 Instantaneous value: The instantaneous value of an alternating current or voltage is that
specific value which can be determined at a certain moment in terms of current or voltage.
They are represented by small letters i, e.
 Maximum value, peak value or amplitude: It is the maximum or peak value of an
alternating current wave and is shown by E or I (also E max or Imax).
 Period (t): the time taken to complete one full cycle (in seconds).
 Cycle: One complete set of changes which an alternating quantity undergoes.
 Frequency: The total number of complete changes in a given time (usually one second).
The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).
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5.4.3 The generation of an alternating current

To explain the generation of an alternating current we can use an elementary generator consisting
of two poles and a single-loop coil rotating in an anticlockwise direction between the poles (Fig.
below). Suppose the coil is in position A, i.e. horizontal and thus perpendicular to the magnetic field.
No emf is now induced in the coil. The value of the induced emf will gradually increase between 0°
and 90° as a result of the movement of the coil through the field. At B the coil will be at right angle
to the field and a maximum, emf will be induced. While the coil is moving to C the value of the emf
will decrease so that it will be zero at C (after 180°). Up to now the coil has moved through the field
in the same (or positive) direction only; therefore, the induced emf was also in one direction. A
movement of the coil from C to D is in the opposite direction, i.e. the induced emf is negative. At D a
negative value is reached and the cycle is completed at A. the sine wave (Fig. 5.4.3) is a graphic
representation of the movement of the coil.
To summarize:
 At A (0°) – No induced emf
 At B (90°) – maximum emf (positive)
 At C (180°) – zero again
 At D (270°) – minimum induced emf (negative direction)
 At A (360°) – zero.
5.4.4 The value of the induced emf

When a conductor cuts a magnetic field or is cut by a magnetic field, an emf is induced in the
conductor. The value of this emf is directly proportional to the rate at which the conductor cuts the
magnetic field.
Where e = instantaneous value in volts (V)
B = flux density in teslas (Wb/m2)
l = length of the conductor in meters (m)
v = velocity of the conductor at a right angle to the magnetic field in meters per second
(m/s).
5.4.5 Maximum, rms and average values

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Rms, Virtual or effective value: The rms value of an alternating current or voltage is that value which
has the same heating effect as a direct current of the same value. For a uniform sine wave
Erms = 0,707 X Emax volts, and Irms = 0,707 X Imax amperes
Average value: The average value of an alternating current or voltage is the average of the
instantaneous values over a half-cycle. For a uniform sine wave
Eave = 0.637 X Emax volts, and Iave = 0.637 X I max amperes
Form factor: Form factor is the ratio of the rms value to the average value of the wave:
Form factor = Erms/Eave or Irms/Iave
For a uniform sine wave the form factor will always be 1,11. Form factor has no units because it is only
a ratio between two quantities.
Crest factor: It is the ratio of the maximum value to the rms value of the wave:
Crest factor = Emax/Erms or Imax/Irms
For a uniform sine wave the crest factor will always be 1,414.
Take note: The form factor and the crest factor are both determined by the shape of the wave, i.e.
rectangular, uneven, etc. the values will thus differ from the values as given for a uniform sine wave.
5.4.6 The mid-ordinate rule

The preceding formulae can only be applied when the wave is absolutely sinusoidal. An uneven or
non-sinusoidal graph is solved by means of the mid-ordinate rule.
The method is such that the solution will not always be very accurate, but it is sufficient for a
theoretical application.
After the graph has been completed (on the largest possible scale), the mid-ordinate values are
determined and applied in the following formulae:
Refer to pages 40-44 for these formulas and calculations concerned.
Let’s watch! AC Theory.
YouTube. 2021. AC Theory: The story so far. [online] Available

at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iec-1Z5Zvgs> [Accessed 06 January 2021].
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5.4.7 Alternating current circuits

The primary components of alternating current circuits are resistors, inductors (coils) and capacitors.
These components can either function separately or in combination to form series or parallel circuits.
In direct current circuits only the ohmic resistance opposes the flow current, but in ac circuits the back
emf, capacitor charge, etc., must be taken into account. The effect of these components in alternating
current circuits will be discussed separately before combinations are analysed.
5.4.7.1 A non-inductive resistor in an ac circuit

In a purely resistive ac circuit, the current and applied voltage are in in phase. A resistor is sometimes
called a non-inductive resistance. If an alternating current supply is connected across a pure resistance
(Fig. below (a)). “In phase” means that the waves are passing through the maximum, zero and
minimum values at the same moment in a given direction. The phasor diagram of the circuit is shown
below
According to ohm’s law I = V/R for any direct current circuit.
5.4.7.2 An inductive alternating current circuit

In a purely inductive ac circuit, the current I lags the applied voltage V by 90° and in a purely inductive
circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating current is called the inductive reactance, XL.
A pure inductance is a coil of which the resistance can for all practical purposes be ignored. When such
a coil is connected to an alternating current supply there is a continuous change in current which (a)
sets up an emf of self-induction and (b) opposes the change in current, (we may say that a change in
current results in a change in flux because they are interdependent).
The direction of this induced emf is always such that it tends to prevent any change in the current in
the circuit.
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5.4.7.3 A capacitive alternating current circuit

In a purely capacitive ac circuit, the current leads the applied voltage by 90° and in a purely capacitive
circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating current is called the capacitive reactance, XC.
CIVIL
The relationship between voltage and current for the inductive and capacitive circuits can be
summarized using the word ‘CIVIL’, which represents the following: in a capacitor (C) the current (I)
is ahead of the voltage (V), and the voltage (V) is ahead of the current (I) for the inductor (L).
A capacitor basically consists of two metal plates which are separated by an insulator. There are a
variety of capacitors available but the basic principle is the same. The function of a capacitor is to store
an electric charge, i.e. when a voltage is applied across a capacitor a surplus of electrons is stored on
one plate and a deficit occurs on the other. Capacitance is thus the ability of a capacitor to store an
electric charge and the unit is the farad (F). It is defined as follows: The farad is the capacitance of a
capacitor which requires a potential difference of 1 volt to maintain a charge of 1 coulomb.
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The prescribed textbook covers this learning material on page 46.
5.4.8 Series circuits

Up to now we have considered the separate effects of a resistor, inductor and capacitor on an
alternating current circuit. It is obvious that in practice the components are connected either in series
or in parallel, e.g. in motors, control panels, etc. any combination of components will influence the
total ohmic value (impedance) of the circuit, because the value of impedance id determined by means
of phasor calculations. Impedance (Z) Is the total opposition (not resistance) which is offered by a
circuit against the flow of an alternating current. It is applicable to all combined alternating current
circuits containing resistors, inductors and capacitors and the unit is also the ohm(Ω).
5.4.8.1 R-L series ac circuit

In an ac circuit containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of
VR and VL (see Figure below), and thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle lying
between 0° and 90° (depending on the values of VR and VL), shown as angle ɸ. In any ac series circuit
the current is common to each component and is thus taken as the reference phasor.
5.4.8.2 R-C series ac circuit

In an ac series circuit containing capacitance C and R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR
and VC (see Figure on page 48) and thus the current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying
between 0° and 90° (depending on the values of VR and VC), shown as angle α. In an ac circuit, the
ratio (applied voltage V)/(current I) is called the impedance
Z = V/I Ω
5.4.8.3 R-L-C ac circuit

In an ac series circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C, the applied voltage V is
the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC (see Figure on page 49). VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by
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180°, and there are three phasor diagrams possible – each depending on the relative values of VL and
VC.
5.4.9 Series connected impedances

For all series connected impedances the total circuit impedance can be represented as a single L-C-R
circuit by combining all values of resistance together, all values of inductance together and all values
of capacitance together,
(remembering that for series connected capacitors 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + …).
5.4.10 Power and power factor

In figure 5.4.10(a)-(c), the value of power at any instant is given by the product of the voltage and
current at that instant, i.e. the instantaneous power, p=vi, as shown by the broken lines.
 For purely resistive ac circuit, the average power dissipated, P, is given by:
P = VI = I2R = V2/R watts (V and I being rms values).
 For a purely inductive ac circuit, the average power is zero.

 For a purely capacitive ac circuit, the average power is zero.
Figure 5.22(page 52) shows a phasor diagram in which the current I lags the applied voltage V by angle
ɸ. The horizontal component of V is V cos ɸ and the vertical component of V is V sin ɸ. If each of the
voltage phasors is multiplied by I, Figure (b) is obtained and is known as the ‘power triangle’.
Apparent power, S = VI voltamperes (VA)

True or active power, P = VI cos ɸ watts (W)
Reactive power, Q = VI sin ɸ reactive voltamperes (var)
Power factor = True power P/ Apparent power S
For sinusoidal voltages and currents,

Power factor = P/S =VI cos ɸ /VI, i.e.
Pf = cos ɸ = R/Z
The relationships stated above are also true when current I leads voltage V.
Power factor correction

There are basically two popular methods used in practice:
 By installing capacitors;
 By using a special type of synchronous motor.
5.4.11 Series resonance
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For an R-L-C series circuit, when XL = XC (Figure d), the applied voltage V and the current I are in phase.
This effect is called series resonance. At resonance:
.3.3. VL = VC
.3.4. Z = R (i.e. the minimum circuit impedance possible in an L-C-R circuit)
.3.5. I = V/R (i.e. the maximum current possible in an L-C-R circuit)
.3.6. The series resonance is often described as an acceptor circuit since it has its minimum
current, at the resonant frequency.
NOTE: See pages 55-60 for parallel ac circuits and resonance in parallel.
5.4.12 Losses in dc machines

A generator is a machine for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy and a motor is a
machine is a machine for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. When such
conversions take place, certain losses occur which are dissipated in the form of heat.
The principal losses of machines are:
 Copper loss, due to I2R heat losses in the armature and field windings.
 Iron (or core) loss, due to hysteresis and eddy current losses in the armature.
This loss can be reduced by constructing the armature of silicon steel
laminations having a high resistivity and low hysteresis loss. At constant speed,
the iron loss is assumed constant.
 Friction and windage losses, due to bearing and brush contact friction and
losses due to air resistance against moving parts (called windage). At constant
speed, these losses are assumed to be constant.
 Brush contact loss between the brushes and commutator. This loss is
approximately proportional to the load current.
The total losses of a machine can be quite significant and operating efficiencies of between 80% and
90% are common.
Refer to page 30 in your prescribed textbook for comprehensive dc machines losses.
Let’s watch this video on losses and efficiency of DC Motors, to see these aspects clearer:
YouTube. 2021. Losses and efficiency of DC Motors. [online] Available

at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V3MvWn6AkD8> [Accessed 06 January 2021].
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5.4.13 Efficiency of dc machines

The useful power or output developed by a dc machine is given by:
Power output = power input – losses
The ratio of the power output to the power input is called efficiency:
Efficiency = (output power/input power) X 100%
Or efficiency = (output power/ (output power + losses)) X 100%
5.4.13.1 Efficiency of a dc generator
(a) The copper losses in a dc machine can be sub-divided into two categories:
(b) Total resistance of armature circuit (this includes the brushes, series and compole
windings, etc., and the total loss = Ia2Ra watts);
(c) The loss in the shunt circuit including the regulating resistor = I sV watts.
(d) The sum of iron, friction, windage losses, etc. all constant losses – is represented by
C.
Ra = total resistance of armature circuit

Ia = armature current = I + Is
I = total current
Is = shunt current
V = terminal voltage
C = constant losses
Because efficiency = output power X 100
Output power + losses
= VI X 100
VI + Ia2Ra + IsV + C
5.4.13.2 Efficiency of a dc motor
The mechanical output of any electric motor is always less than the electrical input due to the electrical
losses. The other difference with regard to a generator is that
I = Ia + Is or Ia = I – Is
Using the same symbols as in 5.5.2.1 it is deduced that: Output power = input power – losses, and
input power = VI watt
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Efficiency = (output power/input power) X 100
= VI – (Ia2Ra + IsV + C) X 100
VI
5.4.14 Determination of efficiency

There are three basic methods to determine the efficiency of electrical machines:
 The direct method

 The indirect method
 The back-to-back method
The method used depends on the size and type of the motor as well as the conditions under which
the test is to be performed. The purpose of any test is to determine the output power when the motor
is subject to certain load conditions. Once this has been calculated the efficiency of the motor can be
determined by using the appropriate formulae.
5.4.14.1 Direct method (rope brake test)
Figure 6.1 illustrates a commonly used type rope brake system. The motor is coupled mechanically to
a water or air-cooled pulley with a belt or ropes around it. One end of the rope is fixed to a spring
balance (S) which in turn is attached to a column. The other end carries a known mass (W). The motor
rotates in the direction in which it will tend to lift the mass(W) and a reading is obtained from the
scale.
5.4.14.2 Indirect method (Swinburne method)

This is called the indirect method because all the losses are determined separately from given or
experimental data before they are applied in the basic formula. For example, in the shunt motor (Fig.
below) we have assumed up to now that all losses are constant, with the exception of those in the
armature circuit. For this circuit the losses in the windings are assumed to vary in proportion to the
square of the armature current and the brush contact losses to vary in proportion to the current.
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5.4.14.3 Back-to-back method (Hopkinson method)

To perform this test two similar machines are required. The two machines are coupled mechanically
and the electrical connections are as shown in Fig. below. During the test one machine functions as a
generator and the other as a motor while the field windings are normally excited from the same source
as the armature circuit.
The test is performed as follows:
 The machine (M), i.e. the motor, is started and it drives the machine (G) which is used as a
generator.
 The excitation of G is adjusted until its terminal voltage is equal to the supply voltage
(voltmeter V1 reads zero), and then the switch S is closed to connect the two machines in
parallel.
 The field of G is strengthened and that of M weakened slightly to maintain normal operating
speed. At this stage the full-load current circulates between G and M.
 The output of the generator is now fed back to the motor, but owing to the various losses it
is insufficient to supply all the power required by the motor. The additional current (I 2) is
obtained from the supply mains to compensate for these losses.
Transformers
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A transformer is a device used for changing the voltage value in a circuit, i.e. either to increase or
mostly to decrease the voltage. The current will change as the voltage changes. This change is brought
about by the winding ratio of the transformer and by using the magnetic effect of an alternating
current. From this it is obvious that only alternating current can be transformed.
Let’s watch this video on how does a transformer work, to see these aspects clearer:
YouTube. 2021. How does a Transformer work? [online] Available

at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vh_aCAHThTQ> [Accessed 06 January 2021].
5.4.15 Construction and principle of operation

Before considering the principle of operation of a transformer it is necessary to understand the
meaning of the following terms.
5.4.15.1 Induced emf

When a conductor cuts magnetic lines of force or is cut by a magnetic field, an emf (voltage) is induced
in the conductor. The magnitude of this emf is directly proportional the rate at which the magnetic
field cuts the conductor or is cut by the conductor.
5.4.15.2 Self-induced emf

This is the emf induced in a coil as a result of the changing magnetic flux cutting the conductors of the
coil. This self-induced emf is in opposition to the voltage producing it. The self-induced emf tends to
limit the current in the circuit: it chokes the current flowing in a coil when it is carrying an alternating,
or changing, current. The greater the change in the current, the greater the emf.
Emf due to mutual inductance
When a coil A carrying an alternating, or changing, current is placed beside another coil B, an emf will
be induced into coil B. This emf induced into coil B, termed the emf of mutual inductance, is in
opposition to the force producing it (see Fig. below)
Note: There is no direct electrical connection between the two coil, only a magnetic connection.
5.4.16 Double-wound transformer

 There are two coils insulated from one another. The coils are wound around a laminated
silicon steel core.
 The coils consist of insulated copper conductors.
 The core is made up of laminated silicon steel laminations which are insulated from one
another with shellac or paper. Silicon steel is used because it retains very little magnetism
when the supply is switched off. It also provides a low magnetic resistance against the
movement of the magnetic lines of force.
Basic of operation (Fig. on page 66)
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There are two coils namely (a) the primary winding (coil A) to which the incoming supply is
connected and (b) the secondary winding (coil B) across which the load is connected. the cycle of
operation is as follows:
 An alternating current supply (IA) flows in the primary winding A.

 This alternating current produces an alternating magnetic field linking the primary and
secondary windings.
 The variation of magnetic flux induces (a) an emf of self-inductance into the primary
winding, and (b) an emf of mutual inductance into the secondary winding.
 When the load is connected across the secondary winding a current (IB) flows through
it.
 The field caused by this alternating secondary current (IB) has a demagnetizing effect on
the primary winding. To neutralize this effect a greater current must flow in the primary
winding.
 The above cycle is repeated at 50 Hz.
5.4.17 The transformer ratio

The ratio of the supply voltage (primary) to the output voltage (secondary) is determined by the ratio
of the number of turns. If we accept that the input power is equal to the output power (i.e.no losses,
unless otherwise stated), therefore the current is inversely proportional to the voltage and the
number of turns.
5.4.18 Three-phase transformers

Three-phase transformers can be connected in
 Star-star
 Delta-star
 Star-delta
 Delta-delta
The most practical connection of the four methods is delta-star, because it can also give a single-phase
supply.
 A delta connection is also called a three-phase, three-wire system.

 A star connection is called a three-phase, four-wire system.
5.4.19 The auto transformers

This type of transformer operates on the principle of self-induction. The primary and the secondary
are on the same winding and the lines of force from the primary cut the secondary and induce a
voltage into the secondary. This transformer may be used for stepping up or stepping down voltage,
but its practical application is limited owing to the direct electrical connection between the supply and
the output. The ratio is normally not greater than 2:1, and it is mostly used in starters of alternating
current motors.
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5.4.20 losses in transformers

A transformer is highly efficient electrical appliance, mainly because there are no moving parts.
However, there are two sources of losses, namely copper losses and iron losses.
(a) Copper losses: These losses are heat losses caused by the current flowing through the copper
of windings. This is also termed the I2R loss.
(b) Iron losses
 Losses due to eddy currents: eddy currents are induced in the metal core of the
transformer by the alternating field in the core. These losses are limited by using a
laminated core. The laminations are insulated from one another to keep the eddy
current paths separate. This reduces the emf and increases the resistance.
 Hysteresis losses: These losses are caused by the energy loss during the magnetizing
process of the core. The losses are limited by using silicon steel for the core because
very little magnetism remains after the magnetizing process.
5.4.21 Cooling of transformers

The losses in a transformer are generated in the form of heat. It is therefore essential that temperature
of the appliance be kept below a certain temperature (usually 80°C). This is done by using one of the
following methods:
 Air cooling: This method is used in small transformers.

 Oil cooling: The transformer windings are placed in an oil tank. The heat is transferred from
the windings through the oil. The oil is non-conductive and is obtained from plants (mineral
oil).
The prescribed textbook covers this learning material on pages 30 – 36 and 65 - 71.
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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Name and discuss the three basic losses that occur in dc machines.
2. Define efficiency.
3. Explain the meaning of the constant losses of a dc machine.
4. Discuss eddy currents and hysteresis losses.
5. With the aid of a neat sketch explain the rope brake test.
6. Differentiate between rope brake test and an indirect test.
7. Explain what is a current transformer and a voltage transformer.
8. Explain the operation of a moving-coil instrument.
9. What is the purpose of the hairsprings in an instrument?
10. Name the instrument that can be used on both ac and dc.
11. Discuss shunt fully.
12. What is the purpose of the additional resistance in series with a voltmeter?
13. Define rms and average value.
14. Define Instantaneous, period, and frequency.
15. Define form crest and crest factor of an ac waveform.
16. Draw phasor diagrams to show the relationship between voltage and current in a pure
resistor, pure inductor, and pure capacitor.
17. Explain what is power factor of an ac circuit.
Refer to pages (35 – 36), (101 – 102) and (62-64) in your textbook for more questions
regarding this chapter.

section!
5.5 Week 5: MEASURING INSTRUMENTS & ELECTRONICS

Purpose This week focuses on measuring instruments because tests and measurements
are important in designing, evaluating, maintaining and servicing electrical
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circuits and equipment. And we also focus on the principles of the field of
electronics in a manner as to provide a working knowledge of electronics as a
background to which to always relate.
 Function of a deflecting, damping, and control mechanism.

 Explain with sketches aid air damping and eddy-current damping.
 Explain the purpose of hairsprings in an instrument.
 Explain what are current and voltage transformers.
 Explain operation of a moving-coil instrument.
 Differentiate between a dynamometer and a moving coil instrument
 Discuss the shunt.
 Explain why must the secondary winding of a current transformer be
earthed.
 Recognize the importance of testing and measurements in electric
circuits.
Learning
 Appreciate instrument ‘loading’ effect.
Outcomes  Calculate periodic time, frequency, peak-to-peak values from
waveforms on an oscilloscope.
 Appreciate forward and reverse bias of p – n junction.
 Importance of valence shell and valence electrons.
 Understand p – n junction.
 Recognize the symbols used to represent diodes in circuit diagrams.
 Understand the importance of diode characteristics and maximum
ratings.
 Classify materials as conductors, semiconductors or insulators.
5.5.1 Introduction
In order to detect electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance or power, it is necessary to
transform electrical quantity or condition into a visible indication. This is done with the aid of
instruments (or meters) that indicate the magnitude of quantities either by the position of a pointer
moving over a graduated scale (called an analogue instrument) or in the form of a decimal number
(called a digital instrument).
The digital instrument has, in the main, become the instrument of choice in recent years; in particular
computer-based instruments are rapidly replacing items of conventional test equipment, with the
virtual storage test instrument, the digital storage oscilloscope, being the most common.
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Let’s watch! Electrical indicating instruments.
YouTube. 2021. Electrical indicating instruments. [online] Available

at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FJzXhv9fihg> [Accessed 06 January 2021].
5.5.2 Measuring instruments have basically three mechanisms:

 A deflecting device whereby the mechanical force is produced by the electric current,
voltage or power.
 A controlling device which determines the magnitude of the deflection and which in turn
indicates the magnitude of quantity to be measured.
 A damping device which prevents oscillation of the moving system and enables the latter to
reach its final position quickly for an accurate reading.
5.5.2.1 Deflecting device

He deflecting torque of any electrical instrument is normally produced by the magnetic effect of the
current flow through the coil or coils of the instrument. This causes an electromagnetic effect which
in turn results in the movement of the system.
5.5.2.2 Controlling devices

There are two types of controlling devices used in instruments:
 Spring control
 Gravity control.
5.5.2.3 Damping devices

The combination of the inertia of the moving system and the controlling torque of the spiral springs
or of gravity causes oscillation of the pointer. In order to reduce this movement damping devices are
used in instruments.
The two types of damping devices are commonly employed:
 eddy-current damping
 air damping.
5.5.3 Eddy-current damping

A copper or aluminum disc which is carried by a spindle moves between the poles of
a permanent magnet. A clockwise movement of the disc causes the induced emf’s in
the disc to circulate eddy currents.
5.5.4 Air damping

This type consists of a thin metal disc or vane which is mounted on a spindle. It moves
inside a box and eliminates any tendency of the moving system to oscillate. This is
obtained by the displacement of the air.
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5.5.5 Moving –iron instruments

This type of instrument is mostly commonly used in industry because it is reliable and relatively cheap.
It can be used as either an either an ammeter or voltmeter, depending on the current-carrying capacity
of the instrument and whether it is calibrated for current or voltage. There are two types of moving-
iron instruments:
 The attraction type, in which a soft iron plate is attracted towards a solenoid;
 The repulsion type, in which two parallel soft iron strips or rods are magnetized inside a
solenoid, thus repelling each other.
5.5.5.1 Attraction type

Operation: When a current flow through the coil the soft-iron disc is attracted by
electromagnet. The distance that the disc moves is determined by the magnitude of the
current. Therefore, the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the distance
moved by the disc. This instrument is usually spring controlled and air damping is used.
5.5.5.2 Repulsion type

Operation: When a current flow through the coil both of the iron discs are subject to the
same magnetic flux and thus they have the same polarity. Equal poles tend to repel each
other and thus the magnitude of deflection is dependent on the magnetic strength. The
instrument is also spring controlled and air damping is used.
Advantages of moving-iron instruments:
 Reasonably cheap.
 Robust construction.
 Can be used on both alternating and direct current.
Disadvantages of moving-iron instruments:
 The scale is non-linear, i.e. the scale division is small near zero and at maximum reading but
opens up in the middle.
 Temperature changes and stray magnetic fields may affect the reading.
The application: These instruments are used mainly in industry where high currents have to be
measured, i.e. in panels and motor starters.
5.5.6 Moving-coil instrument

Operation: when the coil carries a current a deflection torque is set up. This torque is directly
proportional to the product of the current and the strength of the magnetic field in the air gap.
The direction of the deflection of the needle depends on the direction of the current flow through the
coil. Therefore, the instrument can only be used on direct current. Since the deflection is proportional
to the current flow the scale is evenly calibrated. This is also called a linear scale.
Advantages:
 Very accurate
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 Uniform scale
 Stray magnetic fields do not affect the instrument.
Disadvantages:
 Expensive
 Unsuitable for alternating current (can only be used on dc).
 Can be easily damaged because of its delicate construction.
 The use of the control springs for the coil connections limit the current flow to the coil. For
this reason, moving-coil ammeters must always be used with shunt resistors.
5.5.7 The dynamometer instrument

Operation: the fixed coils (sometimes also called the current coils) are arranged in such a way that
they produce a uniform magnetic field. The moving coil (or voltage coil) is mounted on a spindle to
obtain free movement. A deflecting torque is obtained as a result of the interaction of the magnetic
fields produced by the current flow in the fixed and moving coils.
Advantages:
 Can be used on both alternating and direct current.

 Very accurate.
Disadvantages:
 Scale is uneven (non-linear).

 Expensive.
5.5.8 Instrument transformers

Electricity is generated and distributed at very high currents and voltages. It is therefore impossible to
design and construct meters for direct use on these systems. To solve this problem, transformers are
used to reduce the currents and voltages to practical values which can be indicated by standard
instruments.
5.5.8.1 Current transformers

For measuring currents in excess of about 100A a current transformer is normally used. With a dc
moving coil ammeter the current required to give full scale deflection is very small- typically a few
milliamperes. When larger currents are to be measured a shunt resistor is added to the circuit.
However, even with shunt resistors added it is not possible to measure very large currents. When ac
is being measured a shunt cannot be used since the proportion of the current which flows in the meter
will depend on its impedance, which varies with frequency.
In current transformers the primary usually consists of one or two turns whilst the secondary can have
several hundred turns.
5.5.8.2 Potential transformers

For measuring voltages in excess of about 500 V it is often safer to use a voltage transformer. These
are normal double-wound transformers with a large number of turns on the primary, which is
connected to a high voltage supply, and a small number of turns on the secondary.
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5.5.9 Semiconductors devices

Material may be classified as conductors, semiconductors or insulators. The classification depends
on the value of resistivity of the material. Good conductors are usually metals and have resistivities
in the order of 10-7 to 10-8Ωm, semiconductors have resistivities in the order of 10-3 to 3 X 103Ωm,
and the resistivities of insulators are in the order of 10 4 to 1014Ωm.
5.5.9.1 The atomic structure of silicon and germanium.
An atom of a material consists of a nucleus carrying neutrons (no charge), protons (positive charge)
and the same number of negative electrons orbiting around the nucleus. These electrons move in
orbits or electron shells.
Each of the shells consist of a fixed number of electrons – the inner shell contains a maximum of two
electrons. The number of electrons in the other shells can be determined by applying the following
formula:
Number of electrons in a shell = 2 X 2n, where n = number of shell
The electrons closest to the nucleus are subject to relatively strong forces of attraction, while those
in the outer shells can move more freely. The electrons in the outermost shell or orbit can easily be
detached from their atoms to become carriers of negative charges. These electrons are called
valence electrons.
5.5.9.2 Covalent bonds
A covalent bond is formed when an atom A shares one of its valence electrons with another atom B,
and also when this atom B shares one of its valence electrons with the atom A. A bond now exist
between the valence electrons of both atoms. This is only an elementary explanation of what really
happens, because a large number of covalent bonds are set up once valence electrons have been
activated and are moving.
These free or valence electrons are most important in the formation of semiconductors. In case of
silicon or germanium the atoms are parked tightly and also in an orderly pattern.
5.5.9.3 p- and n- type materials
When pentavalent (five valence electrons) impurities such as arsenic, antonomy or phosphorous are
added to either a silicon or germanium crystal an n-type material is formed. The process of adding
these impurities to a pure silicon or germanium crystal is known as doping.
A p-type semiconductor can be made by using a trivalent atom as an impurity. Examples of trivalent
atoms are boron, indium, aluminium or gallium. In this case only three covalent bonds are formed
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with the impurity – one silicon electron remains without a covalent bond. This space or vacancy is
known as a hole or broken bond in the structure.
5.5.10 The p-n junction diode

The junction diode, as the name implies, is a combination of a p-type diode and an n-type diode tto
form a p-n junction. Initially both these regions are neutral and the junction is normally effected by
diffusion.
5.5.11 Forward bias conditions of a diode

When a direct current supply is connected to a junction diode, with the positive to the p-terminal of
the diode and the negative connected to the n-terminal of the diode, a current flow. The current flow
is stimulated because the electrons are repelled at the negative pole of the cell and are forced to flow
across the junction barrier. The positive holes are forced across the barrier in the same manner.
The resistance effect of the junction barrier is reduced to zero and the electrons will be stimulated to
flow towards the positive terminal of the cell.
5.5.12 Reverse bias conditions of a diode

If the direct current supply in this same circuit is now reversed, there will be an attraction of electrons
towards the positive electrode, while holes are attracted towards the positive electrode. Since there
is an attraction of holes and electrons away from the junction, the depletion layer, or junction barrier,
is widened and its resistance thereby increased. Current flow under these conditions will be extremely
low and is dependent only on the stray holes and electrons present in the materials.
5.5.13 Ac to dc conversion (rectification)

We have seen that the modern diode is made from either germanium or silicon and is called a
semiconductor diode or a p-n junction diode. In the forward direction the resistance of the diode is
very small and in the reverse direction it is very large.
5.5.13.1 The bridge rectifier for full-wave rectification
Instead of using a centre-tapped transformer, four diodes can be used with a simple step-down
transformer.
When terminal A is positive with respect to B, diodes D1 and D3 conduct in series while D2 and D4 are
switched off. With terminal B positive, D2 and D4 are forward biased and D1 and D3 are in the off
position. The current through the loads R is shown in the Figure and a dc output is obtained.
5.5.13.2 Smoothing of a dc output
The output obtained from the bridge or full-wave rectifier is a pulsating output and is not suitable for
the operation of equipment which requires a steady dc (e.g. batteries). In order to smooth out the
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wave a capacitor is connected in parallel with the load R and a filter circuit (choke and capacitor) can
be added to ensure an output without any ripples.
The output voltage is maintained at a level very near to the peak value of the dc output waveform.
During each pulse of output voltage, the capacitor charges and, provided not too much current is
drawn, the level will remain reasonably constant. The output is now said to be smoothed.
5.5.14 Transistors
A transistor is a device that consists of two semi-conductor diodes which are connected back to back.
In Fig. 7.13 (a) on page 77 a thin layer of an n-type semiconductor is placed between two layers of p-
type semi-conductors to form a so-called p-n-p transistor. An n-p-n transistor is obtained when a thin
layer of p-type material is sandwiched between two layers of n-type material.
Elementary descriptions of:
(a) p-n-p transistor

 When a negative input trigger pulse is applied to the base b the transistor will
conduct if the amplitude of this pulse is greater than the positive cut-off bias,
i.e. between base and emitter.
 To open the transistor, the base polarity must be made less negative (or
positive).
(b) n-p-n transistor
 The transistor is switched on when a positive pulse is applied to the base b.
 To switch if off a less positive (or negative) pulse must be applied to the base.
Characteristics of silicon and germanium transistors
(a) A silicon transistor

 Low conductivity.
 Can function at high temperatures.
 High power output.
(b) A germanium transistor
 High conductivity.
 Can operate at low temperatures.
 Lower output than silicon transistors.
 Used for high frequencies.
5.5.15 Transistor configurations

One of the primary applications of a transistor is as an amplifier. There are three basic configurations
in which transistors can be connected as amplifiers.
5.5.15.1 Common emitter

This is the most popular type of arrangement, since it provides high values of current gain, voltage
gain and power gain together with Medium value (about 1kΩ) of input impedance (compare the
amplitude of the input and output waveforms).
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5.5.15.2 Common base

This common-base circuit has the following characteristics:
 A high value of voltage gain;

 A reasonable current gain (just less than 1)
 Low input and high output impedances.
5.5.15.3 Common collector

 Voltage gain slightly less than 1.
 High value of current gain.
 A very high input impedance and a low output impedance and a low output impedance.
5.5.16 The silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)

There are also four-layer devices used in the electronic field and they are called thyristors. One type
of thyristor is the so-called SCR and it is regarded as a high speed electronic switch. It is mainly used
as a controller of light current.
5.5.16.1 construction of SCR
The SCR is a four-layer p-n-p silicon semiconductor with three p-n layers. Please refer to the prescribed
textbook for the construction of the SCR and the symbol.
5.5.16.2 Operation of the SCR

 When the anode A is made positive the collectors of both transistors are reverse biased (or in
the off position). No signal is applied to the gate.
 If a positive current pulse is applied to the gate terminal, T2 is switched on. This provides a
closed circuit to the base of T1, THUS SWITCHING IT ON.
 The loop circuit between T1 and T2 are now closed and the two transistors keep each other in
the “on” position. At this stage the signal applied to the gate terminal can be removed and
the transistors will remain in the “on” position.
5.5.16.3 Turning off methods

(a) By using the series diode: Fig below shows a mechanical diagram illustrating a series switch.
When the switch is opened the transistor will switch off. In practice the switch is actually an
electronic device (e.g. transistor) (Fig. 7.24 (a) on page 81) which is operated by a suitable
pulse, thus interrupting the gate circuit when it has to be switched off.
(b) By using a shunt diode
The applications of SCR
 Motor speed control

 Time delay circuits
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 Battery charges
 Heater controls
 Relay controls
 Regulated power supplies
 Static switches
 Phase controls.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain valence electron.
2. What is a covalent bond.
3. Describe forward bias and reverse bias as applicable to a diode.
4. What is meant by “filtering”.
5. Describe the SCR.
6. What is the purpose of an SCR.
7. Name five applications of an SCR.
8. Explain what is a current transformer and a voltage transformer.
9. Explain the operation of a moving-coil instrument.
10. What is the purpose of the hairsprings in an instrument?
11. Name the instrument that can be used on both ac and dc.
12. Discuss shunt fully.
13. What is the purpose of the additional resistance in series with a voltmeter?
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Refer to page 91 and pages 101 - 102 in your textbook for more questions regarding
this chapter.

section!
6 References
Bakker, P.J.A. 1998. Electrotechnology N3, 1st edition. Northcliff: Troupant publishers.
Glasspoole, E.E 2005. Fundamentals of Electronics. 1st edition, Durban: Shades Technical Publications.
Theraja B.L. & A.K 2006. A Textbook of Electrical Technology in S.I Units. Vol2, India: Chand (S) & Co
Ltd.
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5.3.1 Introduction to Direct Current Motors ...................................................................... 36

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5.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 56

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3 Introduction to the Module

3.1 Module Information

Module Title Electrotechnology N3

NQF Level Level 3

3.2 Module Purpose

The industry is changing and growing at a rapid rate as technology advances

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 Describe the construction of a dc machine.

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 Function of a deflecting, damping, and control mechanism.

The assessment of the theoretical component in ELECTROTECHNOLOGY Level 3

 WEIGHTING TOWARDS TERM MARK: 30%

 WEIGHTING TOWARDS TERM MARK: 70%

The assessment of the theoretical component in ELECTROTECHNOLOGY Level 3

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competitions with rewards, individual discussions with students, class, topic

ENTRANCE TO SUMMATIVE EXAMINATION REQUIREMENTS:

MINIMUM TERM MARK OF 40%

The assessment of the theoretical component in ELECTROTECHNOLOGY Level 3

The marks are derived as follows for this module:

Test 2( Mock Exam) 70%

3.5 Planning Your Studies / Resources Required for this Module:

What equipment will I need?  Access to a personal computer and internet.

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4.1 Prescribed Book

4.2 Recommended Articles

4.3 Recommended Multimedia

MODULE OVERVIEW – ELECTROTECHNOLOGY N3

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Weeks WEEKLY TOPICS FOR THE TRIMESTER

Direct Current Generators

Direct Current Motors

4 AC Theory, DC Machines Efficiency & Transformers

5 Measuring Instruments & Electronics