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INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR HYDRO-ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH

IAHR MONOGRAPH

Fluvial Processes
2nd Edition

Ana Maria Ferreira da Silva

M. Selim Yalin
Fluvial Processes – 2nd Edition
IAHR Monograph
Series editors
Peter A. Davies Robert Ettema
Department of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
The University of Dundee, Colorado State University,
Dundee, Fort Collins,
United Kingdom USA

The International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research

(IAHR), founded in 1935, is a worldwide independent organisation of engineers and
water specialists working in fields related to hydraulics and its practical application.
Activities range from river and maritime hydraulics to water resources development
and eco-hydraulics, through to ice engineering, hydroinformatics and continuing edu-
cation and training. IAHR stimulates and promotes both research and its application,
and, by doing so, strives to contribute to sustainable development, the optimisation
of world water resources management and industrial flow processes. IAHR accom-
plishes its goals by a wide variety of member activities including: the establishment
of working groups, congresses, specialty conferences, workshops, short courses; the
commissioning and publication of journals, monographs and edited conference pro-
ceedings; involvement in international programmes such as UNESCO, WMO, IDNDR,
GWP, ICSU, The World Water Forum; and by co-operation with other water-related
(inter)national organisations. www.iahr.org
Fluvial Processes

2nd Edition

Ana Maria Ferreira da Silva & M. Selim Yalin

Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained
herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without written prior permission from the publishers.
Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication
and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor
the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation
or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Applied for
Published by: CRC Press/Balkema
Schipholweg 107C, 2316 XC Leiden,The Netherlands
e-mail: Pub.NL@taylorandfrancis.com
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com
ISBN: 978-1-138-00138-1 (Hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-20618-9 (eBook)
About the IAHR
Book Series

An important function of any large international organisation representing the research,

educational and practical components of its wide and varied membership is to dissem-
inate the best elements of its discipline through learned works, specialised research
publications and timely reviews. IAHR is particularly well-served in this regard by
its flagship journals and by the extensive and wide body of substantive historical and
reflective books that have been published through its auspices over the years. The
IAHR Book Series is an initiative of IAHR, in partnership with CRC Press/Balkema –
Taylor & Francis Group, aimed at presenting the state-of-the-art in themes relating to
all areas of hydro-environment engineering and research.
The Book Series will assist researchers and professionals working in research and
practice by bridging the knowledge gap and by improving knowledge transfer among
groups involved in research, education and development. This Book Series includes
Design Manuals and Monographs. The Design Manuals contain practical works, the-
ory applied to practice based on multi-authors’ work; the Monographs cover reference
works, theoretical and state of the art works.
The first and one of the most successful IAHR publications was the influential book
“Turbulence Models and their Application in Hydraulics’’ by W. Rodi, first published in
1984 by Balkema. I. Nezu’s book “Turbulence in Open Channel Flows’’, also published
by Balkema (in 1993), had an important impact on the field and, during the period
2000–2010, further authoritative texts (published directly by IAHR) included Fluvial
Processes by S. Yalin and A. da Silva and Hydraulicians in Europe by W. Hager. All of
these publications continue to strengthen the reach of IAHR and to serve as important
intellectual reference points for the Association.
Since 2011, the Book Series is once again a partnership between CRC Press/Balkema –
Taylor & Francis Group and the Technical Committees of IAHR and I look forward
to helping bring to the global hydro-environment engineering and research community
an exciting set of reference books that showcase the expertise within IAHR.

Peter A. Davies
University of Dundee, UK
(Series Editor)
Table of contents

Preface to the 2nd edition xi

Preface to the 1st edition xiii
Scope of the monograph xv
List of symbols xvii

1 Fundamentals 1
1.1 Sediment transport 1
1.2 Turbulent flow 2
1.2.1 General 2
1.2.2 Vertical distributions of shear stress and flow velocity 3
1.2.3 Average flow velocity 7
1.2.4 Resistance equation 7
1.3 Two-dimensional two-phase motion 8
1.4 Bed-load rate; Bagnold’s formula 11
1.5 Vector forms of the bed-load rate 13
1.6 Suspended-load rate 15
1.7 Sediment transport continuity equation 17
1.8 Additional remarks 21
Problems 22
References 25

2 Bed forms 29
2.1 General 29
2.2 Origin of bed forms 29
2.2.1 Dunes and bars 30
2.2.2 Ripples 45
2.2.3 Clarification of “uniform flows’’ 48
2.2.4 Special aspects 48
2.2.5 Additional remarks: the ongoing debate
on the origin of bed forms 49
2.3 Geometry and existence regions of dunes and ripples 50
2.3.1 Introductory considerations 50
2.3.2 Geometric characteristics of dunes 51
2.3.3 Geometric characteristics of ripples 57
2.3.4 Existence regions of dunes and ripples 60
2.4 Geometry and existence regions of bars 61
viii Table of contents

2.4.1 Existence regions of alternate and multiple bars 61

2.4.2 Geometric characteristics of alternate bars 64
2.5 Final remarks 70
References 71

3 Flow past undulated beds 77

3.1 Flow resistance factor 77
3.1.1 General 77
3.1.2 Resistance factor formula 77
3.1.3 Other methods for determination of c 83
3.1.4 Flow rate as one of the parameters determining c 84
3.1.5 Interrelation between Fr and c 86
3.2 Sediment transport rate of flow past undulated bed 87
3.3 Mechanical structure of flow over dunes 88
Problems 90
References 91

4 Regime channels and their computation 95

4.1 Introduction 95
4.1.1 Empirical regime formulae 95
4.1.2 Rational methods based on extremal hypotheses 98
4.2 Regime-channel defining parameters 99
4.2.1 Regime channel R1 99
4.2.2 Regime channel R 99
4.2.3 Relation between R1 and R 101
4.3 Regime flow-width and depth 101
4.3.1 Basic dimensionless formulations 101
4.3.2 The expressions of BR and hR 103
4.4 Determination of the regime minimization criterion 105
4.4.1 Basic relations and assumptions 105
4.4.2 Variation of flow energy structure in the flow direction
lc at an instant 110
4.4.3 Variation of flow energy structure with the passage of time Θ 113
4.4.4 Froude number; comparison with experiment 117
4.5 Computation of regime channels R 120
4.5.1 Computation procedure 120
4.5.2 Special case: gravel-like regime channel formation 121
4.5.3 Special case: constant flow width 124
4.6 Other rational methods of computation of regime channels 124
4.7 Representative flow rate 125
Problems 128
References 129

5 Formation of regime channels; meandering and braiding 133

5.1 Meandering and regime development 133
5.1.1 Initiation and subsequent development of meandering 133
5.1.2 Tracing of meander development on the
(Fr; η∗ )- and (B/h; h/D)-planes 139
 Table of contents ix

5.2 Braiding and regime development 144

5.2.1 Overall description of braiding 144
5.2.2 The role of the slope 145
5.2.3 Tracing of braiding development on the
(Fr; η∗ )- and (B/h; h/D)-planes 148
5.2.4 Additional remarks on braiding 150
5.2.5 Delta formation 152
5.3 Time development of a single-channel stream 155
5.3.1 Adjustments of channel geometry 155
5.3.2 Development duration 158
5.4 Large-scale bed forms and regime development 159
Problems 160
References 161

6 Geometry and mechanics of meandering streams 163

6.1 Channel-fitted coordinates 163
6.2 Sine-generated channels 164
6.2.1 Definition; geometric properties 164
6.2.2 Dimensionless expression of flow related characteristics 168
6.3 Mechanics of meandering flows 169
6.3.1 Introductory considerations: averaging procedures 169
6.3.2 Structure of meandering flow 170
6.3.3 Cross-circulation 173
6.3.4 The “convective base’’ 178
6.4 Bed deformation 184
6.4.1 Nature of deformed bed 184
6.4.2 Mechanics of bed deformation 188
6.5 Resistance factor of meandering streams 194
6.6 Additional remarks 198
Problems 200
References 201

7 Meandering-related computations 207

7.1 Vertically-averaged flow in meandering channels 207
7.1.1 Equations of motion and continuity; evaluation of
the resistance factor cM 207
7.1.2 Expression of the resistance factor cM for a flat bed 212
7.1.3 Variational approach to the determination
of a meandering flow 217
7.2 Bed deformation by a meandering flow 224
7.2.1 Computation of the developed bed topography 224
7.2.2 Computation of bed deformation over time 225
7.3 Migration and expansion of meander loops 228
7.3.1 General 228
7.3.2 Normal and radial bank displacement velocities 229
7.3.3 Evaluation of radial bank displacement velocity 230
7.3.4 Migration and expansion components of the radial
bank displacement velocity 233
x Table of contents

7.3.5 Loop-expansion velocity and regime development 238

7.3.6 Computational procedure and example of application 239
Problems 242
References 243

Appendix A – Sources of dune and ripple data 247

Appendix B – Sources of bar data 251
Appendix C – Sources of friction factor data 253
Appendix D – Sources of regime data 255
Appendix E – Sources of meandering and braiding data 257
Subject index 261
Preface to the 2nd edition

Much research has been carried out on fluvial processes and river morphodynamics
since the publication of the 1st edition of this book. In the preparation of this version, I
tried as much as possible to incorporate the results of such research, while adhering to
the central theme of the book as stated in the ‘Preface to the 1st edition’, and without
losing its coherence and logical sequence.
An effort was made to incorporate also comments on the book kindly provided
throughout the years by several colleagues and students.
All chapters were updated and revised. The book consists of seven chapters. Just
like in the 1st edition, the first chapter is devoted to the basics of turbulent flow and
sediment transport. Chapter 2 deals with the origin, existence regions and geometric
properties of bed forms (ripples, dunes, alternate and multiple bars). Chapter 3 con-
cerns the flow over undulated beds. Chapters 2 and 3 are a significantly expanded
version of the original Chapter 2. The extension enabled the inclusion of: 1- a more
comprehensive presentation and discussion of works focusing on the characteristic
scales and dynamics of large-scale turbulence coherent structures; 2- a new section
on the geometric properties of alternate bars; and 3- a new section on the internal
structure of flow over dunes. The remaining chapters follow the same order as in the
1st edition. Accordingly, Chapter 4 concerns the regime concept, and focuses on the
reason for the formation of regime channels and also the computation of their per-
tinent geometric characteristics. In Chapter 5 we provide an analysis on how regime
processes take place, with the time-development of meandering and braiding streams
being discussed in the light of the regime-trend. The formation of deltas is also briefly
considered. Chapter 6 deals with the geometry and mechanics of meandering streams.
This chapter too is considerably expanded in comparison to its counterpart in the 1st
edition, incorporating a more detailed description of the mechanics of meandering
flows and their interaction with the deformable bed, as derived from recent labora-
tory and numerical experiments. Finally, Chapter 7 deals with the computation of bed
deformation and planimetric evolution of meandering streams. All chapters, with the
exception of Chapter 2, include a related set of problems. However, the problems at
the end of Chapter 3, which concern primarily the determination of the resistance
factor and sediment transport rate of flow past undulated beds, rely on methods and
equations regarding the geometric properties of bed forms introduced in Chapter 2 –
and as such provide ample opportunity to practice the application to real problems
of the methods introduced in Chapter 2. The supplementary material, consisting of
the solutions manual for the sets of problems in the book and the computer programs
xii Preface to the 2nd edition

RFACTOR and BHS-STABLE (both in Fortran and MATLAB), can be downloaded

from the book site on the CRC Press website.
This book is published on the 10th anniversary of Prof. Yalin’s death. Even if he
could not factually contribute with his writing to the preparation of this edition, he
has contributed by remaining a great source of inspiration, and more directly through
our work together and many pertinent discussions up to 2007.
The book includes several methods due to the authors whose development and ver-
ification rest on experimental data. An effort was made to include in the work also
data from the most recent data sources. All data sources are listed in Appendices A to
E. Several of the explanations in the book are guided by the authors’ views and con-
victions. It should, however, be pointed out that some of the topics dealt with remain a
matter of debate (e.g. the origin of bed forms), while in other cases we have at present
only incomplete descriptions of the phenomenon (e.g. large-scale turbulence). A special
effort was made to identify such topics, and wherever appropriate, suggest subjects
for future research.
My sincere thanks go to Larry Harris, from the Creative Services Unit at Queen’s
University. I would also like to express my thanks to my former Ph.D. student Arash
Kanani, for his invaluable assistance with the typesetting software at the early stages
of preparation of this manuscript; and my present Ph.D. student Yunshuo Cheng, for
converting the Fortran programs RFACTOR and BHS-STABLE into MATLAB. Finally,
but not least, I would like to thank Janjaap Blom and Lukas Goosen and their teams
at CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, for their excellent work and support in the
preparation of this book.
Ana Maria Ferreira da Silva
Kingston, Ontario
June, 2017
Preface to the 1st edition

A stream flowing in alluvium deforms its bed surface so as to form ripples, dunes,
bars, etc., and, in many instances, it deforms its channel as a whole so as to create, in
plan view, meandering or braiding patterns. One can say that, in general, an alluvial
stream and its deformable boundary undergo a variety of fluvial processes which lead
to the emergence of a variety of alluvial forms.
This monograph concerns the understanding and quantitative formulation of fluvial
processes and the associated alluvial forms. It is designed for researchers and graduate
students of hydraulic engineering, water resources, and the related branches of earth
sciences. However, it may have some appeal to practicing professionals as well.
The central theme of the book is that the initiation of periodic (in flow direc-
tion) large-scale alluvial forms is due to large-scale turbulence, the subsequent time-
development of the so-initiated alluvial forms being guided by the regime trend.
The text is of a deductive nature: the content of any chapter presupposes the knowl-
edge of the contents of preceding chapters; hence, the text might not appear compre-
hensible if it is not read in sequence. Dimensional methods are extensively used, and
the importance of the “agreement with experiment’’ is stressed. The stability-approach
is not a part of the research field of the authors, and it is not used in this text. (The
reader interested in the study of fluvial processes by stability is referred to the excellent
works of G. Seminara, G. Parker, M. Tubino, T. Hayashi).
It was gratifying for the senior author to learn that some of his previous books
are used in graduate courses in some universities. Considering this, the authors have
tried to make this text “student-oriented’’. Thus each chapter is supplemented by a
set of related problems, and, wherever appropriate, some topics for future research
are suggested. The FORTRAN programs for the computation of resistance factor and
regime channels are also included.
The representation of an experimental point-pattern by an appropriate equation
which can be used for computational purposes (in short, by a “comp-eq.’’) is always
desirable. Hence a number of “comp-eqs.’’ is suggested in this text. These equations
have no claim other than that their graphs pass through the midst of the respective
point-patterns.
The first chapter of this book presents the basics of turbulent flow and sediment
transport; the second deals with the bed forms and flow resistance. These two (classical)
chapters are but the updated and revised extensions of their counterparts in the book
“River Mechanics’’ (M.S. Yalin, Pergamon Press, 1992). Chapter 3 concerns the regime
concept and its thermodynamic formulation. The development of meandering and
xiv Preface to the 1st edition

braiding streams in the light of the regime trend is discussed in Chapter 4, where
the formation of deltas is also considered. Much of the ongoing research in fluvial
hydraulics is related to meandering streams, and Chapter 5 is devoted exclusively to
the study of the geometry and mechanics of these streams. The computation of flow,
bed deformation, and migration-expansion of meandering streams forms the topic of
Chapter 6.
The authors are grateful to Prof. H. Scheuerlein (Chairman Division III – IAHR)
for his continual and enthusiastic help and encouragement. They feel also indebted to
Prof. G. Di Silvio and Prof. M. Jaeggi, for reviewing this manuscript and making a
number of valuable suggestions. For any imperfection that may still remain, it is solely
the authors who are to be blamed.
The authors would like to express their thanks to Dr. T. J. Harris, Dean of the Faculty
of Applied Science, Queen’s University, and to Dr. D. Turcke, Head of the Department
of Civil Engineering, Queen’s University, for their generous financial support. Their
thanks go also to Larry Harris, Graphic Design Unit, Queen’s University.

M. S. Yalin and A. M. Ferreira da Silva

Kingston, Ontario
August, 2000
Scope of the monograph

In this text the term alluvium is used as an abbreviation for cohesionless granular
material or medium, alluvial stream being the flow whose channel, or only the channel
bed, is alluvial.
The natural alluvial streams are usually “wide’’: their aspect ratio (width-to-depth
ratio) usually is larger than ≈10, say. The aspect ratio increases with the flow rate,
and in large natural rivers this ratio is often a three-digit number. The (turbulent) flow
in such rivers is almost always sub-critical.
In physical sciences, a natural process is studied with the aid of its idealized coun-
terpart, where the “natural arbitrariness’’ is removed, and the process is brought into
a form suitable for mathematical treatment; a fluvial process is no exception.
The present text “aims’’ at large alluvial streams (rivers). Hence, it is assumed
throughout this text that the idealized alluvial stream (ideal river) is wide, and that its
flow is turbulent and sub-critical.
The studies of regime channels, and of meandering and braiding streams are carried
out nowadays for a constant (representative) flow rate Q – and so it is done in the
following. (The authors’ views on the representative Q are summarized in Section 4.7).
List of symbols

1. General
fA dimensional function determining a quantity A
Φ A , φ A , ΨA , ψA dimensionless functions determining a quantity A
α, α  , β, β  dimensionless coefficients (not necessarily constants) in the
expression of a quantity
≈ approximately equal to, comparable with
∼ proportional to (proportionality factor may not be a constant)
∇ nabla-operator (“del’’)

2. Average values
A vertically-averaged value of a quantity A
Am cross-sectional average value of a quantity A
Aav channel average value of a quantity A

(see Sub-section 6.3.1 for definitions of average values stated)

3. Subscripts
a, O mark the values of a quantity at the apex- and crossover-sections of
a meandering stream, respectively
b marks the value of a quantity at the bed, or related to the bed
cr marks the value of a quantity corresponding to the initiation of
sediment transport (to the “critical stage’’)
max marks the maximum value of a quantity
min marks the minimum value of a quantity
R marks the regime value of a quantity
0 marks, as a rule, the value of a quantity at t = 0; exceptions are τ0 ,
cM0 , and θ0

4. Coordinates
t time
x direction of rectilinear flow; also general direction of meandering flow
y direction horizontally perpendicular to x
z vertical direction in general (also elevation of a point – see
“5. Pertinent quantities’’)
z+ dimensionless “wall’’ coordinate (=υ∗ z/ν)
xviii List of symbols

l longitudinal coordinate of a meandering flow

lc longitudinal coordinate along the centreline of a meandering flow
n radial coordinate of a meandering flow; n = 0 at the flow centreline
ns direction horizontally normal to the streamline s; radial natural
coordinate
r radial coordinate of a meandering flow; r = 0 at the centre of
channel curvature
s streamline; longitudinal natural coordinate
φ angular polar coordinate
ξc dimensionless counterpart of lc (ξc = lc /L)
η dimensionless counterpart of n (η = n/B)
ζ dimensionless counterpart of z (ζ = z/hav )

5. Pertinent quantities
A mechanical quantity in general; also area
a 1 , a2 consecutive apex-sections (in Chapter 4)
ai , ai+1 consecutive apex-sections (in Chapters 6 and 7)
A∗ energy-related property of flow (subjected to minimization during
the regime channel formation); also coefficient in the bed-load
formula of H.A. Einstein (Problem 1.11)
B flow width at the free surface
Bc width of the central region of the stream cross-section
Bs roughness function
c total dimensionless (Chézy) resistance factor
cf pure friction component of c
c∆ bed form component of c
cM total local dimensionless resistance factor of a meandering flow
cM0 local bed resistance component of cM (bed form effect included)
C local dimensionless volumetric concentration of suspended-load
C the value of C at z = 
CV control volume
D typical grain size (usually D50 )
ei internal energy per unit fluid mass at a space point m
ek kinetic energy per unit fluid mass at a space point m
ep pressure work per unit fluid mass at a space point m
e total energy per unit fluid mass at a space point m (e = ei + ek + ep )
Ei internal energy of the fluid in Sys or CV
E total energy of the fluid in Sys or CV
e V , eH eddy-burst forming eddies of vertical and horizontal turbulence,
respectively
Fi energy transfer per unit time through a cross-section Ai (energy flux
plus the displacement work)
g acceleration due to gravity
h flow depth
iα unit vector in the direction of α
J longitudinal free surface slope
J radial free surface slope
 List of symbols xix

J0 (θ0 ) Bessel function of first kind and zero-th order (of θ0 )

ks granular roughness of bed surface
Ks total effective bed roughness: granular+bed form roughness
L meander length (measured along lc )
L V , LH length scale of large-scale turbulence vertical and horizontal coherent
structures, respectively
n number of rows of horizontal coherent structures (in plan view)
O 1 , O2 consecutive crossover-sections in Chapter 4; also locations along
the flow direction where large-scale coherent structures originate
(Chapter 2)
Oi , Oi+1 consecutive crossover-sections in Chapters 6 and 7
p porosity of granular material
Q flow rate
Qbf bankfull flow rate
Qs volumetric sediment transport rate (through the whole cross-section
of flow)
Q̇∗ net heat exchange time rate between surroundings and Sys or CV
q specific flow rate (q = Q/B)
qsb specific volumetric bed-load rate (within )
qss specific volumetric suspended-load rate (within h − )
qs total specific volumetric transport rate (qs = qsb + qss )
R curvature radius of the centreline of a meandering flow
R hydraulic radius
rs curvature radius of a streamline s
S bed slope
Sc bed slope along the centreline of a meandering flow
Sυ valley slope
s∗ specific entropy
S∗ entropy of Sys or CV
Sys fluid system (coincidental with CV)
T local “side stress+bed shear stress’’-resultant vector
T◦ absolute temperature (degree Kelvin)
Tb development duration of the bed of a meandering stream
T̂0 development duration of the flow width
Ti development duration of a characteristic i of flow or its (moveable)
boundary
T V , TH time scale of large-scale turbulence vertical and horizontal coherent
structures, respectively
TR development duration of the regime channel
T∆ development duration of bed forms (sand waves)
(T∆ )i development duration of bed form i (i = a (alternate bars);
= d (dunes); = r (ripples); etc.)
U local flow velocity vector
U magnitude of U
Ub flow velocity vector at the bed
ub scalar projection of Ub in longitudinal direction; also velocity at the
bed of a two-dimensional flow in a straight channel
xx List of symbols

u, υ, w scalar projections of U in longitudinal, transversal and vertical

directions, respectively
V volume √
υ∗ shear velocity (υ∗ = τ0 /ρ)
υβ translatory component of radial velocity of a meandering flow
υΓ cross-circulatory component of radial velocity of a meandering flow
W local displacement velocity of the flow boundary surface (in the
direction normal to this surface)
W1 , W2 local radial displacement velocities of the inner bank 1 and outer
bank 2, respectively (in horizontal plan)
W local radial displacement velocity of the centreline
Wa value of W  at the apex-section
Wx migration velocity of a meandering channel (in x-direction)
W x , Wl migration velocity of bed forms along x and l, respectively
Ẇ∗ net work exchange time rate between surroundings and Sys or CV
ws terminal (settling) velocity of grains
z elevation of a point (also vertical direction in general – see “4.
Coordinates’’)
zb bed elevation at any time t
(zb )0 bed elevation at t = 0
(zb )T bed elevation at t = Tb
zc elevation of the centroid
zf elevation of the free surface at any time t (zf = zb + h)
z positive or negative increment of zb at the time t (z = zb − (zb )0 )
zT positive or negative increment of zb at the time Tb (zT = (zb )T − (zb )0 )
γ specific weight of fluid; also coefficient in Eq. (2.5)
γs specific weight of grains in fluid
Γ cross-circulation
∆, Λ, δ developed bed form height, bed form length, and bed form steepness
(δ = ∆/Λ) respectively, in general; δ stands also for boundary layer
thickness (Sub-section 2.2.1)
∆ i , Λi , δ i developed bed form height, bed form length, and bed form steepness
corresponding to the bed form i
(i = a (alternate bars); = d (dunes); = n (n-row bars); = r (ripples))
 thickness of bed-load region
θ deflection angle of a meandering flow at a section lc
θ0 deflection angle at lc = 0
Θ dimensionless time (or stage) of the channel development
κ von Kármán constant (≈ 0.4)
λc ratio of the resistance factor c to the friction factor cf (λc = c/cf );
also distance (normalized by L) measured along the centreline from
the upstream crossover of a meander loop (with positive R) to the
upstream end of the erosion-deposition zone partially or fully
contained in that loop and exhibiting erosion at the left bank
(Chapter 6)
ΛM meander wavelength
ν fluid kinematic viscosity
νt kinematic eddy viscosity
 List of symbols xxi

ρ fluid density
ρs grain density
σ sinuosity of a meandering flow (σ = L/ΛM ); also area of the side
surface of an imaginary vertical prism of height h and base area
A (Chapter 1)
τ shear stress
τ0 magnitude of the bed shear stress vector τ0
χ magnitude of the local “side stress’’ resultant vector χ
φr angle of repose
ω deviation angle (angle between the streamlines s and coordinate lines
l of a meandering flow)
ωc value of ω along the centreline of a meandering flow
ωz vertical component of vorticity (Chapter 2)

6. Dimensionless combinations
Fr flow Froude number (Fr = V 2 /(gh), where V is a typical flow velocity
(V = u, um , uav , ..., etc.))
Re flow Reynolds number (Re = Vh/ν, where V is as above)
Re∗ roughness Reynolds number (Re∗ = υ∗ ks /ν)
X grain size Reynolds number (X = υ∗ D/ν)
Y mobility number (Y = ρυ∗2 /(γs D))
Z relative depth (Z = h/D)
W density ratio (W = ρs /ρ)
Ξ3 material number (Ξ 3 = X 2 /Y = γs D3 /(ρν 2 ))
η∗ relative flow intensity (η∗ = Y/Ycr )
1/2
φ Einstein’s dimensionless transport rate (φ = ρ 1/2 qs /(γs D3/2 ))
N dimensionless specific flow rate (N = Q/(BDυ∗cr ))

7. Abbreviations
[CD] L/2-long convergence-divergence flow region
CS turbulence coherent structure; also control surface (Chapter 4)
LSHCS large-scale horizontal coherent structure (occasionally referred
to as HCS)
LSVCS large-scale vertical coherent structure (occasionally referred
to as VCS)
Chapter 1

Fundamentals

Any flow-induced deformation of an alluvial channel (or only of its bed) is by means
of the grain motion en mass, i.e. by means of sediment transport. Hence we start this
text by considering some aspects of sediment transport and related topics.

1.1 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

The grains forming the boundary of an alluvial stream have a finite weight (in fluid)
and a finite coefficient of friction. Consequently they cannot be brought into motion
by the flow if the shear stress τ0 acting at a point on the flow boundary (Figure 1.1)
is less than a certain “critical’’ value (τ0 )cr (corresponding to that point). This means
that the sediment can be transported only over that part A B of the flow boundary
AA B B where
τ0
η∗ = > 1. (1.1)
(τ0 )cr
In this text the ratio η∗ will be referred to as relative tractive force or relative flow
intensity. Only the grains forming the uppermost grain layer of the flow boundary can
be detached and transported by flow (in the flow direction x). The detachment is due
to τ0 ; the transport, to the longitudinal flow velocities u.
If η∗ is smaller than a certain value, η∗1 say (1 < η∗ < η∗1 ), then the grains are
transported by the deterministic “jumps’’ Pb in the neighbourhood of the bed (ks < z < 
in Figure 1.2). This mode of grain transport is referred to as bed-load.

(1.1) boundary.
boundary.
(1.1) (1.1)

(1.1) boundary.
boundary. (1.1)
(1.1) (1.1)
(1.1)

Figure 1.1 Schematic representation of cross-sectional distribution of shear stress acting on the flow
boundary.
2 Fluvial processes

(1.1)

(1.1) (1.1)
(1.1)

(1.1)
(1.1)
(1.1) (1.1) (1.1) (1.1)
(1.1)
(1.1)

Figure 1.2 Definition sketch: modes of sediment transport.

If η∗ is “large’’ (η∗ > η∗1 ), then some of the transported grains “diffuse’’, by turbu-
lence, into the remaining flow region  < z < h, while some others are still transported
in the form of bed-load, i.e. within ks < z < . The transport of grains within  < z < h,
along the probabilistic paths Ps , is referred to as suspended-load. It should thus be
clear that suspended-load is not a “substitute for’’, but an “addition to’’ the bed-load.
It appears that η∗1 must be a certain function of the grain size Reynolds number
υ∗ D/ν – which will be denoted in this text by X (see Section 1.3 later on). It has not
yet been settled what form this function must possess; for contemporary views on the
topic see, e.g., Cheng and Chiew (1999).
The total volume of grains passing through a flow cross-section per unit flow width
and per unit time is referred to as the specific
T and volumetric total transport rate qs .
This is the sum of the bed-load rate qsb and the suspended-load rate qss (each of which
is, of course, also specific and volumetric):
qs = qsb + qss (with qs ≥ qsb ; qs > qss ). (1.2)
The dimension of any qsi is
[qsi ] = [length] · [velocity]. (1.3)

1.2 TURBULENT FLOW

1.2.1 General
The basic laws of sediment transport correspond to the simplest case of a steady and
uniform two-dimensional turbulent flow in a straight open-channel. In the present
context, “two-dimensional’’ means that the flow characteristics do not vary along
the third dimension y (perpendicular to the vertical (x; z)-planes). The simplest case
mentioned may sound as rather abstract and detached from reality. This is not so; the
cross-sections of wide natural alluvial streams (rivers) are, in their straight reaches,
nearly trapezoidal (see e.g. the (highly exaggerated along z) river cross-sections in
Figures 1.3a,b), while their variation in the flow direction x often is insignificant. In
such reaches, the flow in the (practically unaffected by the bank friction) “central
region’’ Bc (Figure 1.3a) approximates closely to a uniform two-dimensional flow.
 Fundamentals 3

a) B=1480 m b) 0 20 40
EL.(m)
Be Horizontal
10 Scale (m)
z
5
hm =11 m
0
at Sabananueva
y Volga R. EL.(m) Sinu R. (Colombia)
10
B=840m
hm=4m 5

Syr Darya R. 0 at Lorica

Figure 1.3 Examples of river cross-sections in straight reaches: (a)Volga and Syr Darya Rivers (adapted
from Velikanov 1995); (b) Sinu River (adapted from Monsalve and Silva 1983).

a) z, b) z
_umax
h h

-U
T

0.368h fi

ks
o T T
0
U

Figure 1.4
Figure 1.4 Vertical distribution of: (a) shear stress; (b) flow velocity.

In the following, up to the end of Section 1.5, it will be assumed that the mobile
bed surface is flat, and that it possesses a granular roughness ks which can be evaluated
(following Kamphuis 1974, Yalin 1977, 1992) as

ks ≈ 2D. (1.4)

1.2.2 Vertical distributions of shear stress and flow velocity

The distribution of the shear stresses τ (= τzx ) along z in the above described two-
dimensional flow is given by the linear form (see Figure 1.4)

z
τ = τ0 1 − , (1.5)
h
while for the distribution of (time-averaged) flow velocities u, we have the logarithmic
form
 
u 1 z 1 z
= ln + Bs = ln As (with κ ≈ 0.4). (1.6)
υ∗ κ k s κ ks
4 Fluvial processes

32
11

10

91!,5
Bs 32 5,
8

7
Hyd. Transitionally . Fully .
6
Smooth
32
Rough .....
o Rough

5.5
o 32
502 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 32
log Re.

Figure 1.5 Plot of roughness function versus roughness Reynolds number (adapted from Schlichting
1968): experimental data (open and filled circles) and graph of Eq. (1.10) (solid red line).

For the derivation of Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6), see e.g. Schlichting (1968), Monin and
Yaglom (1971) and Yalin (1977). In these expressions
τ0 = γ Sh, (1.7)
 
τ0
υ∗ = = gSh (shear velocity), (1.8)
ρ

and1
As = eκBs . (1.9)
Here κ is the von Kármán constant. If the fluid is “clear’’, i.e. no sediment in suspen-
sion, then κ ≈ 0.4. The “roughness function’’ Bs = φB (Re∗ ), where Re∗ = υ∗ ks /ν is the
roughness Reynolds number, is determined by the experimental curve in Figure 1.5.
This curve is well represented, throughout its existence-region (0.2 < log Re∗ < 3.2),
by the comp-eq.
2.55
 2.55

Bs = (2.5 ln Re∗ + 5.5)e−0.0705(ln Re∗ ) + 8.5 1 − e−0.0594(ln Re∗ ) (1.10)

introduced in da Silva and Bolisetti (2000). The solid line in Figure 1.5 is the graph of
Eq. (1.10).
Note that:

1 If Re∗ <≈ 5, then the turbulent flow is said to be in the hydraulically smooth
regime; if ≈5 < Re∗ <≈ 70, then it is in the transitionally rough regime; and if

1
If the two-dimensional flow is not uniform, then its free surface slope J would differ from the
bed slope S, and the value of τ0 would be given by τ0 = γ Jh ( = γ Sh).
 Fundamentals 5

uu z+ 1Viscous sublayer
a; 1:a;a; Buller layer
1: 1:
.!: .!:
.!: -=0.15-0.2h
30.0
1: U
1: .9
0 CI 11.6
.c, !! -5.0
!! u
~
a; 6,
1:
.!: .Q

uu
Figure 1.6 Schematic representation of the velocity profile in a hydraulically smooth flow.

Re∗ >≈ 70, then it is in the fully rough regime (or it is a fully rough turbulent
flow).
2 For practical purposes, it is usually assumed that Eq. (1.6) represents the velocity
profile throughout the region z = zmin to h, where zmin is either equal to 11.6ν/υ∗
or ks , whichever is the larger. This approach is adopted throughout this book.

With regard to point 2 above, it should, however, be noted that in reality the
vertical velocity profile is more complex than implied by Eq. (1.6). Indeed, even though
generally regarded as a good approximation to the entire velocity profile (above zmin ),
in fact Eq. (1.6) is strictly valid within the inner flow region (z/h <≈ 0.15 to 0.2).
The deviations of the velocity profile from the logarithmic law in the outer region
(z/h >≈ 0.15 to 0.2) can be adequately taken into account by adding to Eq. (1.6) an
additional term, known as “wake function’’ φw (z/h). The most commonly invoked
wake function is that by Coles (1956), which can be expressed as φw (z/h) = (2Π/κ)·
sin2 (Π z/2h) (see also Hinze 1975). Here Π is the Coles’s wake strength parameter.
However, other formulae for the wake function, or modified versions of Coles’ original
function, are available in the literature (see e.g. Granville 1976, Krogstad et al. 1992,
and Guo et al. 2005).2
The conditions near the bed in the case of hydraulically smooth flows and the effect
of relative submergence in the case of rough beds deserve also some further discussion.
Under hydraulically smooth conditions, the flow in a thin region near the bed
consists of two layers, namely the viscous sublayer (z+ <≈ 5) and the buffer layer
(≈5 < z+ <≈ 30) (see Figure 1.6). Here z+ = υ∗ z/ν. Within the viscous sublayer, the
u-distribution is given by the linear form u/υ∗ = υ∗ z/ν. In the buffer layer, neither this
linear form nor the logarithmic law (Eq. (1.6)) hold. While direct expressions for the
u-distribution within the buffer layer are not available (Nezu and Nakagawa 1993,

2
Since the sediment is transported mainly in the lower fluid layers, the function φw (z/h) will be
disregarded in this text.
6 Fluvial processes

Outer layer

Logarithmic layer
Form-induced sublayer
Interfacial sublayer

Subsurface layer

Figure 1.7 Flow layers in a fully rough flow (after Nikora et al. 2001).

Nezu 2005), the just mentioned linear form provides a reasonable approximation
to the velocity profile up to z+ ≈ 11.6; while, on the other hand, the logarithmic law
reasonably approximates the velocity profile within ≈11.6 < z+ <≈ 30 (see e.g. Monin
and Yaglom 1971). This explains the reason for the statement “... where zmin is equal
to 11.6ν/υ∗ ...’’ in the point 2 above.
For the case of fully rough flows, it has since long been established that, as long as
h ks , the vertical velocity profile exhibits properties similar to those of hydraulically
smooth flows – in the sense that the profile follows the logarithmic law within the inner
region down to some distance from the bed (see e.g. Raupach et al. 1991, Nezu and
Nakagawa 1993, Jiménez 2004). Open-channel flows with small relative submergence
(small h/ks ), such as gravel rivers where the roughness elements can protrude the flow
up to the free surface, have also been the focus of considerable research especially
in more recent years (see e.g. Dittrich and Koll 1997, Nikora et al. 2001, Koll 2006,
McSherry et al. 2016, among others). It follows that fully rough flows can most appro-
priately be sub-divided into five layers (see Figure 1.7): outer layer, logarithmic layer,
form-induced sublayer (just above the roughness crests where the flow is influenced by
individual roughness elements and the velocity u acquires a linear profile), interfacial
sublayer (between roughness crests and throughs), and in the case of a permeable bed,
also a sub-surface layer (Nikora et al. 2001, Koll 2006). Accordingly, the flow can fur-
ther be sub-divided into three types: 1- flow with high relative submergence (h ks ),
exhibiting all the above layers (and in which the outer layer is similar to the outer layer
of hydraulically smooth flows, in the sense of Nezu and Nakagawa 1993); 2- flow
with small relative submergence (ks ≤ h < 2 to 5ks ), with the form-induced sublayer
as the upper flow region (and where therefore the logarithmic layer is suppressed);
and 3- flow with a partially inundated bed (h < ks ), with the interfacial sublayer as
the upper flow region. Clearly, Eq. (1.6) applies only to the first of these three types –
in which case for practical purposes, and as follows from point 2 above, Eq. (1.6) is
assumed to provide a reasonable approximation of the velocity profile from zmin = ks
to h. Figure 1.4b illustrates this case.
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 DAMSON JELLY.

Bake separately in a very slow oven, or boil in a pan or copper of

water as described at page 497, any number of fine ripe damsons,
and one-third the quantity of bullaces, or of any other pale plums, as
a portion of their juice will, to most tastes, improve, by softening the
flavour of the preserve, and will render the colour brighter. Pour off
the juice clear from the fruit, strain and weigh it; boil it quickly without
sugar for twenty-five minutes, draw it from the fire, stir into it ten
ounces of good sugar for each pound of juice, and boil it quickly from
six to ten minutes longer, carefully clearing off all the scum. The jelly
must be often stirred before the sugar is added, and constantly
afterwards.
 DAMSON, OR RED PLUM SOLID. (GOOD.)

Pour the juice from some damsons which have stood for a night in
a very cool oven, or been stewed in a jar placed in a pan of water;
weigh and put it into a preserving-pan with a pound and four ounces
of pearmains (or of any other fine boiling apples), pared, cored, and
quartered, to each pound of the juice; boil these together, keeping
them well stirred, from twenty-five to thirty minutes, then add the
sugar, and when it is nearly dissolved, continue the boiling for ten
minutes. This, if done with exactness, will give a perfectly smooth
and firm preserve, which may be moulded in small shapes, and
turned out for table. The juice of any good red plum may be used for
it instead of that of damsons.
To each pound clear damson-juice, 1-1/4 lb. pearmains (or other
good apples), pared and cored: 25 to 30 minutes. Sugar, 14 oz.: 10
minutes.
 EXCELLENT DAMSON CHEESE.

When the fruit has been baked or stewed tender, as directed

above, drain off the juice, skin and stone the damsons, pour back to
them from a third to half of their juice, weigh and then boil them over
a clear brisk fire, until they form quite a dry paste; add six ounces of
pounded sugar for each pound of the plums; stir them off the fire
until this is dissolved, and boil the preserve again without quitting or
ceasing to stir it, until it leaves the pan quite dry, and adheres in a
mass to the spoon. If it should not stick to the fingers when lightly
touched, it will be sufficiently done to keep very long; press it quickly
into pans or moulds; lay on it a paper dipped in spirit when it is
perfectly cold; tie another fold over it, and store it in a dry place.
Bullace cheese is made in the same manner, and almost any kind
of plum will make an agreeable preserve of the sort.
To each pound of fruit, pared, stoned, and mixed with the juice and
boiled quite dry, 6 oz. of pounded sugar, boiled again to a dry paste.
 RED GRAPE JELLY.

Strip from their stalks some fine ripe black-cluster grapes, and stir
them with a wooden spoon over a gentle fire until all have burst, and
the juice flows freely from them; strain it off without pressure, and
pass it through a jelly-bag, or through a twice-folded muslin; weigh
and then boil it rapidly for twenty minutes; draw it from the fire, stir in
it until dissolved, fourteen ounces of good sugar, roughly powdered,
to each pound of juice, and boil the jelly quickly for fifteen minutes
longer, keeping it constantly stirred, and perfectly well skimmed. It
will be very clear, and of a beautiful pale rose-colour.
Juice of black-cluster grapes: 20 minutes. To each pound of juice,
14 oz. good sugar: 15 minutes.
Obs.—We have proved this jelly only with the kind of grape which
we have named, but there is little doubt that fine purple grapes of
any sort would answer for it well.
 ENGLISH GUAVA.

(A firm, clear, bright Jelly.)

Strip the stalks from a gallon or two of the large kind of bullaces
called the shepherd’s bullace; give part of them a cut, put them into
stone jars, and throw into one of them a pound or two of imperatrice
plums, if they can be obtained; put the jars into pans of water, and
boil them as directed at page 497; then drain off the juice, pass it
through a thick strainer or jelly-bag, and weigh it; boil it quickly from
fifteen to twenty minutes; take it from the fire, and stir in it till
dissolved three-quarters of a pound of sugar to the pound of juice;
remove the scum with care, and boil the preserve again quickly from
eight to twelve minutes, or longer should it not then jelly firmly on the
skimmer. When the fruit is very acid, an equal weight of juice and
sugar may be mixed together in the first instance, and boiled briskly
for about twenty minutes. It is impossible to indicate the precise time
which the jelly will require, so much depends on the quality of the
plums, and on the degree of boiling previously given to them in the
water-bath. When properly made it is remarkably transparent and
very firm. It should be poured into shallow pans or small moulds, and
turned from them before it is served. When the imperatrice plum
cannot be procured, any other that will give a pale red colour to the
juice will answer. The bullaces alone make an admirable preserve;
and even the commoner kinds afford an excellent one.
Juice of the shepherd’s bullace and imperatrice, or other red plum,
4 lbs.: 15 to 20 minutes. Sugar, 3 lbs.: 8 to 12 minutes. Or juice of
bullaces and sugar, equal weight: 20 minutes.
Obs.—After the juice has been poured from the plums they may
be stoned, pared, weighed, and boiled to a paste; then six ounces of
sugar added to the pound, and the boiling continued until the
preserve is again very dry; a small portion of the juice should be left
with the fruit for this.
 VERY FINE IMPERATRICE PLUM MARMALADE.

Weigh six pounds of the fruit when it is quite ripe, but before the
frost has touched it; give each plum a cut as it is thrown into the
preserving-pan, and when all are done boil them from thirty-five to
forty minutes, taking out the stones as they rise to the surface, when
they are quite detached from the flesh of the fruit. Draw back the pan
from the fire, stir in two pounds of good sugar beaten to powder, and
boil the preserve quickly for fifteen minutes. The imperatrice plum is
of itself so sweet that this proportion of sugar makes with it a very
rich preserve.
Imperatrice plums (without the stalks) 6 lbs.: boiled 35 to 40
minutes. Sugar 2 lbs. (added after the stones are out): 15 minutes.
Obs.—Some slight trouble would be avoided by pressing the fruit
through a sieve after the first boiling; but we do not think the
marmalade would be improved by being freed from the skins of the
plums.
 TO DRY IMPERATRICE PLUMS.

(An easy method.)

Put them into jars, or wide-necked bottles, with half a pound of
good sugar, rolled or pounded, to twice the weight of fruit; set them
into a very cool oven for four or five hours; or, if more convenient,
place them, with a little hay between them, in a pan of cold water
and boil them gently for rather more than three hours. Leave them in
the syrup for a few days, and finish them as directed for the drying of
other fruits. Tie a bladder over the necks of the jars or bottles before
they are placed in the pan of water, and fasten two or three folds of
paper over the former, or cork the bottles when the fruit is to be
baked. The sugar should be put in after the fruit, without being
shaken down; it will then dissolve gradually, and be absorbed by it
equally.
To each pound of plums, 8 ounces pounded sugar: baked in cool
oven 4 or 5 hours, or steamed 3 hours.
 TO BOTTLE FRUIT FOR WINTER USE.

Gather the fruit in the middle of the day in very dry weather; strip
off the stalks, and have in readiness some perfectly clean and dry
wide-necked bottles; turn each of these the instant before it is filled,
with the neck downwards, and hold in it two or three lighted matches:
drop in the fruit before the vapour escapes, shake it gently down,
press in some new corks, dip the necks of the bottles into melted
resin, set them at night into an oven from which the bread has been
drawn six or seven hours at least, and let them remain until the
morning: if the heat be too great the bottles will burst. Currants,
cherries, damsons, greengages, and various other kinds of plums
will remain good for quite twelve months when bottled thus, if stored
in a dry place.
To steam the fruit, put the bottles into a copper or other vessel up
to their necks in cold water, with a little hay between and under them;
light the fire, let the water heat slowly, and keep it at the point of
gentle simmering until the fruit is sufficiently scalded. Some kinds will
of course require a much longer time than others. From half to three
quarters of an hour will be sufficient for gooseberries, currants, and
raspberries; but the appearance of all will best denote their being
done. When they have sunk almost half the depth of the bottles, and
the skins are shrivelled, extinguish the fire, but leave them in the
water until it is quite cold; then wipe and store the bottles in a dry
place. A bit of moistened bladder tied over corks is better than the
resin when the fruit is steamed.
 APPLE JELLY.

Various kind of apples may be used successfully to make this jelly,

but the nonsuch is by many persons preferred to all others for the
purpose. The Ripstone pippin, however, may be used for it with very
good effect, either solely, or with a mixture of pearmains. It is
necessary only that the fruit should be finely flavoured, and that it
should boil easily to a marmalade. Pare, core, quarter, and weigh it
quickly that it may not lose its colour, and to each pound pour a pint
of cold water and boil it until it is well broken, without being reduced
to a quite thick pulp, as it would then be difficult to render the juice
perfectly clear, which it ought to be. Drain this well from the apples,
either through a fine sieve or a folded muslin strainer, pass it
afterwards through a jelly-bag, or turn the fruit at once into the last of
these, and pour the liquid through a second time if needful. When it
appears quite transparent, weigh, and reduce it by quick boiling for
twenty minutes; draw it from the fire, add two pounds of sugar
broken very small, for three of the decoction; stir it till it is entirely
dissolved, then place the preserving-pan again over a clear fire and
boil the preserve quickly for ten minutes, or until it jellies firmly upon
the skimmer when poured from it; throw in the strained juice of a
small lemon for every two pounds of jelly, two minutes before it is
taken from the fire.
Apples, 7 lbs.; water, 7 pints: 1/2 to full hour. Juice, 6 lbs.: 20
minutes quick boiling. Sugar, 4 lbs.: 10 to 25 minutes. Juice three
lemons.
 EXCEEDINGLY FINE APPLE JELLY.

Pare quickly some highly flavoured juicy apples of any kind, or of

various kinds together, for this is immaterial; slice, without dividing
them; but first free them from the stalks and eyes; shake out some of
the pips, and put the apples evenly into very clean large stone jars,
just dipping an occasional layer into cold water as this is done, the
better to preserve the colour of the whole. Set the jars into pans of
water, and boil the fruit slowly until it is quite soft, then turn it into a
jelly-bag or cloth and let the juice all drop from it. The quantity which
it will have yielded will be small, but it will be clear and rich. Weigh,
and boil it for ten minutes, then draw it from the fire, and stir into it,
until it is entirely dissolved, twelve ounces of good sugar to the
pound and quarter (or pint) of juice. Place the preserve again over
the fire and stir it without intermission, except to clear off the scum,
until it has boiled from eight to ten minutes longer, for otherwise it will
jelly on the surface with the scum upon it, which it will then be
difficult to remove, as when touched it will break and fall into the
preserve. The strained juice of one small fresh lemon to the pint of
jelly should be thrown into it two or three minutes before it is poured
out, and the rind of one or two cut very thin may be simmered in the
juice before the sugar is added; but the pale, delicate colour of the
jelly will be injured by too much of it, and many persons would
altogether prefer the pure flavour of the fruit.
Juice of apples, 1 quart, or 2-1/2 lbs.: 10 minutes. Sugar, 1-1/2 lb.:
8 to 10 minutes. Juice, 2 small lemons; rind of 1 or more at pleasure.
Obs.—The quantity of apples required for it renders this a rather
expensive preserve, where they are not abundant; but it is a
remarkably fine jelly, and turns out from the moulds in perfect shape
and very firm.[168] It may be served in the second course, or for
rice-crust. It is sometimes made without paring the apples, or dipping
them into the water, and the colour is then a deep red: we have
occasionally had a pint of water added to about a gallon and a half of
apples, but the jelly was not then quite so fine in flavour. The best
time for making it is from the end of November to Christmas. Quince
jelly would, without doubt, be very fine made by this receipt; but as
the juice of that fruit is richer than that of the apple, a little water
might be added. Alternate layers of apples and quinces would also
answer well, we think.
168. It is, we should say, quite equal to gelée de pommes, for which Rouen is
somewhat celebrated.
 QUINCE JELLY.

Pare, quarter, core, and weigh some ripe but quite sound quinces,
as quickly as possible, and throw them as they are done into part of
the water in which they are to be boiled, as directed at page 456;
allow one pint of this to each pound of the fruit, and simmer it gently
until it is a little broken, but not so long as to redden the juice, which
ought to be very pale. Turn the whole into a jelly-bag, or strain the
liquid through a fine cloth, and let it drain very closely from it but
without the slightest pressure. Weigh the juice, put it into a delicately
clean preserving-pan, and boil it quickly for twenty minutes; take it
from the fire and stir in it, until it is entirely dissolved, twelve ounces
of sugar for each pound of juice, or fourteen ounces if the fruit should
be very acid, which it will be in the earlier part of the season; keep it
constantly stirred and thoroughly cleared from scum, from ten to
twenty minutes longer, or until it jellies strongly in falling from the
skimmer; then pour it directly into glasses or moulds. If properly
made, it will be sufficiently firm to turn out of the latter, and it will be
beautifully transparent, and rich in flavour. It may be made with an
equal weight of juice and sugar mixed together in the first instance,
and boiled from twenty to thirty minutes. It is difficult to state the time
precisely, because from different causes it will vary much. It should
be reduced rapidly to the proper point, as long boiling injures the
colour: this is always more perfectly preserved by boiling the juice
without the sugar first.
To each pound pared and cored quinces, 1 pint water: 3/4 to 1-1/2
hour. Juice, boiled 20 minutes. To each pound, 12 oz. sugar: 10 to
20 minutes. Or, juice and sugar equal weight: 20 to 30 minutes.
 QUINCE MARMALADE.

When to economise the fruit is not an object, pare, core, and

quarter some of the inferior quinces, and boil them in as much water
as will nearly cover them, until they begin to break; strain the juice
from them, and for the marmalade put half a pint of it to each pound
of fresh quinces: in preparing these, be careful to cut out the hard
stony parts round the cores. Simmer them gently until they are
perfectly tender, then press them, with the juice, through a coarse
sieve; put them into a perfectly clean pan, and boil them until they
form almost a dry paste; add for each round of quinces and the half
pint of juice, three-quarters of a pound of sugar in fine powder, and
boil the marmalade for half an hour, stirring it gently without ceasing:
it will be very firm and bright in colour. If made shortly after the fruit is
gathered, a little additional sugar will be required; and when a richer
and less dry marmalade is better liked, it must be boiled for a shorter
time, and an equal weight of fruit and sugar may be used.
Quinces, pared and cored, 4 lbs.; prepared juice, 1 quart: 2 to 3
hours. Boiled fast to dry, 20 to 40 minutes. Sugar, 3 lbs.: 30 minutes.
Richer marmalade: quinces, 4 lbs.; juice, 1 quart; sugar, 4 lbs.
 QUINCE AND APPLE MARMALADE.

Boil together, from three-quarters of an hour to an hour, two

pounds of pearmains, or of any other well-flavoured apples, in an
equal weight of prepared quince-juice (see page 456), then take
them from the fire, and mix with them a pound and a half of sugar, in
fine powder; when this is a little dissolved, set the pan again over a
brisk fire, and boil the preserve for twenty minutes longer, keeping it
stirred all the time.
Prepared quince-juice, 2 lbs.; apples, 2 lbs.: 3/4 to 1 hour. Sugar,
1-1/2 lb.: 20 minutes.
 QUINCE PASTE.

If the full flavour of the quinces be desired, stew them sufficiently

tender to press through a sieve, in the prepared juice of page 456,
otherwise, in just water enough to about three parts cover them;
when they are soft quite through lift them out, let them cool, and then
pass them through a sieve; reduce them to a dry paste over a very
clear fire, and stir them constantly; then weigh the fruit, and mix it
with an equal proportion of pounded sugar, or sugar boiled to candy
height (we find the effect nearly the same, whichever method be
pursued), and stir the paste without intermission until it is again so
dry as to quit the pan and adhere to the spoon in one large ball;
press it into shallow pans or dishes; cut it, as soon as cold, into small
squares, and should they seem to require it, dry them with a very
gentle degree of heat, and when they are again cold store them in tin
cases with well-dried foolscap paper between them: the paste may
be moulded, when more convenient, and kept until it is wanted for
table, in a very dry place. In France, where the fruit is admirably
confected, the pâte de coigns, or quince paste, is somewhat less
boiled than we have directed, and dried afterwards in the sun, or in
an extremely gentle oven, in square tin frames, about an inch and a
half deep, placed upon clean slates.
 JELLY OF SIBERIAN CRABS.

This fruit makes a jelly of beautiful colour, and of pleasant flavour

also: it may be stored in small moulds of ornamental shape, and
turned out for rice-crust. Take off the stalks, weigh, and wash the
crabs; then, to each pound and a half, add a pint of water and boil
them gently until they are broken, but do not allow them to fall to a
pulp. Pour the whole into a jelly-bag, and when the juice is quite
transparent, weigh it, put it into a clean preserving-pan, boil it quickly
for fifteen minutes, take it from the fire, and stir in it until dissolved
three-quarters of a pound of fine sugar roughly powdered to each
pound of the juice; boil the jelly from fifteen to twenty minutes, skim it
very clean, and pour it into the moulds. Should the quantity be large,
a few additional minutes’ boiling must be given to the juice before the
sugar is added.
To each 1-1/2 lb. of crabs; water, 1 pint: 12 to 18 minutes. Juice to
be fast boiled, 15 minutes; sugar, to each pound, 3/4 lb.; 15 to 20
minutes.
 TO PRESERVE BARBERRIES IN BUNCHES.

Take the finest barberries without stones that can be procured, tie
them together in bunches of four or five sprigs, and for each half
pound of the fruit (which is extremely light), boil one pound of very
good sugar in a pint of water for twenty minutes, and clear it well
from scum; throw in the fruit, let it heat gently, and then boil from five
to seven minutes, when it will be perfectly transparent. So long as
any snapping noise is heard the fruit is not all done; it should be
pressed equally down into the syrup until the whole of the berries
have burst; and should then be turned into jars, which must be
covered with skin or two or three folds of thick paper, as soon as the
preserve is perfectly cold. The barberries thus prepared make a
beautiful garnish for sweet dishes, or for puddings.
Barberries, tied in bunches, 1-1/2 lb.; sugar 3 lbs.; water 1-1/2 pint:
20 minutes. Barberries boiled in syrup: 5 to 7 minutes.
 BARBERRY JAM.

(First and best Receipt.)

The barberries for this preserve should be quite ripe, though they
should not be allowed to hang until they begin to decay. Strip them
from the stalks, throw aside such as are spotted, and for each pound
of the fruit allow eighteen ounces of well-refined sugar; boil this, with
one pint of water to every four pounds, until it becomes white, and
falls in thick masses from the spoon; then throw in the fruit, and keep
it stirred over a brisk fire for six minutes only; take off the scum, and
pour it into jars or glasses.
Sugar, 4-1/4 lbs.; water, 1-1/4 pint: boiled to candy height.
Barberries, 4 lbs.: 6 minutes.
Barberry Jam. Second Receipt.—The preceding is an excellent
receipt, but the preserve will be very good if eighteen ounces of
pounded sugar be mixed and boiled with the fruit for ten minutes and
this is done at a small expense of time and trouble.
Sugar pounded, 2-1/4 lbs.; fruit, 2 lbs.: boiled 10 minutes.
 SUPERIOR BARBERRY JELLY, AND MARMALADE.

Strip the fruit from the stems, wash it in spring-water, drain, bruise
it slightly, and put it into a clean stone jar, with no more liquid than
the drops which hang about it. Place the jar in a pan of water, and
steam the fruit until it is quite tender: this will be in from thirty minutes
to an hour. Pour off the clear juice, strain, weigh, and boil it quickly
from five to seven minutes, with eighteen ounces of sugar to every
pound. For the marmalade, rub the barberries through a sieve with a
wooden spoon, and boil them quickly for the same time, and with the
same proportion of sugar as the jelly.
Barberries boiled in water-bath until tender; to each pound of juice,
1 lb. 2 oz. sugar: 5 minutes. Pulp of fruit to each pound, 18 oz.
sugar: 5 minutes.
Obs.—We have always had these preserves made with very ripe
fruit, and have found them extremely good; but more sugar may be
needed to sweeten them sufficiently when the barberries have hung
less time upon the trees.
 ORANGE MARMALADE.

(A Portuguese Receipt.)
Rasp very slightly on a fine and delicately clean grater the rinds of
some sound Seville oranges; cut them into quarters, and separate
the flesh from the rinds; then with the small end of a tea, or egg-
spoon, clear it entirely from the pips, and from the loose inner skin
and film. Put the rinds into a large quantity of cold water, and change
it when they have boiled about twenty minutes. As soon as they are
perfectly tender lift them out, and drain them on a sieve; slice them
thin, and add eight ounces of them to each pound of the pulp and
juice, with a pound and a half of highly-refined sugar in fine powder;
boil the marmalade quickly for half an hour, skim it well, and turn it
into the jars. The preserve thus made will not have a very powerful
flavour of the orange rind. When more of this is liked, either leave a
portion of the fruit unrasped, or mix with the preserve some of the
zest which has been grated off, allowing for it its weight of sugar. Or
proceed thus: allow to a dozen Seville oranges two fine juicy lemons,
and the weight of the whole in sifted sugar, of excellent quality. With
a sharp knife cut through the rinds just deep enough to allow them to
be stripped off in quarters with the end of a spoon, and throw them
for a night into plenty of cold spring-water; on the following morning
boil them sufficiently tender to allow the head of a pin to pierce them
easily; then drain them well, let them cool, and scrape out the white
part of the rind, and cut the remainder into thin chips. In the mean
time have the pulp of the fruit quite cleared from the pips and film;
put it with the chips into a preserving-pan, heat them slowly, boil
them for ten minutes, draw the pan from the fire, and stir gradually
in, and dissolve the remainder of the sugar, and boil the preserve
more quickly for twenty minutes, or until it thickens and appears
ready to jelly. This mode, though it gives a little additional trouble, will
prevent the orange-chips from becoming hard, which they will
sometimes be if much sugar be added to them at first. The sugar first
broken into large lumps, is sometimes made into a very thick syrup,
with so much water only as will just dissolve it; the pulp and juice are