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Amir Faghri · Yuwen Zhang
Fundamentals
of Multiphase
Heat Transfer
and Flow
Fundamentals of Multiphase Heat
Transfer and Flow
Amir Faghri Yuwen Zhang
•
Fundamentals
of Multiphase Heat
Transfer and Flow
123
Amir Faghri Yuwen Zhang
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical
University of Connecticut and Aerospace Engineering
Storrs, CT, USA University of Missouri
Columbia, MO, USA
The first edition of this text was published by Academic Press in 2006.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To Our Families
Pouran, Tanaz, and Ali Faghri
Jennifer, Angela, and Joanna Zhang
Whose Love and Support
Make All Things Possible
Preface to the Second Edition
We have received numerous requests over the last several years to publish a
new edition of our book, Transport Phenomena in Multiphase Systems. Two
excellent reviews of this book were also published in the International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer and Heat Transfer Engineering. We have
changed the title of the second edition to Fundamentals of Multiphase Heat
Transfer and Flow to more appropriately reflect the contents of the new
edition. The new edition was updated extensively as we put more emphasis
on the fundamentals, eliminated some applications, and added two new
chapters. The new edition is not limited to two-phase flow and heat transfer
but also spans a much broader range of “multiphase” systems than other
textbooks. Thus, student, instructor, and practitioner can benefit from our
discussion of multiphase system processes such as interfacial phenomena,
melting/solidification, and sublimation/vapor deposition, in addition to
boiling, evaporation, condensation, and two-phase flow and heat transfer.
Several books over the last 20 years have summarized the state of the art
in liquid vapor systems. No serious attempts have been made to bring all
three forms of phase change, i.e., liquid vapor, solid liquid, and solid
vapor, into one volume and to describe them from one perspective. Please
note that in this text, pairs of arrows, , are used to portray energy and mass
exchange associated with the multiphase transfer between the phases listed.
Furthermore, most of the existing books were developed as monographs for
research purposes rather than textbooks. This textbook provides fundamental
principles related to multiphase heat transfer and flow with phase changes.
This textbook presents modern heat and mass transfer in the context of all
phase changes among solid, liquid, and vapor, including interfacial phe-
nomena. Fundamentals of Multiphase Heat Transfer and Flow is developed
as a textbook for senior undergraduate and graduate students in a wide
variety of engineering disciplines including mechanical engineering, chem-
ical engineering, material science and engineering, nuclear engineering,
biomedical engineering, petroleum engineering, and civil and environmental
engineering. This book can also be used as a textbook to teach modern and
new applications of heat and mass transfer—a topic which was previously
restricted to classical texts, a status that remained unchanged for five decades.
Materials presented are very useful for graduate students and practicing
engineers working in technical areas related to both macro- and microscale
systems with an emphasis on multiphase, multicomponent, nonconventional
vii
viii Preface to the Second Edition
geometries with coupled heat and mass transfer and phase changes, with the
possibility of full numerical simulation.
Chapters 1 and 3 present fundamental materials that are prerequisites to
understanding the rest of the book. These two chapters provide the foundation
for other chapters. However, the other chapters can be selected and chosen by
the instructor based on the needs of students and curriculum requirements.
Chapter 1 begins with the fundamentals of multiphase flow regimes as well as
the classification of multiphase systems with phase change. The processes of
phase change between solid, liquid, and vapor are discussed. A review of heat
and mass transfer with a detailed emphasis in multicomponent systems and
scaling are presented in Chap. 1 as well as multiphase notations and concepts.
Chapter 2 presents the thermodynamics of multiphase systems, which
begins with the fundamentals of equilibrium and stability. This is followed
by a discussion of multicomponent multiphase systems and the metastable
equilibrium that exists in the multiphase system. Chapter 2 concludes with a
discussion of thermodynamics at the interface, surface tension, disjoining
pressure, and superheat.
Chapter 3 presents the generalized macroscopic (integral) and microscopic
(differential) conservation equations for multiphase systems for both
local-instance and averaged formulations. The instantaneous formulation
requires a differential balance for each phase, combined with an appropriate
jump and boundary conditions to match the solution of these governing
equations at the interfaces. The averaged formulations are obtained by
averaging the governing conservation equations within a small time interval
(time average) or a small control volume (spatial average). The governing
conservation equations for the multidimensional, multifluid, homogeneous,
mixture, and separated models are also discussed as well as area-averaged
governing conservation equations for one-dimensional flows.
Vector and tensor notations are used in the development of generalized
governing equations in Chap. 3. The neatness, generality, and compactness of
vector and tensor notations are considered sufficient to overcome the criticism
of those who may consider the subject too sophisticated. Examples in Chap. 3
with applications of these in nonvectorial one-, two-, or three-dimensional
forms for various geometries complement and support related information in
the following chapters thereby providing an adequate learning experience. In
many examples, equations for simple one-dimensional processes are also
developed based on actual physical mass, momentum, and energy balances,
so that students may appreciate the physical significance of various terms.
Chapter 4 introduces the interfacial concepts of surface tension, wetting
phenomena, and contact angle, which are followed by a discussion on the
motion induced by capillarity. Additional detailed descriptions are presented
for interfacial balances and boundary conditions for mass, momentum, energy,
and species for multicomponent and multiphase systems. Chapter 4 also
delineates heat and mass transfer through the thin-film region during evapo-
ration and condensation, including the effect of interfacial resistance and
disjoining pressure. The dynamics of interfaces, including stability and wave
effects, are presented in Chap. 4. Finally, a review is given on the numerical
simulation of interfaces.
Preface to the Second Edition ix
The authors would like to express their deep appreciation to the following
distinguished members of the multiphase heat transfer and flow community
who shared their expertise and time in reviewing the second edition
of the book: Rafid Al-khoury, C. Thomas Avedisian, Mohamed Awad,
Theodore L. Bergman, Yiding Cao, Louis Chow, Asghar Esmaeeli,
Timothy S. Fisher, James Guo, Qing Hao, Gisuk Hwang, Yogendra Joshi,
Xianglin Li, Charlie Lin, Issam Mudawar, Vinod Narayanan, Ugur Pasao-
gullari, Laurent Pilon, Joel Plawsky, Rui Qiao, Muhammad Rahmann,
Hamidreza Shabgard, Ying Sun, Hongwei Sun, Shimin Wang, and Yi Zheng.
We are grateful to these dedicated professionals for their support, sage
advice, improvements, and additions, which resulted in a superior and more
comprehensive textbook than we envisioned.
This textbook provides an opportunity to cover fundamental principles of
multiphase heat transfer and flow with all forms of phase change from one
perspective. It is our hope that this textbook will influence some engineering
colleges to treat multiphase heat transfer and flow as a core requirement
of the graduate curriculum in mechanical, chemical, environmental, nuclear,
biomedical, and the materials science disciplines. Your recommendations,
comments, and criticisms are truly appreciated.
We have not presented much in the way of item 1 except well established
semi-empirical correlations that have been accepted in practice. The
emphasis in this book is on the last two items. With respect to the final item,
note that this is not a numerical method book; however, we have set up the
framework so that students who wish to pursue this approach are equipped
with the basic background material necessary to use existing commercial
computer codes. Numerical methodologies and approaches are presented if
they are specific to multiphase systems with phase change. Analytical and
numerical physical models of transport phenomena in multiphase systems are
the main focus in this textbook.
Chapters 1 through 4 present materials that are fundamental to the entire
text. These chapters should be considered before proceeding to other
chapters.
Chapter 1 begins with a review of the concept of phases of matter and a
discussion of the role of phases in systems that include, simultaneously, more
than one phase. This is followed by a review of transport phenomena with
detailed emphasis in multicomponent systems, microscale heat transfer,
dimensional analysis, and scaling. The processes of phase change between
solid, liquid, and vapor are also reviewed, and the classification of multiphase
systems is presented. Finally, some typical practical applications are
described, which require students to understand the operational principles
of these multiphase devices for further understanding and application in
homework and examples in future chapters.
The thermodynamics of multiphase systems is presented in Chapter 2,
which begins with a review of single-phase thermodynamics, including
thermodynamic laws and relations, and proceeds to the concepts of equi-
librium and stability. This is followed by discussion of thermodynamic
surfaces and phase diagrams for single- and multicomponent systems. Also
discussed are equilibrium criteria for single and multicomponent multiphase
systems and the metastable equilibrium that exists in a multiphase system.
Chapter 2 concludes with a discussion of thermodynamics at the interface
and the effects of surface tension and disjoining pressure, including the
superheat effect.
Chapter 3 presents the generalized macroscopic (integral) and microscopic
(differential) governing equations for multiphase systems in local-instance
formulations. The instantaneous formulation requires a differential balance
for each phase, combined with appropriate jump and boundary conditions to
match the solution of these differential equations at the interfaces. Also
discussed in Chapter 3 are a rarefied vapor self-diffusion model and the
application of the differential formulations to combustion. The generalized
governing equations for multiphase systems in averaged formulations are
presented in Chapter 4. The averaged formulations are obtained by averaging
the governing equations within a small time interval (time average) or a small
control volume (spatial average). The governing equations for the multidi-
mensional multi-fluid and homogeneous models, as well as area-averaged
governing equations for one-dimensional flows, are also discussed. Chapter 4
also covers single- and multiphase transport phenomena in porous media,
including multi-fluid and mixture models. Finally, Boltzmann statistical
xiv Preface to the First Edition
Amir Faghri
Yuwen Zhang
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Multiphase Flows and Multiphase Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Types of Multiphase Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Classifications of the Multiphase Systems . . . . . . 3
1.3 Physical Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 Sensible Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Latent Heat and Phase Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Review of Fundamentals of Transport Phenomena . . . . . . 11
1.4.1 Continuum Flow Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.2 Transport Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.3 Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.5 Multiphase Notations and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.5.1 Continuous and Dispersed Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.5.2 Densities and Volume Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.5.3 Superficial and Phase Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.5.4 Quality and Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.5.5 Response Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.5.6 Stokes Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.5.7 Dispersed Versus Dense Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2 Thermodynamics of Multiphase Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Fundamentals of Equilibrium and Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.1 Equilibrium Criteria for Pure Substances . . . . . . . 41
2.2.2 Maxwell Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.3 Closed Systems with Compositional Change . . . . 44
2.2.4 Stability Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.5 Systems with Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3 Equilibrium and Stability of Multiphase Systems . . . . . . . 56
2.3.1 Two-Phase Single-Component Systems . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.2 Van der Waals Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3.3 Clapeyron Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.3.4 Multiphase Multicomponent Systems . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.3.5 Metastable Equilibrium and Nucleation . . . . . . . . 66
xvii
xviii Contents
A area (m2)
A‘ Cross-sectional area of liquid flow passage (m2)
Av Cross-sectional area of vapor flow passage (m2)
A0 Dispersion constant (J)
Bi Biot number, hL=k (k is thermal conductivity of solid)
Bo Bond number [ðq‘ qv ÞgL2 =r]
C Specific heat (J/(kg-K)); wave velocity (m/s); speed of sound (m/s)
C Particle velocity (m/s)
ci Molar concentration of the ith species (kmol/m3)
cp Specific heat at constant pressure (J/kg-K)
cv Specific heat at constant volume (J/kg-K)
C Heat capacity (J/K); parameter in Chisholm correlation
CD Drag coefficient
Cf Friction coefficient
Co Convective number ðqv =q‘ Þ0:5 ½ð1 xÞ=x0:5
d Particle diameter (m)
D Diameter (m); self-diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
D Rate of strain tensor (1/s)
Dh Hydraulic diameter (m)
Dij Binary diffusivity (m2/s)
D/Dt Substantial derivative
e Specific internal energy (J/kg)
E Internal energy or surface free energy (J); emissive power (W/m2)
Ê Total energy (J)
f Degree of freedom; solid fraction; wave frequency (1/s); molecular
velocity distribution function
F Force (N); Helmholtz free energy (J/kg-K)
F Force vector (N)
fn Discrete number frequency
fn Frequency function
Fn ðdi Þ Accumulative distribution
Fo Fourier number (at=L2 )
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fr Froude number (U= gL or U 2 =gL)
G Gravitational acceleration (m/s2); specific Gibbs free energy (J/kg)
G Gibbs free energy (J); coupling factor (W/m3-K)
xxv
xxvi Nomenclature
n00b Number of vapor bubbles released per unit area and release cycle
(1/m2)
n00D Liquid droplet size distribution, (1/m3)
ni Number of moles for ith component in a multicomponent system
n_00 i Absolute molar flux of ith component relative to stationary
coordinate system (kmol/s)
N Number of components, number of molecules
N Number density of the molecules
NA Avogadro’s number (6:022 1023 mol1 )
Na00 Number density of nucleation sites
Nu Nusselt number (hL=k)
Nu Average Nusselt number ( hL=k)
Nux Local Nusselt number (hx x=k)
p Pressure (Pa)
pd Disjoining pressure (Pa)
P Perimeter (m); laser power (W)
Pe Peclet number (UL=a)
Pr Prandtl number (m=a)
Prt Turbulent Prandtl number
q Heat rate (W)
q0 Heat rate per unit length (W/m)
q00 Heat flux (W/m2)
q00 Heat flux vector (W/m2)
q00max Maximum (critical) heat flux in boiling (W/m2)
q00min Minimum heat flux in boiling (W/m2)
q000 Internal heat generation per unit volume (W/m3)
Q Total heat transfer (J); volume flow rate (m3/s)
r Radial coordinate (m)
reff Effective pore radius (m)
R Radius (m); radius of curvature (m); dimensionless radius (r/ri);
resistance (K/W)
Rb Bubble radius (m)
Rg Gas constant (Ru =M, kJ/kg-K)
<j Net reaction rate of jth chemical reaction
Rmen Radius of curvature of the meniscus (m)
Ru Universal gas constant (8.3144 kJ/kmol-K)
Rv Vapor space radius (m)
Rd Interfacial thermal resistance (m2-K/W)
Ra Rayleigh number (gbDTL3 =ðmaÞ)
Re Reynolds number (UL=m or qUL=l; 4C=l‘ ) (for film condensation
or evaporation)
s Specific entropy (J/(kg-K)); interface location (m)
S Entropy (J/K); nondimensional interface location (s/L); source
intensity in microscale melting; slip ratio (wv =w‘ ); solubility
(kmol/Pa-m3 )
Sc Schmidt number (m=D); subcooling parameter (cps ðTm Ti Þ=hs‘ )
Sh Sherwood number (hm L=D12 )
xxviii Nomenclature
Greek Symbols
a Thermal diffusivity (m2/s); accommodation coefficient; wave number
(2p=k); void fraction; volume fraction
Nomenclature xxix
aa Absorptivity
b Coefficient of thermal expansion (1/K); contact angle measured in
degrees; volumetric flow fraction (jv =ðjv þ j‘ Þ)
bm Composition coefficient of volume expansion
c Damping coefficient (s)
C Liquid mass flow rate per unit width (kg/m-s)
d Liquid or vapor film thickness (m); thermal penetration depth (m);
laser irradiation penetration depth (m); thickness of the deposited
film (m)
dþ Nondimensional film thickness (duf =m‘ )
d Nondimensional film thickness (d=LF , or dðm2‘ =gÞ1=3 )
D 00
Dimensionless thermal penetration depth (d=ða1 q1 hs‘ =q0 Þ); dimen-
sionless liquid layer thickness in contact melting (d=W)
Dt Time interval for time average; time step in numerical solution (s)
DT Half of the width of phase-change temperature range (K); temper-
ature difference (K)
DV Volume element for volume average (m3)
e Porosity; volume fraction; emissivity; eddy diffusivity (m2/s)
f Transformed coordinate (ð2p=kÞðx ctÞ)
pffiffiffi
g Dimensionless variable for binary solidification (X=ð2 sÞ); dimen-
sionless coordinate (y=d); coordinate normal to the solid–liquid
interface (m)
h Inclination angle (rad); contact or wetting angle (rad); dimensionless
temperature
hf Contact angle obtained from the smooth-surface model
hmen Meniscus contact angle
hR Radiation temperature (K)
j Surface roughness (m)
jT Isothermal compressibility (ð@V=@pÞT =V)
k Wavelength (m); constant in solid–liquid phase change (S=ð2s1=2 Þ);
friction factor
kc Critical wavelength (m)
kD Most dangerous wavelength (m)
l Dynamic viscosity (kg/(m-s)); chemical potential (J/mol); friction
coefficient
lb Limiting viscosity of Bingham plastic fluid (kg/(m-s))
lg Geometric mean diameter or number median diameter of particle (m)
ln Mean number diameter of the particles (m)
ls Solid loading
v Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
nt Tangential displacement (m)
P Number of phases
ps Surface pressure (N/m2)
f Degree of advancement of the chemical reaction
q Density (kg/m3)
qi Mass concentration of species i (kg/m3)
r Surface tension force (N/m); collision diameter (Å); Poisson’s ratio
xxx Nomenclature
Subscripts
0 Reference variables; initial condition; reservoir conditions
a Adiabatic, acceleration
c Critical, condenser
cap Capillary
CV Control volume
DPC Dilute pneumatic conveying
DSU Dense suspension up-flow
e Equilibrium; evaporator
f Final; fuel; thin film
g Gas (vapor); gravity
H Homogeneous
i ith component; initial; inner
I Interface
k kth phase in a multiphase system
‘ Liquid
‘o Single liquid phase
L Left; characteristic length; laminar
M Melting point or mushy zone
max Maximum
mb Minimum bubbling
men Meniscus
mf Minimum fluidization
min Minimum
Nomenclature xxxi
ms Minimum slugging
o Outer
opt Optimum
p Product; particle; pulse
r Reduced; reactant; radiation
R Right
ref Reference frame
rel Relative
s Shaft; solid; surface; settling
sat Saturation
t or T Turbulent
TP Two-phase
tr Transition; transport
v Vapor phase
vo Single vapor phase
w Wall
d Liquid–vapor interface
1 Ambient or bulk property
Superscripts
e Electron
K Phase index
‘ Lattice
n Normal component
t Tangential component
´ Fluctuation
* Dimensionless
+ Dimensionless
Others
~ Same order of magnitude
<> Volume averaged
< >k Phase average
¯ Time averaged, mean
e Mass-averaged
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