PROCREATION

LABOR
Labor is a series of continuous, progressive contractions of the uterus that help the cervix dilate and efface (thin out).
This lets the fetus move through the birth canal. Labor usually starts two weeks before or after the estimated date of
delivery.

3 STAGES OF LABOR
STAGE 1: The Latent Phase & Active Phase
The first stage of labor and birth occurs when you begin to feel persistent contractions. These contractions become
stronger, more regular, and more frequent over time.
Signs and Symptoms of Active Labor
 Water breaking
 Strong and regular contractions
 Leg cramps
 Back pain or pressure
 Nausea

STAGE 2-Expulsion: Descent of Head & Pushing Phase

In the second stage of labor, your cervix is fully dilated and ready for childbirth. This stage is the most work for you
because your provider wants you to start pushing your baby out. This stage can be as short as 20 minutes or as long as a
few hours. It may be longer for first- time moms or if you've had an epidural.

STAGE 3-Placenta Delivery

Delivery of the placenta Cherish the moment. But a lot is still happening. During the third stage of labor, you will deliver
the placenta. How long it lasts: The placenta is typically delivered in 30 minutes, but the process can last as long as an
hour.
The Placenta is an organ that forms in the womb/uterus during pregnancy.

BIRTH
Birth is a process by which a baby is delivered from the mother’s womb into the outside world.
Your options for pain relief during childbirth could consist of:
 Analgesics: Analgesics relieve pain without causing complete loss of feeling or muscle movement. The most
common example of an analgesic used during childbirth is an epidural. You can receive an epidural for a vaginal
or a cesarean delivery.
 Anesthetics: Anesthetics (or anesthesia) keep you from feeling pain by blocking signals from your brain. These
drugs are given as a shot or through an intravenous (IV) line.

TYPES OF DELIVERY
1. Normal Birth
The baby is born through the vagina or birth canal.
It’s the most preferred and most common way to deliver a baby because it carries the lowest risk.

What happens if you don’t push during a vaginal delivery?

Once your cervix is fully dilated and your healthcare team is in place, your provider will ask you to push during a
contraction. Delaying pushing (laboring down) can cause complications like infection, bleeding or damage to your pelvis.

Episiotomy
An episiotomy is a surgical incision that widens the opening of your vagina. This allows your baby’s head to pass through
more easily. Most people will not need an episiotomy.
There are two types of episiotomy incisions:
 Midline - made directly back toward your anus.
 Mediolateral - which slants away from your anus.

2. Caesarean Birth or C – Section

Caesarean Section often referred to as a C-section is a surgical procedure in which incisions are made in a women’s
abdomen and uterus to deliver a baby.

Common indications for cesarean section include:

 Placenta previa occurs when a low-lying placenta partially or completely blocks the cervical opening
 Dystocia or prolonged non progressive labor can occur when the baby’s head is unable to fit through the birth canal
or it’s body is an unfavorable position, such as perpendicular to the birth canal or buttocks first, which is the breech
position.
 Fetal distress occurs whenever the health of the baby is in imminent danger, usually from inadequate blood flow
through the placenta or umbilical cord or the umbilical cord becomes compressed or squeezed.Can occur when the
placenta separates from the wall of the uterus prior to delivery.
Other conditions that may require a cesarean section include:
 Expecting multiples
 Large tumor of the uterus
 Genital herpes or other infections
 Medical problems such as uncontrolled diabetes or hypertension

Before the procedure:

 IV line
 Catheter
 Regional or general anesthesia

Types of C-Section Incisions

 Vertical incision start just below the naval to the top of the pubic bone or more frequently
 Horizontal incision across and just above the pubic bone. This is often called a bikini cut.

LACTATION
Lactation describes the process of making and secreting milk from your breast.

Stages of Lactation
Stage 1: Colostrum
Your first milk that lasts between two and four days after birth. For the first 2 to 5 days after your baby is born, you will
make a small amount of colostrum. This is the early, thick, rich milk that is high in nutrients. Colostrum is all a healthy,
full-term baby need in those first few days. Around 3 to 5 days after birth, your milk will come in.

Stage 2: Transitional milk

Transitional milk comes when mature breast milk gradually replaces colostrum. You will make transitional milk from 2-5
days after delivery until up to 2 weeks after delivery.

Stage 3: Mature milk

About 10-15 days after birth, you start making mature milk. Like each phase of breast milk, it has all the nutrients your
baby needs. The amount of fat in mature milk changes as you feed your baby.

Growth
-It is the process of physical maturation resulting an increase in size of the body and various organs. It occurs by
multiplication of cells and an increase in intracellular substance.
After birth, growth continues as the infant progresses through various developmental stages which is influenced by
several factors that can impact a person's growth.

Factors Influencing Growth:

 Genetics- Your growth is usually determined by genetics or rather by the growth of your parents. The genetic
makeup of the parents will have an impact on the growth of their child.
-According to studies, 60 to 80 percent of growth is determined by genetics, whereas 20 to 40 percent is
determined by other factors such as nutrition and lifestyle.
 Nutrition- Nutrition is a key factor affecting growth in children. Adequate nutrition, including a balanced diet
with essential vitamins, minerals, and macronutrients, is crucial for healthy growth and development.
 Sex (Gender)- Boys and girls grow in different ways, especially nearing puberty.
•Girls hit puberty earlier than boys, meaning the growing ends of their bones fuse earlier.
•Moreover, hormonal differences in boys (such as higher testosterone levels) stimulate the bones to grow
thicker and longer.
 Socioeconomic Factors- Children belonging to a higher socioeconomic status including higher income have
better growth due to adequate nutrition, better childcare, and better medical and social services.
 Exercise and Physical Activity- Regular physical activity promotes healthy growth and development by
strengthening muscles, bones, and cardiovascular function. Exercise can promote the release of growth
hormones responsible for increasing height.
 Hormones- Hormones produced by the endocrine system regulate various aspects of growth, including bone
growth, muscle development, and reproductive maturation.
The main growth hormones are:
•Growth hormone (GH)- or somatotropin, is produced by the pituitary gland that helps children with
overall growth and development.
 •Thyroid hormone- produced and released by the thyroid gland, namely triiodothyronine (T3) and
thyroxine (T4). They are tyrosine-based hormones that are primarily responsible for regulation of
metabolism.
•Sex hormones- Control the development of sex organs. Testosterone for male sex hormone and
estrogen for female sex hormone.

Certain Medical Conditions

Some of the medical conditions that can affect growth include:
•Turner Syndrome •Precocious Puberty
•Down Syndrome •Dwarfism
•Achondroplasia •Malnutrition
•Gigantism •Cancer
•Cushing Syndrome •Digestive tract diseases

How does normal growth occur?

As you age, your bones increase in length due to growth plates called epiphyses. During puberty, your epiphyses
mature, and at the end of puberty, they fuse and stop growing. Once the epiphyses fuse, the person no longer grows
physically.

Stages in Human Growth and Development

Fetal stage: This is when the embryo officially turns into a fetus. It begins around the 9th week and lasts until birth.
Postnatal stage: postnatal period begins immediately after the birth of the baby and extends up to six weeks (42 days)
after birth. The are five significant phases in human growth and development.
1. Infancy (Neonate and up to 1 year age)
-The earliest stage of a child's life.
-A newborn infant is called neonate up until the first four weeks after birth.
2. Toddler ( 1 to 3 years of age)
-The period of one's life in which one is a toddler (a young child who has started walking but not fully mastered
it)
3. Childhood ( 3 to 11 years old) –
-The growth continues with regular increases in height and weight each year until adolescence.
-The pre-adolescence occur in this stage from ages 8 to 12. It commonly ends with the beginning of puberty.
4. Adolescence (12 to 19 years old)
-The period of transition between childhood and adulthood.
-It is generally considered to start with puberty during which sexual maturation occurs. The period of rapid
growth in body size that occurs during puberty is called the adolescent growth spurt (AGS)
5. Adulthood (20 to 65 years)
-the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have been attained.
-It is at this point that people usually begin to reproduce and have children of their own.

MATURATION
Human reproduction involves the maturation of the reproductive system and the development of secondary sexual
characteristics. It involves maturation of the hypothalamic-pituitary testicular axis.
The maturation of human reproduction refers to the process of physical and hormonal changes that occur in individuals
as they reach reproductive maturity. It also refers to the process by which the reproductive system develops and
becomes capable of producing offspring. This maturation process typically starts during adolescence and continues into
early adulthood.

 Prenatal Development
The foundation of reproductive development begins in the womb. During prenatal development, the gonads (testes in
males, ovaries in females) develop from undifferentiated tissue into their respective sex organs.
This process is influenced by genetic factors and hormonal signals from the mother.
In simplest explanation, prenatal development is the process of growth and development within the womb from
fertilization until birth.

 Puberty
It marks the onset of sexual maturation, typically occurring around ages 8 to 13 in females and 9 to 14 in males. During
puberty, the hypothalamus in the brain begins secreting gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the
anterior pituitary gland to release follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

 Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Hormonal changes during puberty lead to the development of secondary sexual characteristics. In females, this includes
breast development, widening of the hips, and the onset of menstruation. In males, it involves the growth of facial and
body hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass.

 Gametogenesis
Both males and females undergo gametogenesis, the process of producing gametes (sperm in males, eggs or ova in
females). In males, this process is called spermatogenesis, which occurs continuously from puberty onward. In females,
it's called oogenesis, and it begins before birth but halts at prophase I of meiosis until puberty.

 Menstrual Cycle
In females, the menstrual cycle is a monthly process driven by hormonal fluctuations. It involves the maturation and
release of an egg from the ovary (ovulation), preparation of the uterine lining for potential implantation of a fertilized
egg, and shedding of the uterine lining if fertilization does not occur (menstruation).

 Fertility
Reproductive maturation culminates in fertility, the ability to conceive and produce offspring. In females, fertility is
typically highest in the years following menarche (first menstruation) and declines gradually with age, particularly after
the age of 35. In males, fertility also declines with age, but to a lesser extent than in females.

 Reproductive Senescence
Eventually, both males and females experience reproductive senescence, a decline in reproductive function with
advancing age. In females, this is marked by menopause, the cessation of menstrual cycles and ovulation, usually
occurring around the age of 45 to 55. In males, reproductive function declines more gradually, with a decrease in sperm
quality and quantity over time.

AGEING
Ageing is a complex process involving multiple factors that result in the progressive decline of physiological functions
and increased susceptibility to diseases, frailty, or disability. It is a natural part of the life cycle, during which a person
goes through various stages such as childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and eventually, ageing.
 Chronological aging refers simply to the passage of time from birth to the present moment. It's measured in years,
months, days, etc., and represents the actual amount of time an individual has been alive. This type of ageing is
universal and affects everyone, regardless of their biological condition or health status. For example, a person who
is 50 years old has experienced 50 years of chronological ageing since birth. It’s also a primary risk factor for chronic
diseases, mortality, and any impairments to bodily functions, such as hearing and memory.
 Biological aging occurs as you gradually accumulate damage to various cells and tissues in the body. Also known as
physiological or functional age, biological age differs from chronological age because it takes into consideration a
number of factors other than just the day you were born. Biological ageing affects various aspects of an organism's
physiology, including:
 Cellular ageing, as organisms age, their cells undergo changes such as DNA damage, telomere shortening, and
accumulation of cellular waste products. These cellular changes can impair the functioning of tissues and
organs and contribute to age-related diseases.
 Tissue and organ ageing, Ageing leads to structural and functional changes in tissues and organs throughout
the body. For example, there may be a loss of muscle mass and strength (sarcopenia), stiffening of blood
vessels (arteriosclerosis), and decreased elasticity of the skin.
 Metabolic ageing, Metabolic processes, including energy production, hormone regulation, and nutrient
metabolism, can become less efficient with age. This can contribute to conditions such as insulin resistance,
metabolic syndrome, and obesity.
 Immune system ageing, the immune system undergoes changes with age, resulting in a decline in immune
function known as immunosenescence. This can lead to increased susceptibility to infections and a decreased
ability to mount an effective immune response to vaccines.
 Social ageing refers to the changes in an individual's roles, relationships, and social interactions that occur as they
grow older. Unlike biological ageing, which involves physical changes in the body, social ageing focuses on the
evolving social dynamics and experiences that accompany the ageing process.
 Role Transitions, as individuals age, they often transition from one social role to another, such as retiring,
becoming grandparents, or taking on caregiving responsibilities, which can significantly impact their identity
and daily routines.
 Social Networks: Social ageing involves changes in the composition and size of social networks. Older adults
may experience shifts in their social circles due to factors such as retirement, relocation, or the loss of friends
and family members. Maintaining social connections becomes increasingly important for well-being and quality
of life as people age.
 Social Support: Older adults heavily rely on social support networks for practical assistance, emotional support,
and companionship, promoting resilience and coping with challenges like health issues and life transitions.
 Community Engagement: Social ageing involves active participation in community activities, volunteering, and
events, which can combat social isolation and foster a sense of belonging and purpose in later life.
 Attitudes and Stereotypes: Social ageing also involves societal attitudes and stereotypes about ageing and
older adults. These perceptions can influence how older individuals are perceived, treated, and valued in
society, impacting their sense of self-worth and social inclusion.