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General Chemistry
William J. Vining
State University of New York, Oneonta
Susan M. Young
Hartwick College
Roberta Day
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Beatrice Botch
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States
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William J. Vining, Susan M. Young, Roberta Day,
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18 17 16 15 14
Contents
1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 1

1.1 What Is Chemistry? 2
2 Elements and Compounds
2.1 The Structure of the Atom
27
28
1.1a The Scale of Chemistry 2 2.1a Components of an Atom 28
1.1b Measuring Matter 2 2.1b Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbols 29
2.1c Isotopes and Atomic Weight 30
1.2 Classification of Matter 3
2.2 Elements and the Periodic Table 33
1.2a Classifying Matter on the Atomic Scale 3
1.2b Classifying Pure Substances on the 2.2a Introduction to the Periodic Table 33
Macroscopic Scale 5
1.2c Classifying Mixtures on the Macroscopic Scale 8 2.3 Covalent Compounds 37
2.3a Introduction to Covalent Compounds 37
1.3 Units and Measurement 10
2.3b Representing Covalent Compounds with
1.3a Scientific Units and Scientific Notation 10 Molecular and Empirical Formulas 37
1.3b SI Base Units and Derived Units 12 2.3c Representing Covalent Compounds with
1.3c Significant Figures, Precision, and Accuracy 15 Molecular Models 40
2.3d Naming Covalent Compounds 41
1.4 Unit Conversions 19
1.4a Dimensional Analysis 19
2.4 Ions and Ionic Compounds 44
1.4b Unit Conversions Using Density 21 2.4a Monoatomic Ions 44
2.4b Polyatomic Ions 47
Unit Recap 23 2.4c Representing Ionic Compounds with Formulas 47
2.4d Naming Ionic Compounds 49
2.4e Identifying Covalent and Ionic Compounds 50
Unit Recap 51
Contents iii
3 Stoichiometry
3.1 The Mole and Molar Mass
55
56
4 Chemical Reactions
and Solution Stoichiometry 93
3.1a Avogadro’s Number 56 4.1 Types of Chemical Reactions 94
3.1b Molar Mass 57
4.1a Combination and Decomposition Reactions 94
4.1b Displacement Reactions 95
3.2 Stoichiometry and Compound Formulas 60
3.2a Element Composition 60 4.2 Aqueous Solutions 97
3.2b Percent Composition 62
4.2a Compounds in Aqueous Solutions 97
3.2c Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition 63
4.2b Solubility of Ionic Compounds 99
3.2d Determining Molecular Formulas 65
3.2e Hydrated Compounds 67
4.3 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 101
3.3 Stoichiometry and Chemical Reactions 69 4.3a Precipitation Reactions and Net Ionic Equations 101
4.3b Acid–Base Reactions 104
3.3a Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 69
4.3c Gas-Forming Reactions 108
3.3b Balancing Chemical Equations 71
3.3c Reaction Stoichiometry 74
4.4 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 110
3.4 Stoichiometry and Limiting Reactants 79 4.4a Oxidation and Reduction 110
4.4b Oxidation Numbers and Oxidation States 111
3.4a Limiting Reactants 79
4.4c Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 113
3.4b Percent Yield 82
4.5 Stoichiometry of Reactions

3.5 Chemical Analysis 84
in Aqueous Solution 115
3.5a Determining a Chemical Formula 84
3.5b Analysis of a Mixture 89 4.5a Solution Concentration and Molarity 115
4.5b Preparing Solutions of Known Concentration 118
4.5c Solution Stoichiometry 122
Unit Recap 90 4.5d Titrations (Part 1) 124
4.5e Titrations (Part 2) 128
Unit Recap 130
Contents iv
5 Thermochemistry
5.1 Energy
135
136
6 Electromagnetic Radiation and the
Electronic Structure of the Atom 171
5.1a Kinetic and Potential Energy 136 6.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 172
5.1b Measuring Energy: Energy Units 137
6.1a Wavelength and Frequency 172
5.1c Principles of Thermodynamics 138
6.1b The Electromagnetic Spectrum 173
5.2 Enthalpy 140
5.2a Enthalpy 140 6.2 Photons and Photon Energy 174
5.2b Representing Energy Change 142 6.2a The Photoelectric Effect 174
5.3 Energy, Temperature Changes,
6.3 Atomic Line Spectra and
and Changes of State 143
the Bohr Model of Atomic Structure 176
5.3a Heat Transfer and Temperature Changes:
Specific Heat Capacity 143 6.3a Atomic Line Spectra 176
5.3b Heat Transfer Between Substances: 6.3b The Bohr Model 177
Thermal Equilibrium and Temperature Changes 146
5.3c Energy, Changes of State, and Heating Curves 148 6.4 Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure 180
5.4 Enthalpy Changes 6.4a Wave Properties of Matter 180

6.4b The Schrödinger Equation and Wave Functions 182
and Chemical Reactions 152
5.4a Enthalpy Change for a Reaction 152 6.5 Quantum Numbers, Orbitals, and Nodes 183
5.4b Enthalpy Change and Chemical Equations 153
5.4c Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 155 6.5a Quantum Numbers 183
5.4d Constant-Volume Calorimetry 157 6.5b Orbital Shapes 184
6.5c Nodes 187
5.5 Hess’s Law 159 6.5d Orbital Energy Diagrams and Changes
5.5a Hess’s Law 159 in Electronic State 187
5.6 Standard Heats of Reaction 161 Unit Recap 189

5.6a Standard Heat of Formation 161
5.6b Using Standard Heats of Formation 165
Unit Recap 167
Contents v
7 Electron Configurations
and the Properties of Atoms 193 8 Covalent Bonding
and Molecular Structure 225
7.1 Electron Spin and Magnetism 194 8.1 An Introduction to Covalent Bonding 226
7.1a Electron Spin and the Spin Quantum Number, ms 194 8.1a Coulomb’s Law 226
7.1b Types of Magnetic Materials 194 8.1b Fundamentals of Covalent Bonding 227
7.2 Orbital Energy 196 8.2 Lewis Structures 228
7.2a Orbital Energies in Single- and Multielectron Species 196 8.2a Lewis Symbols and Lewis Structures 228
8.2b Drawing Lewis Structures 231
8.2c Exceptions to the Octet Rule 234
7.3 Electron Configuration of Elements 196 8.2d Resonance Structures 236
7.3a The Pauli Exclusion Principle 196
7.3b Electron Configurations for Elements in Periods 1–3 198 8.3 Bond Properties 238
7.3c Electron Configurations for Elements in Periods 4–7 201 8.3a Bond Order, Bond Length, and Bond Energy 238
7.3d Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 205 8.3b Resonance Structures, Bond Order, Bond Length,
and Bond Energy 242
7.4 Properties of Atoms 207 8.3c Bond Energy and Enthalpy of Reaction 244
7.4a Trends in Orbital Energies 207
8.4 Electron Distribution in Molecules 245
7.4b Atomic Size 209
7.4c Ionization Energy 211 8.4a Formal Charge 245
7.4d Electron Affinity 212 8.4b Bond Polarity 247
8.4c Resonance Structures, Formal Charge,
7.5 Formation and Electron Configuration and Electronegativity 249
of Ions 213
8.5 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion
7.5a Cations 213 Theory and Molecular Shape 253
7.5b Anions 217
7.5c Ion Size 219 8.5a VSEPR and Electron-Pair Geometry 253
8.5b Shape (Molecular Geometry) 256
Unit Recap 222 8.6 Molecular Polarity 259
8.6a Molecular Polarity 259
Unit Recap 262
Contents vi
9 Theories of Chemical Bonding
9.1 Valence Bond Theory
265
266
10 Gases
10.1 Properties of Gases
293
294
9.1a Tenets of Valence Bond Theory 266 10.1a Overview of Properties of Gases 294
10.1b Pressure 295
9.2 Hybrid Orbitals 267
10.2 Historical Gas Laws 297
9.2a sp3 Hybrid Orbitals 267
9.2b sp2 Hybrid Orbitals 269 10.2a Boyle’s Law: P 3 V 5 kB 297
9.2c sp Hybrid Orbitals 270 10.2b Charles’s Law: V 5 kC 3 T 298
9.2d sp3d Hybrid Orbitals 272 10.2c Avogadro’s Law: V 5 kA 3 n 300
9.2e sp3d2 Hybrid Orbitals 274
10.3 The Combined and Ideal Gas Laws 302
9.3 Pi Bonding 276
10.3a The Combined Gas Law 302
9.3a Formation of Pi Bonds 276 10.3b The Ideal Gas Law 303
9.3b Pi Bonding in Ethene, C2H4, Acetylene, C2H2, 10.3c The Ideal Gas Law, Molar Mass, and Density 304
and Allene, CH2CCH2 277
9.3c Pi Bonding in Benzene, C6H6 279 10.4 Partial Pressure and Gas Law
9.3d Conformations and Isomers 281
Stoichiometry 307
9.4 Molecular Orbital Theory 283 10.4a Introduction to Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 307
10.4b Partial Pressure and Mole Fractions of Gases 309
9.4a Sigma Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals 283 10.4c Gas Laws and Stoichiometry 310
9.4b Pi Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals 284
9.4c Molecular Orbital Diagrams (H2 and He2) 284 10.5 Kinetic Molecular Theory 312
9.4d Molecular Orbital Diagrams (Li2–F2) 285
9.4e Molecular Orbital Diagrams (Heteronuclear Diatomics) 289 10.5a Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Gas Laws 312
9.4f Molecular Orbital Diagrams (More Complex Molecules) 289 10.5b Molecular Speed, Mass, and Temperature 314
10.5c Gas Diffusion and Effusion 317
Unit Recap 290 10.5d Nonideal Gases 319
Unit Recap 322
Contents vii
11 Intermolecular Forces
and the Liquid State 325 12 The Solid State
12.1 Introduction to Solids
357
358
11.1 Kinetic Molecular Theory, 12.1a Types of Solids 358
States of Matter, and Phase Changes 326 12.1b The Unit Cell 359
11.1a Condensed Phases and Intermolecular Forces 326

11.1b Phase Changes 328 12.2 Metallic Solids 362
11.1c Enthalpy of Vaporization 329 12.2a Simple Cubic Unit Cell 362
12.2b Body-Centered Cubic Structure 363
11.2 Vapor Pressure 330 12.2c Closest-Packed Structure 364
12.2d X-ray Diffraction 368
11.2a Dynamic Equilibrium and Vapor Pressure 330
11.2b Effect of Temperature and Intermolecular Forces
on Vapor Pressure 332 12.3 Ionic Solids 370
11.2c Boiling Point 335 12.3a Holes in Cubic Unit Cells 370
11.2d Mathematical Relationship between Vapor Pressure 12.3b Cesium Chloride and Sodium Chloride Structures 374
and Temperature 338 12.3c Zinc Blende (ZnS) Structure 377
12.3d Complex Solids 378
11.3 Other Properties of Liquids 340
11.3a Surface Tension 340 12.4 Bonding in Metallic and Ionic Solids 380
11.3b Viscosity 342 12.4a Band Theory 380
11.3c Capillary Action 342 12.4b Lattice Energy and Born–Haber Cycles 382
11.4 The Nature of Intermolecular Forces 343 12.5 Phase Diagrams 385
11.4a Dipole–Dipole Intermolecular Forces 343 12.5a Phase Changes Involving Solids 385
11.4b Dipole–Induced Dipole Forces 345 12.5b Phase Diagrams 386
11.4c Induced Dipole–Induced Dipole Forces 346
Unit Recap 392
11.5 Intermolecular Forces and the Properties
of Liquids 347
11.5a Effect of Polarizability on Physical Properties 347
11.5b Effect of Hydrogen Bonding on Physical Properties 348
11.5c Quantitative Comparison of Intermolecular Forces 350
Unit Recap 353
Contents viii
13 Chemical Mixtures:
Solutions and Other Mixtures 397 14 Chemical Kinetics
14.1 Introduction to Kinetics
435
436
13.1 Quantitative Expressions 14.1a Factors that Influence Reactivity 436
of Concentration 398 14.1b Collision Theory 437
13.1a Review of Solubility 398

13.1b Concentration Units 399 14.2 Expressing the Rate of a Reaction 439
14.2a Average Rate and Reaction Stoichiometry 439
13.2 Inherent Control of Solubility 403 14.2b Instantaneous and Initial Rates 442
13.2a Entropy and Thermodynamic Control

of Chemical Processes 403 14.3 Rate Laws 442
13.2b Gas–Gas Mixtures 405 14.3a Concentration and Reaction Rate 442
13.2c Liquid–Liquid Mixtures 407 14.3b Determining Rate Law Using the Method
13.2d Solid–Liquid Mixtures 409 of Initial Rates 445
13.3 External Control of Solubility 412 14.4 Concentration Change over Time 448
13.3a Pressure Effects: Solubility of Gases in Liquids 412 14.4a Integrated Rate Laws 448
13.3b Effect of Temperature on Solubility 414 14.4b Graphical Determination of Reaction Order 452
14.4c Reaction Half-Life 455
13.4 Colligative Properties 416 14.4d Radioactive Decay 457
13.4a Osmotic Pressure 416
13.4b Vapor Pressure Lowering 421 14.5 Activation Energy and Temperature 458
13.4c Boiling Point Elevation 423 14.5a Reaction Coordinate Diagrams 458
13.4d Freezing Point Depression 425 14.5b The Arrhenius Equation 463
14.5c Graphical Determination of Ea 465
13.5 Other Types of Mixtures 427
13.5a Alloys 427
14.6 Reaction Mechanisms and Catalysis 466
13.5b Colloids 428 14.6a The Components of a Reaction Mechanism 466
14.6b Multistep Mechanisms 469
Unit Recap 431 14.6c Reaction Mechanisms and the Rate Law 472
14.6d More Complex Mechanisms 474
14.6e Catalysis 477
Unit Recap 479
Contents ix
15 Chemical Equilibrium
15.1 The Nature of the Equilibrium State
483
484
16 Acids and Bases
16.1 Introduction to Acids and Bases
513
514
15.1a Principle of Microscopic Reversibility 484 16.1a Acid and Base Definitions 514
15.1b The Equilibrium State 485 16.1b Simple Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases 515
16.1c More Complex Acids 517
15.2 The Equilibrium Constant, K 487
16.2 Water and the pH Scale 518
15.2a Equilibrium Constants 487
15.2b Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions 489 16.2a Autoionization 518
15.2c Manipulating Equilibrium Constant Expressions 492 16.2b pH and pOH Calculations 522
15.3 Using Equilibrium Constants 16.3 Acid and Base Strength 524
in Calculations 495 16.3a Acid and Base Hydrolysis Equilibria, Ka, and Kb 524
15.3a Determining an Equilibrium Constant Using 16.3b Ka and Kb Values and the Relationship
Experimental Data 495 Between Ka and Kb 527
15.3b Determining Whether a System Is at Equilibrium 497 16.3c Determining Ka and Kb Values in the Laboratory 531
15.3c Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 499
16.4 Estimating the pH of Acid
15.4 Disturbing a Chemical Equilibrium: and Base Solutions 532
Le Chatelier’s Principle 501 16.4a Strong Acid and Strong Base Solutions 532
15.4a Addition or Removal of a Reactant or Product 501 16.4b Solutions Containing Weak Acids 533
15.4b Change in the Volume of the System 504 16.4c Solutions Containing Weak Bases 538
15.4c Change in Temperature 506
16.5 Acid–Base Properties of Salts 542
Unit Recap 509 16.5a Acid–Base Properties of Salts: Hydrolysis 542
16.5b Determining pH of a Salt Solution 544
16.6 Molecular Structure and Control

of Acid–Base Strength 546
16.6a Molecular Structure and Control
of Acid–Base Strength 546
Unit Recap 549
Contents x
17 Advanced Acid–Base Equilibria
17.1 Acid–Base Reactions
553
554
18 Precipitation and Lewis Acid–Base
Equilibria 593
17.1a Strong Acid/Strong Base Reactions 554 18.1 Solubility Equilibria and Ksp 594
17.1b Strong Acid/Weak Base and Strong Base/Weak
18.1a Solubility Units 594
Acid Reactions 555
18.1b The Solubility Product Constant 595
17.1c Weak Acid/Weak Base Reactions 557
18.1c Determining Ksp Values 596
17.2 Buffers 558

18.2 Using Ksp in Calculations 598
17.2a Identifying Buffers 558
18.2a Estimating Solubility 598
17.2b Buffer pH 560
18.2b Predicting Whether a Solid Will Precipitate
17.2c Making Buffer Solutions 566
or Dissolve 601
18.2c The Common Ion Effect 603
17.3 Acid–Base Titrations 571
17.3a Strong Acid/Strong Base Titrations 571 18.3 Lewis Acid–Base Complexes
17.3b Weak Acid/Strong Base and Weak Base/Strong and Complex Ion Equilibria 605
Acid Titrations 573
17.3c pH Titration Plots as an Indicator of Acid 18.3a Lewis Acids and Bases 605
or Base Strength 580 18.3b Complex Ion Equilibria 607
17.3d pH Indicators 582
17.3e Polyprotic Acid Titrations 584 18.4 Simultaneous Equilibria 609
18.4a Solubility and pH 609
17.4 Some Important Acid–Base Systems 587 18.4b Solubility and Complex Ions 610
17.4a The Carbonate System: H2CO3/HCO3−/CO32− 587 18.4c Solubility, Ion Separation, and Qualitative Analysis 611
17.4b Amino Acids 588
Unit Recap 614
Unit Recap 589
Contents xi
19 Thermodynamics:
Entropy and Free Energy 617 20 Electrochemistry
20.1 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
and Electrochemical Cells
651
652
19.1 Entropy and the Three Laws
of Thermodynamics 618 20.1a Overview of Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 652
20.1b Balancing Redox Reactions: Half-Reactions 654
19.1a The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 618
20.1c Balancing Redox Reactions in Acidic
19.1b Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 619
and Basic Solutions 657
19.1c Entropy and Microstates 620
20.1d Construction and Components of Electrochemical
19.1d Trends in Entropy 622
Cells 660
19.1e Spontaneous Processes 624
20.1e Electrochemical Cell Notation 663
19.1f The Third Law of Thermodynamics
and Standard Entropies 626
20.2 Cell Potentials, Free Energy,
19.2 Calculating Entropy Change 628 and Equilibria 664
19.2a Standard Entropy Change for a Phase Change 628 20.2a Cell Potentials and Standard Reduction Potentials 664
19.2b Standard Entropy Change for a Chemical Reaction 630 20.2b Cell Potential and Free Energy 671
19.2c Entropy Change in the Surroundings 631 20.2c Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant 672
20.2d Cell Potentials Under Nonstandard Conditions 674
20.2e Concentration Cells 677
19.3 Gibbs Free Energy 633
19.3a Gibbs Free Energy and Spontaneity 633 20.3 Electrolysis 678
19.3b Standard Gibbs Free Energy 635
19.3c Free Energy, Standard Free Energy, 20.3a Electrolytic Cells and Coulometry 678
and the Reaction Quotient 637 20.3b Electrolysis of Molten Salts 681
19.3d Standard Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant 639 20.3c Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 684
19.3e Gibbs Free Energy and Temperature 642
20.4 Applications of Electrochemistry:
Unit Recap 646 Batteries and Corrosion 686
20.4a Primary Batteries 686
20.4b Secondary Batteries 687
20.4c Fuel Cells 689
20.4d Corrosion 690
Unit Recap 692
Contents xii
21 Organic Chemistry
21.1 Hydrocarbons
695
696
22 Applying Chemical Principles
to the Main-Group Elements 735
21.1a Classes of Hydrocarbons 696 22.1 Structures of the Elements 736
21.1b Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 698
22.1a The Periodic Table 736
21.1c Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 701
22.1b Metals 737
21.1d Hydrocarbon Reactivity 705
22.1c Nonmetals 739
21.2 Isomerism 708

22.2 Oxides and Halides of the Nonmetals 742
21.2a Constitutional Isomerism 708
22.2a Nonmetal Oxides 742
21.2b Stereoisomerism 709
22.2b Nonmetal Halides 744
21.3 Functional Groups 711

22.3 Compounds of Boron and Carbon 745
21.3a Identifying Functional Groups 711
22.3a Boron Compounds 745
21.3b Alcohols 712
22.3b Elemental Carbon 746
21.3c Compounds Containing a Carbonyl Group 716
22.3c Cave Chemistry 747
22.3d Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming 748
21.4 Synthetic Polymers 716
21.4a Addition Polymerization 716 22.4 Silicon 750
21.4b Condensation Polymerization 717
22.4a Silicon Semiconductors 750
21.4c Control of Polymer Properties 720
22.4b Silicates 751
22.4c Silicones 752
21.5 Biopolymers 721
21.5a Carbohydrates 721 22.5 Oxygen and Sulfur in the Atmosphere 754
21.5b Amino Acids 725
22.5a Atmospheric Ozone 754
21.5c Proteins 726
22.5b Sulfur and Acid Rain 756
21.5d Nucleic Acids 728
Unit Recap 757

Unit Recap 731
Contents xiii
23 The Transition Metals
23.1 Properties of the Transition Metals
759
760
24 Nuclear Chemistry
24.1 Nuclear Reactions
789
790
23.1a General Characteristics of Transition Metals 760 24.1a Nuclear vs. Chemical Reactions 790
23.1b Atomic Size and Electronegativity 760 24.1b Natural Radioactive Decay 791
23.1c Ionization Energy and Oxidation States 762 24.1c Radioactive Decay and Balancing Nuclear Reactions 792
23.2 Isolation from Metal Ores 764 24.2 Nuclear Stability 796
23.2a Common Ores 764 24.2a Band of Stability 796
23.2b Extraction of Metals from Ores 764 24.2b Binding Energy 799
24.2c Relative Binding Energy 801
23.3 Coordination Compounds:
Structure and Isomerism 767 24.3 Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 802
23.3a Composition of Coordination Compounds 767 24.3a Rate of Decay 802

23.3b Naming Coordination Compounds 770 24.3b Radioactive Dating 804
23.3c Stability and the Chelate Effect 773
23.3d Isomerism 774 24.4 Fission and Fusion 806
24.4a Types of Fission Reactions 806
23.4 Coordination Compounds: 24.4b Nuclear Fuel 808
Bonding and Spectroscopy 777 24.4c Nuclear Power 810
23.4a Crystal Field Theory 777
23.4b Molecular Orbital Theory 781 24.5 Applications and Uses of Nuclear
23.4c Spectroscopy 784 Chemistry 812
24.5a Stellar Synthesis of Elements 812
Unit Recap 786 24.5b Induced Synthesis of Elements 815
24.5c Nuclear Medicine 817
24.5d Radioactivity in the Home 818
Unit Recap 820

Reference Tables 823
Glossary 837
Index 850
Contents xiv
Acknowledgments
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Chris Bahn, Montana State University
Special thanks go to the core team at Cengage Learning that guided us through Christopher Collison, Rochester Institute of Technology
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Berger, Content Implementation Manger; Aaron Chesney, Software Development James Rudd, California State University, Los Angeles
Jessica Vanden Plas, Grand Valley State University
Manger; and Teresa Trego, Senior Content Project Manager.
This primarily digital learning environment would not have been possible Class Test Participants
without the talents of Bill Rohan, Jesse Charette, and Aaron Russell of Cow Zsuzsanna Balogh-Brunstad, Hartwick College
Town Productions, who programmed the embedded media activities, and Jacqueline Bennett, SUNY Oneonta
Terry Brack, Hofstra University
the entire MindTap Engineering Teams. Nor would it have been possible
Preston Brown, Coastal Carolina Community College
without the continued effort of David Hart, Stephen Battisti, Cindy Stein,
Donnie Byers, Johnson County Community College
Mayumi Fraser, Gale Parsloe, and Gordon Anderson from the Center for John Dudek, Hartwick College
Educational Software Development (CESD) team at the University of Deanna (Dede) Dunlavy, New Mexico State University
Massachusetts, Amherst, the creators of OWL and the first OWLBook, who Dan Dupuis, Coastal Carolina Community College
were there when we needed them most. Many thanks also go to Charles D. Heike Geisler, SUNY Oneonta
Winters for filming the chemistry videos and taking beautiful photographs. Victoria Harris, SUNY Oneonta
Gary Hiel, Hartwick College
We are grateful to Professor Don Neu of St. Cloud State University for his con- Dennis Johnson, New Mexico State University
tributions to the nuclear chemistry chapter, and to the many instructors who Thomas Jose, Blinn College
gave us feedback in the form of advisory boards, focus groups, and written Kirk Kawagoe, Fresno City College
reviews. We also want to thank those instructors and students who tested early Kristen Kilpatrick, Coastal Carolina Community College
versions of the OWLBook in their courses, most especially Professors Maurice Orna Kutai, Montgomery College—Rockville Campus
Odago and John Schaumloffel of SUNY Oneonta and Barbara Stewart of the Antonio Lara, New Mexico State University
Scott Lefurgy, Hofstra University
University of Maine who bravely tested the earliest versions of this product.
Barbara Lyons, New Mexico State University
MindTap General Chemistry has surely been improved by the hard work of Larry Margerum, University of San Francisco
our accuracy checkers, David Shinn, Bette Kreuz, and David Brown. Diana Mason, University of North Texas
Don Neu, St. Cloud State University
Bill and Susan would like to thank Jack Kotz, who has been a mentor to both Krista Noren-Santmyer, Hillsborough Community College
of us for many years. This work would also not have been possible without the Erik Ruggles, University of Vermont
support and patience of our families, particularly Kathy, John, John, and Peter. Flora Setayesh, Nashville State Community College
Acknowledgments xv
Sherril Soman, Grand Valley State University Mufeed M. Basti, North Carolina A&T
Marjorie Squires, Felician College James Beil, Lorain County Community College
Paul Tate, Hillsborough Community College—Dale Mabry Campus Fereshteh Billiot, Texas A&M University—Corpus Christi
Trudy Thomas-Smith, SUNY Oneonta Jeffrey Bodwin, Minnesota State University Moorhead
John B. Vincent, University of Alabama Steven Brown, University of Arizona
Mary Whitfield, Edmonds Community College Phil Brucat, University of Florida
Matthew J. Young, University of New Hampshire Donnie Byers, Johnson County Community College
David Carter, Angelo State University
Focus Group Participants Allen Clabo, Francis Marion University
Linda Allen, Louisiana State University Beverly Clement, Blinn College
Mufeed M. Basti, North Carolina A&T Willard Collier, Mississippi State
Fereshteh Billiot, Texas A&M University—Corpus Christi Christopher Collison, Rochester Institute of Technology
Kristen A. Casey, Anne Arundel Community College Cory DiCarlo, Grand Valley State University
Brandon Cruickshank, Northern Arizona University Jeffrey Evans, University of Southern Mississippi
William Deese, Louisiana Technical University Nick Flynn, Angelo State University
Cory DiCarlo, Grand Valley State University Karin Gruet, Fresno City College
Deanna (Dede) Dunlavy, New Mexico State University Bernadette Harkness, Delta College
Krishna Foster, California State University, Los Angeles Carl Hoeger, University of California, San Diego
Stephen Foster, Mississippi State University Hongqiu Zhao, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis
Gregory Gellene, Texas Technical University Richard Jarman, College of DuPage
Anita Gnezda, Ball State University Eric R. Johnson, Ball State University
Nathaniel Grove, University of North Carolina at Wilmington Thomas Jose, Blinn College
Bernadette Harkness, Delta College Kirk Kawagoe, Fresno City College
Hongqiu Zhao, Indiana University—Purdue University at Indianapolis Resa Kelly, San Jose State University
Edith Kippenhan, University of Toledo Jeffrey A. Mack, Sacramento State University
Joseph d. Kittle, Jr., Ohio University Larry Margerum, University of San Francisco
Amy Lindsay, University of New Hampshire Diana Mason, University of North Texas
Krista Noren-Santmyer, Hillsborough Community College Donald R. Neu, St. Cloud University
Olujide T. Akinbo, Butler University Al Nichols, Jacksonville State University
James Reeves, University of North Carolina at Wilmington Olujide T. Akinbo, Butler University
James Rudd, California State University, Los Angeles John Pollard, University of Arizona
Raymond Sadeghi, University of Texas at San Antonio James Reeves, University of North Carolina at Wilmington
Mark Schraf, West Virginia University Mark Schraf, West Virginia University
Sherril Soman, Grand Valley State University Shawn Sendlinger, North Carolina Central University
Matthew W. Stoltzfus, Ohio State University Duane Swank, Pacific Lutheran University
Dan Thomas, University of Guelph Michael Topp, University of Pennsylvania
Xin Wen, California State University, Los Angeles Ray Trautman, San Francisco State
Kurt Winkelmann, Florida Institute of Technology John B. Vincent, University of Alabama
James Zubricky, University of Toledo Keith Walters, Northern Kentucky University
David Wright, Vanderbilt University
Reviewers James Zubricky, University of Toledo
Chris Bahn, Montana State University
Yiyan Bai, Houston Community College
Acknowledgments xvi
About the Authors
institution and arrived at SUNY Oneonta, where he now works with under-
graduates, Cow Town Productions, and the UMass OWL team.
Susan M. Young
Hartwick College
Susan Young received her B.S. in Chemistry in 1988 from the University
of Dayton and her Ph.D. in Inorganic Chemistry in 1994 from the
University of Colorado at Boulder under the direction of Dr. Arlan
Norman, where she worked on the reactivity of cavity-containing phosp-
hazanes. She did postdoctoral work with Dr. John Kotz at the State
University of New York at Oneonta, teaching and working on projects in
Peter W. Samal
support of the development of the first General Chemistry CD-ROM. She

taught at Roanoke College in Virginia and then joined the faculty at
Hartwick College in 1996, where she is now Professor of Chemistry. Susan
maintains an active undergraduate research program at Hartwick and has
William Vining worked on a number of chemistry textbook projects, including coauthor-
State University of New York at Oneonta
ing an Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry Interactive
CD-ROM with Bill Vining.
Bill Vining graduated from SUNY Oneonta in 1981 and earned his Ph.D. in
inorganic chemistry at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill in 1985,
working on the modification of electrode surfaces with polymer-bound Roberta Day
redox catalysts. After three years working in industry for S.C. Johnson and Professor Emeritus, University of Massachusetts
Son (Johnson Wax) in Racine, Wisconsin, he became an assistant professor Roberta Day received a B.S. in Chemistry from the University of Rochester,
of inorganic chemistry at Hartwick College and eventually department Rochester, New York; spent 5 years in the research laboratories of the
chair. It was here that Bill started working on educational software, first Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York; and then received a Ph.D.
creating the set of simulations called Chemland. This led to work with Jack in Physical Chemistry from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Kotz on the first General Chemistry CD-ROM and a distance-learning Cambridge, Massachusetts. After postdoctoral work sponsored by both the
course produced with Archipelago Productions. This work led to a move to Damon Runyon Memorial Fund and the National Institutes of Health, she
the University of Massachusetts, where he served as Director of General joined the faculty of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, rising
Chemistry, which serves 1400 students every semester. He was awarded the through the ranks to Full Professor in the Chemistry Department. She
University of Massachusetts Distinguished Teaching Award in 1999 and the initiated the use of online electronic homework in general chemistry at
UMass College of Natural Sciences Outstanding Teacher Award in 2003. UMass, is one of the inventors of the OWL system, has been either PI or
At UMass, he also ran a research group dedicated to developing interactive Co-I for several major national grants for the development of OWL, and has
educational software, which included 15 professionals, graduate students, authored a large percentage of the questions in the OWL database for
undergraduates, postdoctoral students, programmers, and artists. After General Chemistry. Recognition for her work includes the American
nine years at UMass, Bill decided to move back to a primarily undergraduate Chemical Society Connecticut Valley Section Award for outstanding
About the Authors xvii

contributions to chemistry and the UMass College of Natural Science and State University. She completed her graduate work at Argonne National
Mathematics Outstanding Teacher Award. Her research in chemistry as an Laboratory under the direction of Dr. Thom Dunning Jr. and was a post-
x-ray crystallographer has resulted in the publication of more than 180 doctoral fellow at the California Institute of Technology, working in the
articles in professional journals. She is now a Professor Emeritus at the group of Professor William A. Goddard III. She taught at Southwest State
University of Massachusetts and continues her work on the development University in Minnesota and Wittenberg University in Ohio before joining
of electronic learning environments for chemistry. the faculty at the University of Massachusetts in 1988. She received the
UMass College of Natural Science and Mathematics Outstanding Teacher
Beatrice Botch Award in 1999. She is one of the inventors of OWL, and she authored ques-
University of Massachusetts tions in OWL for General Chemistry. She has been principal investigator and
Beatrice Botch is the Director of General Chemistry at the University of co-investigator on a number of grants and contracts related to OWL devel-
Massachusetts. She received her B.A. in Chemistry from Barat College in opment and dissemination and continues to develop learning materials in
Lake Forest, Illinois, and her Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Michigan OWL to help students succeed in chemistry.
About the Authors xviii
To the Student
Welcome to a new integrated approach to chemistry. Chemistry is a con- uses of traditional written explanations, with interactive activities to help
tinually evolving science that examines and manipulates the world on the you learn the central concepts of chemistry and how to use those concepts
atomic and molecular level. In chemistry, it’s mostly about the molecules. to solve a wide variety of useful and chemically important problems. These
What are they like? What do they do? How can we make them? How do we readings and activities will represent your homework and as such you will
even know if we have made them? One of the primary goals of chemistry is find that your book is your homework, and your homework is your book. In
to understand matter on the molecular scale well enough to allow us to this regard, the interactive reading assignments contain integrated active
predict which chemical structures will yield particular properties, and the versions of important figures and tables, reading comprehension questions,
insight to be able to synthesize those structures. and suites of problem solving examples that give you step-by-step tutorial
help, recorded “video solutions” to important problems, and practice prob-
In this first-year course you will learn about atoms and how they form mol-
lems with rich feedback that allow you to practice a problem type multiple
ecules and other larger structures. You will use molecular structure and the
times using different chemical examples. In addition to the interactive
ways atoms bond together to explain the chemical and physical properties
reading assignments, there are additional OWL problems designed to so-
of matter on the molecular and bulk scales, and in many cases you will learn
lidify your understanding of each section as well as end-of-chapter
to predict these behaviors. One of the most challenging and rewarding as-
assignments.
pects of chemistry is that we describe and predict bulk, human scale prop-
erties through an understanding of particles that are so very tiny they The authors of the OWLBook have decades of experience teaching chem-
cannot be seen even with the most powerful optical microscope. So, when istry, talking with students, and developing online chemistry learning sys-
we see things happen in the world, we translate and imagine what must be tems. For us, this work represents our latest effort to help students beyond
occurring to the molecules that we can’t ever see. our own classrooms and colleges. All in all, we hope that your time with us
is rewarding and we wish you the best of luck.
Our integrated approach is designed to be one vehicle in your learning; it
represents a new kind of learning environment built by making the best
To the Student xix

1
Unit Outline
1.1
1.2
1.3
Chemistry: Matter
on the Atomic Scale
What Is Chemistry?
Classification of Matter
Units and Measurement
1.4 Unit Conversions
In This Unit…
This unit introduces atoms and molecules, the fundamental components
of matter, along with the different types of structures they can make
when they join together, and the types of changes they undergo. We
also describe some of the tools scientists use to describe, classify, and
measure matter.
AlbertSmirnov/iStockphoto.com
1.1 What Is Chemistry?
1.1a The Scale of Chemistry
Chemistry is the study of matter, its transformations, and how it behaves. We define
matter as any physical substance that occupies space and has mass. Matter consists of
atoms and molecules, and it is at the atomic and molecular level that chemical transforma-
tions take place.
Different fields of science examine the world at different levels of detail (Interactive
Figure 1.1.1). When describing matter that can be seen with the naked eye, scientists
are working on the macroscopic scale. Chemists use the atomic scale (sometimes called
the nanoscale or the molecular scale) when describing individual atoms or molecules. In
general, in chemistry we make observations at the macroscopic level and we describe and
explain chemical processes on the atomic level. That is, we use our macroscopic scale
observations to explain atomic scale properties.
Interactive Figure 1.1.1

Understand the scale of science.
Macroscale Microscale Nanoscale
13103 m 13100 m 1310–3 m 1310–6 m 1310–9 m 1310–12 m

1 km 1m 1 mm 1 mm 1 nm 1 pm
© 2013 Cengage Learning

Sheet of Thickness Plant Virus Atom
paper of a CD cell Bacterial Aspirin Water
Empire Height of Width of cell molecule molecule
State human AA battery
Building
The macroscopic, microscopic, and atomic scales in different fields of science.
1.1b Measuring Matter

Chemistry is an experimental science that involves designing thoughtful experiments
and making careful observations of macroscopic amounts of matter. Everything that is
known about how atoms and molecules interact has been learned through making careful
Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 2
observations on the macroscopic scale and inferring what those observations must mean
about atomic scale objects.
For example, careful measurement of the mass of a chemical sample before and after
it is heated provides information about the chemical composition of a substance. Observing
how a chemical sample behaves in the presence of a strong magnetic field such as that
found in a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner provides information about how
molecules and atoms are arranged in human tissues.
An important part of chemistry and science in general is the concept that all ideas are
open to challenge. When we perform measurements on chemical substances and interpret
the results in terms of atomic scale properties, the results are always examined to see if
there are alternative ways to interpret the data. This method of investigation leads to
chemical information about the properties and behavior of matter that is supported by the
results of many different experiments.
Example Problem 1.1.1 Differentiate between the macroscopic and atomic scales.
Classify each of the following as matter that can be measured or observed on either the
macroscopic or atomic scale.
a. An RNA molecule
b. A mercury atom
c. A sample of liquid mercury
Solution:
You are asked to identify whether a substance can be measured or observed on the macro-
scopic or atomic scales. Video Solution
You are given the identity of the substance. Tutored Practice
a. Atomic scale. An RNA molecule is too small to be seen with the naked eye or with an opti-
Problem 1.1.1
cal microscope.
b. Atomic scale. Individual atoms cannot be seen with the naked eye or with an optical
microscope.
c. Macroscopic scale. Liquid mercury can be seen with the naked eye. Section 1.1 Mastery
1.2 Classification of Matter

1.2a Classifying Matter on the Atomic Scale
Matter can be described by a collection of characteristics called properties. One of the
fundamental properties of matter is its composition, or the specific types of atoms or
molecules that make it up. An element, which is the simplest type of matter, is a pure

substance that cannot be broken down or separated into simpler substances. (Flashforward
Table 1.1.1 Some Common Elements
to Section 2.2 Elements and the Periodic Table) You are already familiar with some of the
and Their Symbols
most common elements such as gold, silver, and copper, which are used in making coins and
Name Symbol
jewelry, and oxygen, nitrogen, and argon, which are the three most abundant gases in our
atmosphere. A total of 118 elements have been identified, 90 of which exist in nature (the Hydrogen H
rest have been synthesized in the laboratory). Elements are represented by a one- or two- Carbon C
letter element symbol, and they are organized in the periodic table that is shown in
Oxygen O
Elements and Compounds (Unit 2) and in the Reference Tools. A few common elements
and their symbols are shown in Table 1.1.1. Notice that when the symbol for an element Sodium Na
consists of two letters, only the first letter is capitalized. Iron Fe
Aluminum Al
Atoms
An atom is the smallest indivisible unit of an element. For example, the element aluminum
(Interactive Figure 1.2.1) is made up entirely of aluminum atoms. Although individual Interactive Figure 1.2.1
atoms are too small to be seen directly with the naked eye or with Explore the composition of elements.
the use of a standard microscope, methods such as scanning tun-
Carbon, C
neling microscopy (STM) allow scientists to view atoms. Both
experimental observations and theoretical studies show that iso-
Oxygen, O lated atoms are spherical and that atoms of different elements
have different sizes. Thus, the model used to represent isolated

Hydrogen, H atoms consists of spheres of different sizes. In addition, chemists
often use color to distinguish atoms of different elements. For
Iodine, I example, oxygen atoms are usually represented as red spheres;
carbon atoms, as gray or black spheres; and hydrogen atoms, as
white spheres.
Elements are made up of only one type of atom. For example, the element oxygen
is found in two forms: as O2, in which two oxygen atoms are grouped together, and as O3,
in which three oxygen atoms are grouped together. The most common form of oxygen is
O2, dioxygen, a gas that makes up about 21% of
the air we breathe. Ozone, O3, is a gas with a
Charles D. Winters
distinct odor that can be toxic to humans. Both
dioxygen and ozone are elemental forms of
Dioxygen, O2 Ozone, O 3 oxygen because they consist of only one type
of atom. A piece of aluminum
Compounds and Molecules
A chemical compound is a substance formed when two or more elements are combined in a
defined ratio. Compounds differ from elements in that they can be broken down chemically into
simpler substances. You have encountered chemical compounds in many common substances,
such as table salt, a compound consisting of the elements sodium and chlorine, and phosphoric
acid, a compound found in soft drinks that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus.
Molecules are collections of atoms that are held to-
gether by chemical bonds. In models used to represent
molecules, chemical bonds are often represented using cyl-
inders or lines that connect atoms, represented as spheres.
Water, H2O The composition and arrangement of elements in molecules
affects the properties of a substance. For example, mole-
cules of both water (H2O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
contain only the elements hydrogen and oxygen. Water is a

relatively inert substance that is safe to drink in its pure
form. Hydrogen peroxide, however, is a reactive liquid that
Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 is used to disinfect wounds and can cause severe burns if
swallowed.
Example Problem 1.2.1 Classify pure substances as elements or compounds.

Classify each of the following substances as either an element or a compound.
a. Si b. CO2 c. P4
Solution:
You are asked to classify a substance as an element or a compound.
You are given the chemical formula of the substance.
a. Element. Silicon is an example of an element because it consists of only one type of atom.
Video Solution
b. Compound. This compound contains both carbon and oxygen.
c. Element. Although this is an example of a molecular substance, it consists of only a single Tutored Practice
type of atom. Problem 1.2.1
1.2b Classifying Pure Substances on the Macroscopic Scale

A pure substance contains only one type of element or compound and has fixed chemical
composition. A pure substance also has characteristic properties, measurable qualities that
are independent of the sample size. The physical properties of a chemical substance are
those that do not change the chemical composition of the material when they are measured.

Some examples of physical properties include physical state, color, viscosity (resistance to
flow), opacity, density, conductivity, and melting and boiling points.
States of Matter
One of the most important physical properties is the physical state of a material. The three
physical states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas (Interactive Figure 1.2.2).

Distinguish the properties of the three states of matter.

Charles D. Winters
Representations of a solid, a liquid, and a gas
The macroscopic properties of these states are directly related to the arrangement and
properties of particles at the atomic level. At the macroscopic level, a solid is a dense mate-
rial with a defined shape. At the atomic level, the atoms or molecules of a solid are packed
together closely. The atoms or molecules are vibrating, but they do not move past one an-
other. At the macroscopic level, a liquid is also dense, but unlike a solid it flows and takes
on the shape of its container. At the atomic level, the atoms or molecules of a liquid are
close together, but they move more than the particles in a solid and can flow past one an-
other. Finally, at the macroscopic level, a gas has no fixed shape or volume. At the atomic
level, the atoms or molecules of a gas are spaced widely apart and are moving rapidly past
one another. The particles of a gas do not strongly interact with one another, and they move
freely until they collide with one another or with the walls of the container.
The physical state of a substance can change when energy, often in the form of heat, is
added or removed. When energy is added to a solid, the temperature at which the solid is
converted to a liquid is the melting point of the substance. The conversion of liquid to solid
occurs at the same temperature as energy is removed (the temperature falls) and is called
the freezing point. A liquid is converted to a gas at the boiling point of a substance. As you
will see in the following section, melting and boiling points are measured in Celsius (ºC) or
Kelvin (K) temperature units.
Not all materials can exist in all three physical states. Polyethylene, for example, does Investigate the chemical properties
not exist as a gas. Heating a solid polyethylene milk bottle at high temperatures causes it of methanol.
to decompose into other substances. Helium, a gas at room temperature, can be liquefied
at very low temperatures, but it is not possible to solidify helium.
A change in the physical property of a substance is called a physical change. Physical
changes may change the appearance or the physical state of a substance, but they do not
change its chemical composition. For example, a change in the physical state of water—
changing from a liquid to a gas—involves a change in how the particles are packed together
at the atomic level, but it does not change the chemical makeup of the material.
Chemical Properties
The chemical properties of a substance are those that involve a chemical change in the
material and often involve a substance interacting with other chemicals. For example, a
chemical property of methanol, CH3OH, is that it is highly flammable because the compound
burns in air (it reacts with oxygen in the air) to form water and carbon dioxide (Interactive
Figure 1.2.3). A chemical change involves a change in the chemical composition of the
material. The flammability of methanol is a chemical property, and demonstrating this
Charles D. Winters
chemical property involves a chemical change.
Methanol is a flammable liquid.

Example Problem 1.2.2 Identify physical and chemical properties and physical
and chemical changes.
a. When aluminum foil is placed into liquid bromine a white solid forms. Is this a chemical
or physical property of aluminum?
b. Iodine is a purple solid. Is this a chemical or physical property of iodine?
c. Classify each of the following changes as chemical or physical.
i. Boiling water
ii. Baking bread
Solution:
You are asked to identify a change or property as chemical or physical.
You are given a description of a material or a change.
Video Solution
a. Chemical property. Chemical properties are those that involve a chemical change in the
material and often involve a substance interacting with other chemicals. In this example, one Tutored Practice
substance (the aluminum) is converted into a new substance (a white solid). Problem 1.2.2


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being greatest among them, who can afford to eat [18]Rice all the
Year round. Kid and Fowl, they have a few, and were all the
domestick Animals I saw.
Remark 4. On the Negroes here, their Clothing, Customs and
Religion.
The Men are well-limbed, clean Fellows; flattish-nosed, and many
with Exomphalos’s; the Effect of bad Midwifry, or straining in their
Infancy to walk; for they are never taught, but creep upon a Matt on
all Fours, till they have Strength to erect themselves; and
notwithstanding this, are seldom distorted. These do not circumcise,
but the Slaves brought from the Northward are frequently so;
perhaps from bordering on Morocco.
The Women are not nigh so well shaped as the Men: Childing, and
their Breasts always pendulous, stretches them to so unseemly a
Length and Bigness, that some, like the Ægyptians, I believe, could
suckle over their Shoulders. Their being imployed in all Labour,
makes them robust; for such as are not Gromettas, work hard in
Tillage, make Palm-Oil, or spin Cotton; and when they are free from
such work, the idle Husbands put them upon breading and fetishing
out their Wool, they being prodigious proud and curious in this sort of
Ornament; and keep them every day, for many hours together, at it.
Their Houses are low, little Hutts, not quite so bad as many in
Yorkshire, built with wooden Stockades set in the ground, in a round
or square form, thatched with Straw; they are swept clean every day;
and for Furniture, have a Matt or two to lie down upon; two or three
earthen or wooden Dishes, and Stools, with a Spoon, all of their own
making. They are idle, principally from want of Arts and domestick
Employments: for as I observed, they are so cautious of planting too
much, and wasting their Labour, that they are really improvident;
smoaking all day in long Reed-Pipes together; unplagued with To-
morrow, or the Politicks of Europe.
Whole Towns shift their Habitations, either when they do not like
their Neighbours, or have more Conveniency somewhere else; soon
clearing Ground enough for what Building and Culture they purpose.
Seignior Joseph, a Christian Negro of this Place, has lately with his
People left a clean, well-built Town, and removed further up the
River. Their Huts are mostly orbicular, forming a spacious square
Area in the middle, and in this, the doors paved with Cockle-Shells;
two or three Crosses erected, and round about, Lime-trees, Papais,
Plantanes, Pine-apples, and a few Bee-hives; the latter made out of
pieces of old Trees, three foot long, hollowed and raised on two
Poles.
In the middle of the Area was a great Curiosity, a large Tree with
500 hanging Nests at least upon it; this is a small familiar Bird, that
builds thus about their Towns, upon the extreme slenderest Twigs,
hanging like Fruit, and declares the Wisdom of Instinct, since it’s
designed a Security for their Young, against Monkeys, Parrots,
Squirrels, &c. Creatures of Prey, whose Weight cannot there be
supported.
Anointing their Body and Limbs with Palm-Oil, is a daily Practice
with both Sexes; some use [19]Civet, but all cast a strong,
disagreeable Smell; this mending it much like as melted Tallow is by
a Perfumer’s Shop.
Palaavers are their Courts of Judicature, where the principal or
elderly Men amongst them meet in a Ring or under a Lodge, to settle
the Differences that arise amongst themselves, or with the Factories;
the frequentest are in relation to Trade. Each salutes the other at
meeting, by a Bend of the Elbow, and raising his Hand to his Face.
When they have heard what each Party has to say, they determine
by Vote, who has the Reason of the thing on their side, and so
punish, or acquit. For Fornication, the Party (whether Man or
Woman) is sold for a Slave. If a white Man lies with another’s Slave,
he is bound to redeem her at a current Price. On a Charge of
Murder, Adultery, or if there can be any other more heinous Crime
among them, the suspected Person must drink of a red Water his
Judges prepare; which is called, purging the Criminal: that is, if the
suspected be of ill Life, or had Envy to the deceased, so that the
Surmizes against him are strong, though they want positive
Evidence; they will give him so much of that Liquor as shall kill him;
but if inclined to spare him, they politickly give less, or make it
weaker, whereby his Innocence appears the better to the Friends
and Relations of the deceased.
Panyarring, is a Term for Man-stealing along the whole Coast:
Here it’s used also, for stealing any thing else; and by Custom (their
Law) every Man has a right to seize of another at any Conveniency,
so much as he can prove afterwards, at the Palaaver-Court, to have
been defrauded of, by any body in the same place he was cheated.
Dancing is the Diversion of their Evenings: Men and Women make
a Ring in an open part of the Town, and one at a time shews his Skill
in antick Motions and Gesticulations, yet with a great deal of Agility,
the Company making the Musick by clapping their hands together
during the time, helped by the louder noise of two or three Drums
made of a hollowed piece of Tree, and covered with Kid-Skin.
Sometimes they are all round in a Circle laughing, and with uncouth
Notes, blame or praise somebody in the Company.
During our stay at this Port, we paid a Visit to Seignior Joseph,
about nine miles up the River. The Reason of his leaving the other
Town, he told me was, the frequent Palaavers he was engaged in,
on account of Differences between his People and the Grimattoes,
and the great Expence he was at, in so near a Neighbourhood with
the English. He has been in England and Portugal; at the last place
he was baptized, and took in that christian Erudition that he
endeavours to propagate. He has built a little Oratory for his
People’s Devotions; erected a Cross; taught several of his Kindred
Letters, dispersing among them little Romish Prayer-Books, and
many of them are known by Christian Names. Those of the Country
not yet initiated, never have but one. Mousi, or Moses; Yarrat, and
Cambar, are very common Names to the Men; Baulee, and Kibullee,
to the Women. Others take the Cognomen from their Disposition;
Lion, Lamb, Bear, Hog, &c. like our Danish Ancestors. Seignior
Joseph, who is very communicative, tells me, to the extent of his
knowledge, the People are cleanly, of good Temper, and docible; all
wishing some Missionaries would think their Conversion and Wants
worth regarding: But the Poverty of their Country will probably keep
them a long time from that Benefit. There is no Invitation in a barren
Soil, scarce of Provisions and Necessaries, Danger of wild Beasts a
mile from Home (especially Wolves;) and about their Houses, Rats,
Snakes, Toads, Musquitoes, Centipes, Scorpions, Lizards, and
innumerable Swarms of Ants, a white, black, and red sort, that build
to 8 or 9 Foot high, dig up the Foundation of their Houses in two or
three Years, or turn a Chest of Cloaths to Dust (if not watched) in as
many Weeks. This Christian Negro, by the Advantage of Trade, has
in some measure removed the Wants of his own Family (his Towns;)
they are tolerably stocked with Guinea Hens, Fish, and Venison;
while the Country fifty miles off, he says, have little to feed on but
Honey, and Manyoco Root. He received us in a Europæan Dress
(Gown, Slippers, Cap, &c.) and sent his Canoos out to shew us the
Diversion of chasing the Manatea; they brought one ashore in two
hours time, and we had stewed, roast, and boiled, with a clean
Table-cloth, Knives and Forks, and Variety of Wines and strong Beer,
for our Entertainment. The Flesh of this Creature was white, and not
fishy; but very tough, and seasoned high (as are all their Dishes)
with Ochre, Malaguetta, and Bell-pepper.
His Kinswomen came into the Room after we had dined, and to
them other Neighbours, saluting those of their own Colour, one by
one, by making a Bend of their right Elbow, so that the Hand comes
nigh the Mouth; the other to whom she addresses, is in the same
Posture, and mixing their Thumbs and middle Fingers, they snap
them gently off, and retreat with a small Quaker-like Obeysance,
decently and without Hurry or Laugh. They shewed likewise much
good-nature towards one another, in dividing two or three Biskets,
and half a Pint of Citron Water (we brought) into twenty Parts, rather
than any one should miss a Taste. In conclusion, Seignior Joseph
saw us to the Boat, and took leave with the same Complaisance he
had treated us.
The Religion here, if it may be called such, is their Veneration to
Gregries: Every one keeps in his House, in his Canoo, or about his
Person, something that he highly reverences, and that he imagines
can, and does defend him from Miscarriage, in the nature our
Country-Folks do Charms, but with more Fear: And these things are
very various; either a cleaved piece of Wood, a Bundle of peculiar
little Sticks or Bones, a Monkey’s Skull, or the like. To these, every
Family has now and then a Feast, inviting one another; but of this
more, under the Word Fetish.
The GRAIN and MALAGUETTA Coasts.
We left Sierraleon and were joined by our Consort the Weymouth,
May 1, from Gambia; we found upon Conference, that both Ships
had like to have ended their Voyage at these first Ports: She had run
on a Sand in that River, wringing three Days and Nights in a Tide’s
way, with great difficulty getting off: We, at Sierraleon letting in Water
to the Ship one Evening, had forgot the Plug, till we had 5 or 6 Foot
Water in the Hold.
The Company’s Presents, we understood by them, were received
well there by the King of Barra, and he has given the Factors leave
to build a Fortification at Gilliflee, a Town commanded by a Woman,
about 15 Miles up the River; made a Duchess by Captain
Passenger, from whence the Custom I believe has been taken up, of
distinguishing the most deserving Fellows at trading Towns by the
Titles of Knights, Colonels, and Captains, which they are very proud
of. This Duchess of Gilliflee has become very much the Factory’s
Friend there, and gives all possible Assistance in their Settlement.
Cape St. Mary’s, or the Starboard Entrance of that River, they
found no Cannibals, as commonly reported among Sailors; but a
civilized People, with whom they wooded their Ship.
On the 4th we were off Cape Monte, and next day Montzerado,
both high Lands; the former appearing in a double, the latter with a
single Hommock; the Country trenching from them, low and woody;
about 35 Fathom Water 3 Leagues from Shore. From the latter,
came off a Canoo with the Cabiceer, Captain John Hee,
distinguished by an old Hat, and Sailor’s Jackett with a greater
number of thick brass Rings on his Fingers and Toes, than his
Attendants. He seemed shy of entering the Ship, apprehending a
Panyarring; his Town’s People having often suffered by the
Treachery of Ships, and they as often returned it, sometimes with
Cruelty, which has given rise to the Report of their being Savages
and Cannibals at several places; very unlikely any where, because
they could not part with their Slaves, which are but few, if they had
this Custom, nor could they have any Trade or Neighbours: Their
Fears would make them shun their Enemies (the rest of Mankind)
and all Correspondence totally cease.
The Fetish they brought off, on this dangerous Voyage, was a
Bundle of small, black Sticks, like a hundred of Sparrowgrass put
into a Bag, knit of Silk-grass, and hanging over one of their
Shoulders, seeming to place a Security and Confidence in it; for I
would have handled and tasted it, but found it put them in a Fright,
saying, to deter me, You didee, you kicatavoo, (i. e.) if you eat, you
die presently.
The mutual Distrust between us, made their present Business only
begging old Breeches, Shirts, Rags, Biskett, and whatever else they
saw, parting in some hurry, and calling to one another for that end, in
a Note like what Butchers use in driving Cattle. They have plenty of
Milhio, Rice, Yamms, and Salt hereabouts.
We found in our coasting by Bashau, and other trading Towns, the
same Fears subsisting, coming off every day in their Canoos, and
then at a stand whether they should enter: The boldest would
sometimes come on board, bringing Rice, Malaguetta, and Teeth,
but staying under Fear and Suspicion. Here we may take these
Observations.
1. Canoos are what are used through the whole Coast for
transporting Men and Goods. Each is made of a single Cotton-tree,
chizelled and hollowed into the shape of a Boat; some of them 8 or
10 Foot broad, carrying twenty Rowers. The Negroes do not row one
way and look another, but all forward, and standing at their Paddles,
they dash together with dexterity, and if they carry a Cabiceer,
always sing; a Mark of Respect.
2. Cabiceers are the principal of the trading Men at all Towns; their
Experience, or Courage having given them that Superiority: All Acts
of Government in their several Districts, are by their Votes.
They came off to us with some English Title and Certificate; the
Favour of former Traders to them, for their Honesty and good
Service; and were they done with Caution, might be of use to Ships
as they succeed in the Trade: Whereas now they contain little Truth,
being done out of Humour, and learn them only to beg or steal with
more Impudence.
3. The Negrish Language alters a little in sailing, but as they are
Strangers to Arts, &c. restrained to a few Words, expressive of their
Necessities: This I think, because in their Meetings they are not
talkative; In their Trading the same Sound comes up often; and their
Songs, a Repetition of six Words a hundred times.
Some Negrish Words.
Didee, Eat. Attee, ho, How do you?
Malafia, } Dashee, a Present.
Govina, } Ivory. Kickatavoo, Killed, or Dead.
Malembenda, Rice. Tossu, Be gone.
Cockracoo, Fowl. Yarra, Sick.
Praam, Good. Fabra, Come.
Nino, Sleep. Brinnee, White Man.
Sam sam, all one. Bovinee, Black Man.
Acquidera, Agreed. Soquebah, Gone, lost.
Oura, Very well. Tongo, Man’s Privities.
Tomy, Arse-clout. Bombo, Woman’s.
Lastly, the Dress common to both Sexes every where, is the Tomy,
or Arse-clout, and the pleating or breading of their Wooll. The Arse-
clout the Women tie about their Hips, and falls half way down their
Thigh all round; but the Men bring it under their Twist, and fasten just
upon the girdling part behind. Both take great delight in twisting the
Wool of their Heads into Ringlets, with Gold or Stones, and bestow a
great deal of Time and Genius in it.
The Women are fondest of what they call Fetishing, setting
themselves out to attract the good Graces of the Men. They carry a
Streak round their Foreheads, of white, red, or yellow Wash, which
being thin, falls in lines before it dries. Others make Circles with it,
round the Arms and Bodies, and in this frightful Figure, please. The
Men, on the other side, have their Ornaments consist in Bracelets; or
Manilla’s, about their Wrists and Ancles, of Brass, Copper, Pewter, or
Ivory; the same again on their Fingers and Toes: a Necklace of
Monkey’s Teeth, Ivory Sticks in their Ears, with a broad head. Most
of them have one, two, or more of these Ornaments, and have an
Emulation in the number and use of them.
When the Nakedness, Poverty and Ignorance of these Species of
Men are considered; it would incline one to think it a bettering their
Condition, to transport them to the worst of Christian Slavery; but as
we find them little mended in those respects at the West-Indies, their
Patrons respecting them only as Beasts of Burthen; there is rather
Inhumanity in removing them from their Countries and Families; here
they get Ease with their spare Diet; the Woods, the Fruits, the
Rivers, and Forests, with what they produce, is equally the property
of all. By Transfretation they get the brown Bread, without the
Gospel: together, as Mr. Baxter observed, they might be good Fare,
but hard Work and Stripes without it, must be allowed an unpleasant
Change. They are fed, it’s true, but with the same Diet and Design
we do Horses; and what is an aggravating Circumstance, they have
a Property in nothing, not even in their Wives and Children. No
wonder then, Men under this View, or worse Apprehensions, should
be prompted with Opportunity frequently to sacrifice the Instruments
of it.
SESTHOS.
We anchored before Sesthos, or Sesthio, May 10th, a Place where
most of our windward Slave-ships stop to buy Rice, exchanged at
about 2s. per Quintal. The River is about half the breadth of the
Thames; a narrow Entrance only for Boats on the starboard Side,
between two Rocks, which, on great Swells and Winds, make the
shooting of it dangerous; the rest of the breadth being choaked with
Sands.
The Town is large, and built after a different Model from those we
have left; they run them up (square or round) four Foot from the
Earth; at that height, is the first and chief Room, to sit, talk, or sleep
in, lined with matted Rinds of Trees, supported with Stockades, and
in the middle of it, a Fire-place for Charcoal, that serves a double
Purpose; driving off Insects and Vermine, and drying their Rice and
Indian Corn. Of the upper Loft they make a Store-house, that runs up
pyramidal 30 foot; making the Town at distance, appear like a
number of Spires, each standing singly.
This, and every Town hereabouts, had a Palaaver-Room, a publick
Place of meeting for the People to council, and transact the Business
of the Society: They are large, and built something like our Lodges
for Carts, open, 4 foot from the Ground; then a Stage to sit, rafted
and well covered against Rain and Sun-shine. Here they meet
without distinction; King and Subject, smoaking from Morning to
Night. At this Place, it is common to bring your Traffick; brass Pans,
pewter Basins, Powder, Shot, old Chests, &c. and exchange for
Rice, Goats and Fowls. Two or three Pipes, a Charge of Powder, or
such a Trifle, buys a Fowl. A 2 pound Basin buys a Goat; and I
purchased two for an old Chest, with a Lock to it. Such a piece of
Mechanism I found a Rarity, and brought all the Country down to
admire. A Watch still encreased their Wonder; and making Paper
speak (as they call it) is a Miracle.
They bring their written Certificates hinted above, and when you
tell them the Contents, or they are made Messengers of Notes
between English Ships, they express the utmost Surprize at such
sort of Knowledge and Intercourse; it infinitely exceeds their
Understanding, and impresses a superior and advantageous Idea of
the Europeans.
The King who commands here has the Name of Pedro; he lives
about five Miles up the River, a Sample of Negro Majesty.
As there is a Dashee expected before Ships can wood and water
here; it was thought expedient to send the Royal Perquisite up by
Embassy (a Lieutenant and Purser) who being in all respects equal
to the Trust, were dismissed with proper Instructions, and being
arrived at the King’s Town, they were ushered or thrust in by some of
the Courtiers into the common Palaaver-Room (to wait the King’s
dressing, and coming from his Palace) his publick Audience being
ever in the Presence of the People. After waiting an hour, King Pedro
came attended by a hundred naked Nobles, all smoaking, and a
Horn blowing before them. The King’s Dress was very antick: He had
a dirty, red Bays Gown on, chequer’d with patch-work of other
Colours, like a Jack pudding, and a Fellow to bear the Train, which
was a narrow Slip of Culgee tacked to the bottom of the Gown. He
had an old black full-bottom’d Wig, uncombed; an old Hat not half big
enough, and so set considerably behind the Fore-top, that made his
meagre Face like a Scare-crow; coarse Shoes and Stockings,
unbuckled and unty’d, and a brass Chain of 20lib. at least about his
Neck.
To this Figure of a Man, our modern Embassadors in their Holiday
Suits, fell on their Knees, and might have continued there till this
time, for what Pedro cared: He was something surprized indeed, but
took it for the Fashion of their Country, and so kept making instant
Motions for the Dashee. This brought them from their Knees, as the
proper Attitude for presenting it; consisting in a trading Gun, two
pieces of salt Ship-beef, a Cheese, a Bottle of Brandy, a Dozen of
Pipes, and two Dozen of Congees. But Pedro, who understood the
Present better than the Bows, did not seem pleased when he saw it;
not for any defect in the Magnificence, but they were such things as
he had not present Occasion for; asking some of their Clothes and to
take those back again, particularly their Breeches, sullied a little with
kneeling in the Spittle: But on a Palaaver with his Ministers, the
Present was accepted, and the Officers dismissed back with a Glass
of Palm-Wine and Attee, ho, (the common way of Salutation with
Thumbs and Fingers mixed, and snapping off.)
To smooth the King into a good Opinion of our Generosity, we
made it up to his Son, Tom Freeman; who, to shew his good-nature,
came on board uninvited, bringing his Flagelet, and obliging us with
some wild Notes. Him we dress’d with an edg’d Hat, a Wig, and a
Sword, and gave a Patent upon a large Sheet of Parchment,
creating him Duke of Sesthos, affixing all our Hands, and the
Impress of a Butter mark on Putty.
This was taken so kindly by the Father, that he sent us a couple of
Goats in return, and his younger Son Josee for further Marks of our
Favour; whom we dignified also, on a small Consideration, with the
Title of Prince of Baxos. Several indeed had been titled, but none so
eminently, as by Patent, before; which procured us the entire good-
will of the King; suffering us at any time to hawl our Searn in the
River, where we catched good store of Mullets, Soles, Bump noses,
and Rock-fish; and to go up to their Villages unmolested.
In one of these Towns, some others of us paid a Visit to his
Majesty, whom we found at a Palace built as humble as a Hog-sty;
the entrance was narrow like a Port-hole, leading into what we may
call his Court-Yard, a slovenly little Spot, and two or three Hutts in it,
which I found to be the Apartment of his Women. From this we
popped through another short Portico, and discovered him on the left
hand, upon a place without his House, raised like a Taylor’s Shop-
board, and smoaking with two or three old Women, (the favourite
Diversion of both Sexes.) His Dress and Figure, with the novelty of
ours, created mutual Smiles which held a few Minutes, and then we
took leave with the Attee, ho.
From his Town we went to two others still farther up the River; at
one of them was a bright yellow-colour’d Man, and being curious to
know his Original, were informed (if we interpret their Signs and
Language right) that he came from a good distance in the Country,
where were more. Captain Bullfinch Lamb, and others, have since
told me, they had seen several; Mr. Thompson, that he saw one at
Angola, and another at Madagascar; a great Rarity, and as
perplexing to account for, as the black Colour.
Exomphalos’s are very common among the Negroes here. I saw
also one squint-ey’d; another without a Nose; and another with a
Hair Lip; Blemishes rare among them. Circumcision is used pretty
much; not as a religious Symbol, but at the Humour of the Parent,
who had found a Conveniency in it.
The Diet is Rice, Potatoes, Yacoes or Indian Corn, Parsly, and
other Vegetables; the Cultivation of which, and their domestick
Affairs, are all imposed on the Women.
In general may be observed, they are exceeding cowardly, like
other Countries undisciplined; a whole Town running away from a
Boat with white Men. Thievish on their own Dunghills; none of them
seeming to have any Notion of it as a Crime, and quarrel only about
a Share of what is stole. So lazy, that Scores of them will attend our
Searn for a Bisket, or the Distribution of such small Fish as are
thrown by; for tho’ their Waters afford great Plenty, they want the
Means or Inclination to catch them; chusing rather to loiter and jump
about the Sands, or play at round Holes, than endeavour to get Food
for themselves.
Cape A P O L L O N I A .
From Sesthos, we reached in two or three Days Cape Palma;
weighed Anchor from Jaque a Jaques, the 28th; from Bassau, the
30th; Assmee, the 31st; and anchored here the 6th of June. In this
part of our Sailing may be observed,
1. That the Land from Sierraleon, excepting two or three Capes,
and that about Drewin, appears low, and the first Land you see (as
the Irishman says) is Trees; runs very streight without Bays or Inlets,
which makes it difficult to distinguish, and impossible for us to land
safely at; the Surff breaking all along to a great height, by means of a
continued Swell from a vast Southern Ocean; a Sea which the
Natives only understand, and can push their Canoos through. This
seems a natural Prohibition to Strangers, and whence it follows in
respect to Trade, that Ships are obliged to send their Boats with
Goods near Shore, where the Natives meet them, and barter for
Slaves, Gold, and Ivory; for at many places a Grandee Shippee (as
they call it) affrights them, and they will venture then, as I imagine
they can swim.
2. The Ground is very tough, our Consort and we losing three
Anchors in heaving a Purchase; we stopping at Nights for fear of
over-shooting Places of Trade.
3. We find pretty equal Soundings, about 14 Fathom Water, a
League from Shore, unless at one noted place, a Lusus Naturæ,
called the bottomless Pit, 7 Leagues below Jaque a Jaques, where
the Depth is all at once unfathomable, and about three Miles over.
The great Sir Is. Newton, in his calculating the Force of Gravity,
says, Bodies decrease in their Weight, and Force of their Fall, in the
Proportion of the Squares of Distance from the Center; so that a Tun
at the Surface of the Earth would weigh but ¼ of a Tun, removed
one Semi-Diameter of the Earth higher; and at three Semi-
Diameters, but the 1/16 of a Tun. In like manner their Velocities of
Descent decrease: A Body at the Surface which would fall 16 foot in
a Second, at 12000 Miles high, or three Semi-Diameters, would fall
only 1/16, or one Foot in a Second; but at all given Distances,
something, &c.
Now, according to this Rule, heaving a Lead in great depths of
Water, the Velocity should increase with the descent or sinking of it;
since in the Progress of Gravity, the falling Body in every space of
Time receives a new Impulse, and continually acting, the same
Gravity super-adds a new Velocity; so that at the end of two
Seconds, to be double what it was at the end of the first, and so on,
which here the Weight of the super-incumbent Medium should still
more accelerate. Yet a Lead-line is drawn out perceptibly slower at
the second, than the first hundred Fathoms: But perhaps this
proceeds from the increasing quantity of Line to be drawn with it, not
so equally apt to demerge, and a Nisus in all Bodies of Water, from
below upwards, contrary to Gravity.
4. The Winds were more Southerly than above, checking the
Land-Breeze, which obtaining brings strong unwholesome Smells
from the Mangroves.
5. Their Diet being very slovenly, and much of a piece in this
Track, I shall here entertain you with two or three of their Dishes.
Slabbersauce is made of Rice and Fish, a Fowl, a Kid, or
Elephant’s Flesh, the better for being on the stink. They boil this with
a good quantity of Ochre and Palm-Oil, and is accounted a royal
Feast.
A Dog is a Rarity with some: Our Master had a little Boy-Slave of
eight years of Age, in exchange for one. At other Places, Monkeys
are a very common Diet.
Bomini is Fish dried in the Sun without Salt; stinking, they put it in
a Frying-pan with Palm-Oil, then mixed with boiled Rice, snatch it up
greedily with their Fingers.
Black Soupee is a favourite Dish, as well at our Factories, as
among the Negroes; we make it of Flesh or Fowl, stew’d sweet, with
some uncommon tasted Herbs; but the ascendant Taste is Pepper,
Ochre, and Palm-Oil. At first I thought it disagreeable, but Custom
reconciled it as the best in the Country: Men’s way of Diet being
certainly a principal Reason why in all places some of Land and Sea-
animals are approved or rejected; liked in one Country, and detested
in another.
To return to Jaque a Jaques; we met there the Robert of Bristol,
Captain Harding, who sailed from Sierraleon before us, having
purchased thirty Slaves, whereof Captain Tomba mentioned there
was one; he gave us the following melancholly Story. That this
Tomba, about a Week before, had combined with three or four of the
stoutest of his Country-men to kill the Ship’s Company, and attempt
their Escapes, while they had a Shore to fly to, and had near
effected it by means of a Woman-Slave, who being more at large,
was to watch the proper Opportunity. She brought him word one
night that there were no more than five white Men upon the Deck,
and they asleep, bringing him a Hammer at the same time (all the
Weapons that she could find) to execute the Treachery. He
encouraged the Accomplices what he could, with the Prospect of
Liberty, but could now at the Push, engage only one more and the
Woman to follow him upon Deck. He found three Sailors sleeping on
the Fore-castle, two of which he presently dispatched, with single
Strokes upon the Temples; the other rouzing with the Noise, his
Companions seized; Tomba coming soon to their Assistance, and
murdering him in the same manner. Going aft to finish the work, they
found very luckily for the rest of the Company, that these other two of
the Watch were with the Confusion already made awake, and upon
their Guard, and their Defence soon awaked the Master underneath
them, who running up and finding his Men contending for their Lives,
took a Hand-spike, the first thing he met with in the Surprize, and
redoubling his Strokes home upon Tomba, laid him at length flat
upon the Deck, securing them all in Irons.
The Reader may be curious to know their Punishment: Why,
Captain Harding weighing the Stoutness and Worth of the two
Slaves, did, as in other Countries they do by Rogues of Dignity, whip
and scarify them only; while three others, Abettors, but not Actors,
nor of Strength for it, he sentenced to cruel Deaths; making them
first eat the Heart and Liver of one of them killed. The Woman he
hoisted up by the Thumbs, whipp’d, and slashed her with Knives,
before the other Slaves till she died.
From this Ship we learned also, that the inland Country who had
suffered by the Panyarrs of the Cobelohou and Drewin People, have
lately been down, and destroyed the Towns, and the Trade is now at
a stand; and perhaps the Consciousness of this Guilt increases their
Fears of us. The Ceremony of contracting Friendship and Trade, is
dropping a little salt-water into the Eye, or taking it into their Mouth,
and spurting out again; which must be answer’d, or no Trade will
follow.
At Cape Apollonia, the Natives are of a jet black, very lively and
bold, accustomed to Trade, and better fetished than their
Neighbours; have cleaner and larger Tomys, wear Amber Beads,
Copper Rings, Cowrys, and their Wooll twisted in numberless little
Rings and Tufts, with bits of Shell, Straw, or Gold twisted in them.
They have all a Dagger † cut in their Cheek, and often in other Parts
of their Body: A Custom preserved among a few, down to the Gold
Coast. The Romans and Goths, when possessed of Barbary,
exempted the Christians from Tribute; and to know them, engraved a
+ upon their Cheeks; but this seems too distant for any Analogy with
theirs. All we learn is, its being a very ancient Custom, and
distinguishes them from the Country, who they Panyarr and sell for
Slaves, naked at 4 oz. per Head; allowing 100 per Cent. on Goods,
they cost at a medium 8l. Sterling. The Cabiceers, out of this,
demand a due of 20s. and the Palaaver-Man 10s. whence I
conjecture they are more regularly trained to Panyarring or thieving,
than the Towns we have past.
There is a great deal of Ground cleared about this Cape, and
sown with Indian Corn; first brought among the Negroes, it’s said, by
the Portuguese.
Cabo T R E S P U N T A S .
We stopped a few Hours at Axim in our Passage from Apollonia, and
anchored here June 7, most Ships doing it for the Conveniency of
watering, more difficultly supplied at any parts above. It is called
Three Points, from that number of Headlands that jutt one without
the other; within the innermost is a commodious Bay, nigh the
watering-place. John Conny, who is the principal Cabiceer, exacts a
Duty from all Ships, of an Ounce of Gold, for this Privilege; and
sends off a Servant with his Commission, a large Gold-headed
Cane, engraved John Conny, to demand it. Our Neglect herein, with
some opprobrious Treatment of the Agent, occasioned John Conny
next day to come down with a Posse and seize our Water casks
ashore, carrying away ten or a dozen of our Men Prisoners to his
Town. The Officer among them endeavouring to distinguish to John
the Difference of a King’s Ship from others, got his Head broke: John
(who understood English enough to swear) saying, by G—— me
King here, and will be paid not only for my Water, but the Trouble
has been given me in collecting it. Drink on, says he to the Sailors,
(knocking out the Head of a Half-Anchor of Brandy,) and eat what my
House affords; I know your part is to follow Orders. John, after some
trouble in negotiating, accepted in recompence, six Ounces of Gold,
and an Anchor of Brandy.
His Town stands about three Miles Westward of the watering-
place; large, and as neatly raftered and built, as most of our North or
West small Country Villages. Every Man his Coco-trees round the
House, and in the Streets (such as they are) sit People to sell the
Nuts, Limes, Soap, Indian Corn, and what is a great part of their
Food, Canky, the Work of the Women. It is made of Indian Corn,
after this manner; they pound it in a Mortar for some time, then
malaxing it with Water and Palm-Wine, they grind it still finer with a
Mull upon a great Stone, which every House almost has at the Door
for that purpose; baked or boiled in Cakes, it makes a hearty and
well-tasted Bread.
The Danish (or, as they say, the Brandenburghers) Fort was on an
adjacent Hill, of four or five Bastions, and could mount fifty Guns.
The Garison, when in being, probably taught the Natives the way of
marketing, observed only where the Factories are; but being some
few years since relinquished by them, it’s now in John Conny’s
possession, and has raised up some Contests and Palaavers with
the Dutch: for they pretending a Title of Purchase, sent a Bomb-
Vessel and two or three Frigates last Year, to demand a Surrendry;
but John being a bold and subtle Fellow, weighing their Strength,
answer’d, that he expected some Instrument should be shewed him
to confirm the Brandenburghers Sale; and even with that (says he) I
can see no Pretence but to the Guns, the Brick, and Stone of the
Building, for the Ground was not theirs to dispose of. They have paid
me Rent for it, (continues he) and since they have thought fit to
remove, I do not design to tenant it out to any other white Men while
I live. This sort of Palaaver nettled the Dutch; they threw in some
Bombs and Shot; and heating more with Rage and Brandy, very
rashly landed forty of their Men under the Command of a Lieutenant
to attack the Town: They fired once without any Damage, and then
John at the Head of his Men, rushing from under the Cover of the
Houses, outnumbred and cut them in pieces; paving the entrance of
his Palace soon after, with their Skulls.
This Advantage made him very rusty, upon what he called his
Dues from every body, tho’ just in Trade; and when we had returned
to a good Understanding, my self, with some other of our Officers
paid him a Visit: Our landing was dangerous, the Southerly Winds
making so great a Surff, nor could we do it by our own Boats, but
Canoos of his sending, paying an Accy for the Service; they count
the Seas, and know when to paddle safely on or off. John himself
stood on the Shore to receive us, attended with a Guard of twenty or
thirty Men under bright Arms, who conducted us to his House; a
Building pretty large, and raised from the Materials of the Fort. It
ascends with a double Stone Stair-case without, of twelve Steps; on

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1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 1

4.5 Stoichiometry of Reactions

Unit Recap 130

5.4 Enthalpy Changes 6.4a Wave Properties of Matter 180

5.6 Standard Heats of Reaction 161 Unit Recap 189

Unit Recap 167

7.2 Orbital Energy 196 8.2 Lewis Structures 228

Unit Recap 262

Unit Recap 322

11.1a Condensed Phases and Intermolecular Forces 326

Unit Recap 353

13.1a Review of Solubility 398

13.2a Entropy and Thermodynamic Control

Unit Recap 479

16.6 Molecular Structure and Control

Unit Recap 549

17.2 Buffers 558

Unit Recap 692

21.2 Isomerism 708

21.3 Functional Groups 711

Unit Recap 757

23.3a Composition of Coordination Compounds 767 24.3a Rate of Decay 802

Unit Recap 820

support of the development of the first General Chemistry CD-ROM. She

About the Authors xvii

About the Authors xviii

To the Student xix

Interactive Figure 1.1.1

13103 m 13100 m 1310–3 m 1310–6 m 1310–9 m 1310–12 m

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The macroscopic, microscopic, and atomic scales in different fields of science.

1.1b Measuring Matter

Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 2

1.2 Classification of Matter

Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 3

have different sizes. Thus, the model used to represent isolated

the air we breathe. Ozone, O3, is a gas with a

Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 4

contain only the elements hydrogen and oxygen. Water is a

Example Problem 1.2.1 Classify pure substances as elements or compounds.

1.2b Classifying Pure Substances on the Macroscopic Scale

Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 5

Interactive Figure 1.2.2

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Representations of a solid, a liquid, and a gas