Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Archaeological Recovery of The JAVA SEA
Archaeological Recovery of The JAVA SEA
Archaeological Recovery of The JAVA SEA
Archaeological Recovery
of the
Pacific
Sea
Resources
MATHERS
FLECKER
1997
ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORT
Archaeological Recovery
of the
Edited by
WILLIAM M. MATHERS
MICHAEL FLECKER
Telephone: 410-268-5661
Facsimile: 410-268-9371
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 O b je c tive s 1
1.2 Lo c a ting the Wre c k 1
1.3 Po litic a l C o nsid e ra tio ns 4
2.1 C hina ’ s Po sitio n in the Na n Ha i Tra d e fro m 500 B.C . Thro ug h the
Ta ng Dyna sty (A.D. 906) 5
2.2 Tra d e Inte ra c tio n During the So ng Dyna sty (A.D. 960-1260) 18
2.3 Tra d e Inte ra c tio n During the Yua n Dyna sty (A.D. 1260-1367) 23
2.4 Tra d e C o m m o d itie s 27
2.5 Mo ne ta ry Syste m 30
7.1 Iro n 77
7.2 Ivo ry 80
7.3 Re sin 81
7.4 Ba la nc e We ig hts a nd Ba rs 81
7.5 Fig urine s a nd Finia ls 83
7.6 Tra ys 85
7.7 G o ng s 86
7.8 C o p p e r Ing o ts 87
7.9 Misc e lla ne o us C o p p e r Allo y Artifa c ts 88
7.10 G la ssw a re 89
7.11 Ro c ks 91
7.12 Sha rp e ning Sto ne s 92
7.13 O rg a nic Find s 93
7.14 Tin Ing o ts 94
9.0 High-Fired Ceramics of Song Dynasty China: The Java Sea Cargo
in Context 103
iv
11.0 Ceramics Inventory 116
Bibliography 185
Appendices 191
A. Artifa c t Da ta b a se 191
B. Se le c te d Pa g e s fro m Artifa c t Re g istra tio n Re p o rt 198
C. Artifa c t Distrib utio n Pla n 203
D. C e ra m ic s Distrib utio n Plo ts 205
E. List o f Ma rine Sp e c ie s 218
F. So il Ana lysis Da ta 223
G. Wo o d Id e ntific a tio n 231
H. C 14 Da ting o f Re sin 241
I. Tin Ing o t Ana lysis 244
J. Iro n Ana lysis 257
K. Pro je c t Pe rso nne l 261
L. Ac kno w le d g m e nts 265
v
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objectives and Results
In Ma rc h 1996 Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s (PSR) le a rne d o f a ship w re c k in the Ja va Se a . The
w re c k ha d a c a rg o o f iro n a nd thirte e nth-c e ntury So ng d yna sty C hine se c e ra m ic s. It b e c a m e
kno w n a s the Ja va Se a Wre c k.
This Arc ha e o lo g ic a l Re p o rt d e ta ils the histo ric a l b a c kg ro und a t the tim e o f the lo ss,
d e sc rib e s the a rc ha e o lo g ic a l m e tho d s tha t w e re use d to e xc a va te a nd d o c um e nt the w re c k,
a nd d isc usse s the site , the ship , a nd the like ly w re c king p ro c e ss. It p re se nts the a rtifa c ts a nd
c e ra m ic s in inve nto ry fo rm a nd g o e s o n to stud y the c o nte xt o f the find s in tim e a nd p la c e . The
iro n c a rg o , the m o st e xte nsive e ve r d isc o ve re d o n a ship o f this e ra , is d isc usse d in te rm s o f the
histo ry a nd te c hno lo g y o f iro n p ro d uc tio n in Asia .
No ne o f the ship ’ s struc ture ha s survive d . Ho w e ve r, fro m e vid e nc e g le a ne d fro m the iro n
c o nc re tio ns a nd fra g m e nts o f w o o d , it se e m s tha t the ship w a s o f Tha i o rig in. The p rim a ry c a rg o
o f iro n c a uld ro ns a nd b a rs w a s lo a d e d in ho ld s the full le ng th o f the ship . Te ns o f tho usa nd s o f
c e ra m ic s fro m the kilns o f so uthe rn C hina w e re sto w e d o n to p o f the iro n. The ship the n m a d e its
w a y so uth a lo ng the c o a sta l ro ute , p o ssib ly sto p p ing in Vie tna m , Tha ila nd , a nd Sum a tra , w he re it
tra d e d fo r ivo ry, e a rthe nw a re ke nd is, a nd a ro m a tic re sins. Ha ving p a sse d thro ug h the
tre a c he ro us Ba nka Stra it, it he a d e d o n to w a rd s e a ste rn Ja va w he re the Ma ja p a hit e m p ire w a s
ta king sha p e . But fo r re a so ns ne ve r to b e d isc o ve re d , it sa nk in the Ja va Se a , w e ll sho rt o f its fina l
d e stina tio n.
1
sp o ng e s, a nd o yste r she lls to thrive . Bird s a re a lw a ys fe e d ing o n sc ho o ls o f fish, b ut m o st o f the
sc ho o ls a re p e la g ic a nd the re fo re m o ve a ro und . Fish o ve r a w re c k sta y in m o re o r le ss the sa m e
lo c a tio n. Whe n fishe rm e n o b se rve b ird s fe e d ing fo r a lo ng tim e in o ne lo c a tio n, it is a ve ry g o o d
sig n tha t a w re c k lie s b e lo w .
Ja va Se a Wre c k lo c a tio n ma p .
2
The fishe rm e n a re usua lly m o re inte re ste d in fish tha n the w re c k itse lf. The y ke e p the
p o sitio n to the m se lve s, a s it p ro vid e s a c o ntinuo us sup p ly o f re d sna p p e r a nd g ro up e r. The ir
a b ility to re lo c a te the site is re m a rka b le , c o nsid e ring the b ird s a re o nly the re o n the ra re
o c c a sio ns tha t the sc ho o ls o f fish c o m e to the surfa c e . In the c a se o f the Ja va Se a Wre c k the
ste a m ing fo r, sa y, fo ur ho urs a t 10° fro m the p la tfo rm , the y c o m e to the a re a using o nly a w a tc h
c lo se st na vig a tio n m a rke r is a n o ffsho re o il-p ro d uc tio n p la tfo rm m o re tha n thirty m ile s a w a y. By
3
1.3 Political Considerations
4
2.0 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND b y Dr. Jo hn
Miksic
2.1 China's Position in the Nan Hai Trade from 500 B.C. through the
Tang Dynasty (A.D. 906)
2.1.1 Introduction
In the ye a r A.D. 100, a d ista nt o b se rve r o f the Ea rth w o uld ha ve se e n hum a nkind o n the
ve rg e o f a n e xp lo sio n o f c o m m e rc ia l a c tivity. Be twe e n the Me d ite rra ne a n, whe re the Ro ma n
Emp ire und e r the C a e sa rs wa s a t its he ig ht, a nd C hina , sta b le a nd p ro sp e ro us und e r the Ha n
Dyna sty, the king d o ms o f So uth Asia we re e nc o ura g ing fo re ig n tra d e rs to c o me to the ir sho re s.
Ivo ry a nd inc e nse fro m Ind ia w e re use d in Ro m a n p a la c e s. Tra d e rs fro m the G ra e c o -Ro m a n
re g io ns e sta b lishe d o utp o sts a lo ng the so uthe rn c o a sts o f Ind ia , w he re Ro m a n c o ins a nd p o tte ry
ha ve sinc e b e e n fo und . The British a rc ha e o lo g ist Sir Mo rtim e r Whe e le r, w ho e xc a va te d se ve ra l
o f the se site s, c o nc lud e d tha t "it is fa ir to e nvisa g e Ind o -Euro p e a n c o m m e rc e o f the first c e ntury
A.D. p re tty c lo se ly in te rm s o f tha t o f the se ve nte e nth c e ntury" (Whe e le r, 1954: 125). The Ro m a ns
e sta b lishe d tra d ing c o m p a nie s w ith p o w e rs a nd p ro c e d ure s sim ila r to tho se o f the Dutc h a nd
British fa c to ry syste m s use d in Asia o ve r a tho usa nd ye a rs la te r.
The Ind ia ns fo rm e d sim ila r g ro up s. The m e m b e rs o f the Ind ia n tra d ing c o rp o ra tio ns w e re
"re la te d b y a c o m m o n inte re st in tra d e tha t ha d to p a ss thro ug h a p a rtic ula r c e nte r ...[T]he se
tra d e rs w e re g ive n ro ya l c ha rte rs" (Ko sa m b i, 1959: 282). Ind ia n tra d ing g uild s, e ng a g e d in the
w ho le sa le c o m m e rc e o f luxury g o o d s, a nd m a inta ine d d ip lo m a tic re la tio ns w ith rule rs o f re g io ns
w he re tho se g o o d s o rig ina te d .
5
The re we re two b a sic se c to rs in the tra d e ne two rk: tho se in the Ind ia n O c e a n, la nd s "a b o ve
the wind ," a nd tho se in the So uth C hina Se a a nd Stra its o f Ma la c c a , la nd s "b e lo w the wind ." The
tra ffic a lo ng the se ro ute s wa s g o ve rne d b y the re g ime n o f the se a so na l wind s o r mo nso o ns.
Ac c o rd ing to the no rma l rhythm o f the wind s, ship s wo uld sa il fro m C hina to the Stra its o f
Ma la c c a a re a in Ja nua ry a nd Fe b rua ry. The vo ya g e fro m So uthe a st Asia to C hina c o uld b e
und e rta ke n b e twe e n June a nd Aug ust. Sa ilo rs le ft Ind ia fo r the Stra its b e twe e n Ap ril a nd Aug ust
with the so uthwe st mo nso o n. It wa s te c hnic a lly p o ssib le to sa il to Ind ia o n the sa me wind , b ut mo st
ship s o nly d e p a rte d fro m the Stra its fo r Ind ia in De c e mb e r o r in Ja nua ry. So just a s the ship s fro m
C hina wo uld b e re turning to Suma tra o r Ja va with the ir c a rg o e s o f silks a nd me ta l, the o the r ship s
wo uld b e le a ving tho se isla nd s o n the ir wa y to Ind ia .
Me rc ha nts fro m the two le g s o f the ne two rk wo uld no t me e t unle ss the y re ma ine d in the
Stra its fo r ne a rly a ye a r. Ship s d id no t usua lly sta y o ve r, b ut tra d e rs c o uld . The y c ha ng e d fro m ship
to ship in re la ys.
The third le g o f the tria ng le invo lve d wha t is no w e a ste rn Ind o ne sia , the so urc e s o f so me o f
the ra re st sp ic e s, sp e c ific a lly c lo ve s a nd nutme g . The ship s fro m the Mo luc c a s a nd Sula we si usua lly
le ft b e twe e n Ma y o r June a nd O c to b e r, a rriving in the Stra its o r no rth Ja va a b o ut two mo nths la te r.
Until the So ng d yna sty, ship p ing in the So uth C hina Se a wa s a mo no p o ly he ld b y So uthe a st
Asia ns, o f who m the p e o p le o f wha t is no w Ind o ne sia fo rme d the ma jo rity. The p e o p le o f Ja va
a nd Suma tra we re the a nc ie nt sa ilo rs o f the wo rld p a r e xc e lle nc e . The ir re la tive s se ttle d the la nd s
fro m Ha wa ii to Ma d a g a sc a r, o ff the we st c o a st o f Afric a . Hug e ship s kno wn a s ko la ndia p ho nta
c a me fro m the e a ste rn se a s; the se se e m to ha ve b e e n no n-Ind ia n, a nd we re a lmo st c e rta inly fro m
Ja va o r Suma tra . Ind ia n ship s b y c o ntra st se e m to ha ve b e e n la rg e ly c o a sta l ve sse ls.
The G ra e c o -Ro ma n te xts c ite d he re use a p re c ise wo rd to d e sig na te a n inte rna tio na l
tra d ing p o rt in the Ind ia n O c e a n: e mp o rio n, whic h o f c o urse ha s c o me d o wn to us in mo d e rn
Eng lish a s e mp o rium . The Pe rip lus me ntio ns 27 e mp o ria in the Ind ia n O c e a n, d ivid e d into thre e
c la sse s: "d e sig na te d ," "la wful," a nd "a utho rize d " (Mille r, 1969: 19, Sc ho ff, 1912: 51, n. 1; Wa rming to n,
1928:53). The d istinc tio ns b e twe e n the se c a te g o rie s a re unc le a r, b ut the g e ne ra l te rm me a ns "a
le g a l ma rt whe re fo re ig n tra d e is a llo we d a nd ta xe d ." Pto le my, d e sc rib ing the Ind ia se a s a nd no n-
Ro ma n b ut we ll-kno wn te rrito ry, inte nd s e mp o rio n to me a n a n a utho rize d c o a sta l ma rt in the
O rie nt whe re no n-Ro ma n d ue s we re le vie d b y no n-Ro ma n a utho ritie s (Wa rming to n, 1928: 107).
Ship s c a lling a t o the r p o rts mig ht b e e sc o rte d a wa y und e r a rme d g ua rd .
Emp o ria e xiste d fro m the Re d Se a to So uthe a st Asia . G ra e c o -Ro ma n tra d e rs re sid e d a s fa r
e a st a s so uth Ind ia . So me Ta mil king s e ve n p o sse sse d b o d yg ua rd s fro m "Ya va na " (fro m "Io nia ," a n
o ld na me fo r p a rt o f G re e c e ). Ro me e xp o rte d g la ss a nd wine to Ind ia , a nd g ra in wa s ship p e d
fro m the Ro ma n c o lo ny o f Eg yp t, b ut mo st o f the sp ic e s a nd silks ha d to b e p urc ha se d with g o ld
a nd o the r me ta llic mo ne y.
6
As p re vio usly me ntio ne d , Ro ma n c o ins a re fo und in ma ny site s o f this first p e rio d o f la rg e -
sc a le Asia n tra d e in Ind ia . It is inte re sting to no te tha t Ro ma n e mp e ro rs a s e a rly a s Ve sp a sia n, A.D.
78, c o mp la ine d tha t the tra d e in luxury g o o d s wa s d ra ining c urre nc y o ut o f the e mp ire . The sa me
p ro b le m a ro se ma ny c e nturie s la te r, whe n the British, in o rd e r to fina nc e the ir imp o rts o f te a a nd
p o rc e la in, fo rc e d the C hine se to a c c e p t o p ium in lie u o f me ta ls.
The Ro ma n tra d ing sta tio ns in so uth Ind ia survive d a t the mo st fo r a b o ut 200 ye a rs. The n
the y fa d e o ut o f histo ry, a s the e mp ire b e g a n its lo ng , slo w d e c line . Eve n a fte r Ro me fe ll, ho we ve r,
the na me "Rum" c o ntinue d to shine with a b rig ht luste r in Asia . The Byza ntine Emp ire wa s a lso
kno wn b y this na me , a nd c o ins fro m fifth-c e ntury Byza ntium a re c o mmo n d isc o ve rie s a t site s o f this
p e rio d in Sri La nka (Wo lte rs, 1967: 80).
The sto ry ha s a n inte re sting p o stsc rip t. In 1410, a Byza ntine -e ra c o p y o f Pto le my's
G e o g ra p hy wa s d isc o ve re d in a lib ra ry in Flo re nc e a nd wa s tra nsla te d into La tin. This tra nsla tio n
wa s stud ie d a t the Ac a d e my a t Sa g re s e sta b lishe d b y Princ e He nry the Na vig a to r. The info rma tio n
it c o nta ine d , a ltho ug h mo re tha n a tho usa nd ye a rs o ld , p ro vid e d a vita l stimulus to the p la nning o f
the e xp lo ra tio ns o f the so uth c o a st o f Afric a whic h c ulmina te d in the Po rtug ue se d isc o ve ry o f the
C a p e o f G o o d Ho p e a nd the ro ute to Ind ia . This e p iso d e is o ne o f the mo st intrig uing e xa mp le s o f
the use to whic h a nc ie nt c la ssic a l lite ra ture wa s p ut up o n its re d isc o ve ry d uring the Re na issa nc e ,
a nd the c le a r c o nne c tio n b e twe e n the b e g inning s o f Euro p e a n c o mme rc ia l e xp a nsio n into Asia
(a nd a c c id e nta lly into Ame ric a ) a nd the b irth o f Euro p e a n huma nistic stud ie s.
The p e rio d tha t c o nc e rns us he re is tha t b e twe e n the fa ll o f Ro me a nd the a rriva l in the Fa r
Ea st o f the ir d ista nt d e sc e nd a nts, the Po rtug ue se . During this tho usa nd -ye a r p ha se o f
d e ve lo p me nt, o nly no w a ttra c ting histo ria ns' a tte ntio n, the Asia n ma ritime tra d e fa re d e xtre me ly
we ll witho ut Euro p e a n invo lve me nt o r, ind e e d , a wa re ne ss. Ve ry fe w Asia n re c o rd s o f this lo ng
inte rim survive , a nd tho se tha t d o te nd to b e writte n in a rc ha ic o r e xtinc t la ng ua g e s a nd d e a l
ma inly with ritua l a nd p o litic s. The p rinc ip a l e xc e p tio n is Ma rc o Po lo , who tra ve le d the e ntire
le ng th o f the Asia n ma ritime tra d e ro ute d uring his re turn fro m Yua n-d yna sty C hina to Ita ly in 1292-
93. Po lo 's d e sc rip tio ns o f this wo rld se e me d so unb e lie va b le to his c o nte mp o ra rie s tha t fo r c e nturie s
his ta le s we re tho ug ht to b e ima g ina ry. O nly in the e a rly twe ntie th c e ntury whe n a rc ha e o lo g ic a l
d isc o ve rie s b e g in to c o rro b o ra te his re p o rts d id histo ria ns b e g in to ta ke his a c c o unt se rio usly.
Altho ug h o ne a utho r ha s re c e ntly c ha lle ng e d the c urre nt vie w tha t Po lo wa s re c o unting a true
sto ry, the va st we ig ht o f e vid e nc e sug g e sts tha t he wa s in fa c t a tte mp ting to d o no mo re tha n
re c o rd wha t he ha d a c tua lly se e n a nd d o ne .
7
d e sig ne d to e nsure tha t the b e ne fits o f the tra d e wo uld a c c rue to c e rta in p e o p le , na me ly the
rule rs o f the re g io ns c o nc e rne d .
In tra d itio na l king d o ms the mo re d ista nt p a rts o f the re a lm c o uld no t b e truste d to se nd the
c usto ms d utie s c o lle c te d fro m fo re ig n me rc ha nts to the c e ntra l tre a sury. Furthe rmo re , the we a lth
a c c umula te d b y me rc ha nts c o uld we ll b e use d to mo unt a c ha lle ng e to the e sta b lishe d ruling
c liq ue . Fo r the se re a so ns, the ma in p o rts whe re fo re ig n tra d e wa s a llo we d we re tho se mo st c lo se ly
sup e rvise d b y the p rinc ip a l rule r, who mig ht re sid e inla nd , in the c e nte r o f the mo re fe rtile
a g ric ultura l zo ne s o f the king d o m.
In the p o rt zo ne s, the fo re ig n me rc ha nts usua lly ha d the ir o wn q ua rte rs. The se wo uld
c o rre sp o nd to the fo re ig n q ua rte rs o f the tre a ty p o rts o f nine te e nth-c e ntury C hina . Within the se
q ua rte rs the fo re ig n c o mmunitie s e njo ye d mo re o r le ss c o mp le te a uto no my, a s lo ng a s the y d id no t
inte rfe re with the re st o f the c itize ns o f the king d o m. This a rra ng e me nt suite d b o th p a rtie s: the
fo re ig ne rs we re a llo we d to fo llo w the ir o wn c usto ms a nd re lig io n, a nd the lo c a l a d ministra tio n d id
no t ha ve to wo rry a b o ut trying to c o ntro l mo tle y g ro up s o f p e o p le with d iffe re nt la ng ua g e s a nd
le g a l syste ms.
The tra d ing syste m itse lf is d iffic ult to d e fine , b ut in e sse nc e the re se e m to ha ve b e e n two
se p a ra te se ts o f e xc ha ng e p ra c tic e s fo r d iffe re nt c a te g o rie s o f me rc ha nd ise . The "ra re a nd
p re c io us" ite ms (in the sto c k C hine se p hra se ) we re c o ve te d b y the we a lthy a s sta tus symb o ls, a nd
the rule rs o fte n limite d a c c e ss to the m. So me we re c la ime d a s mo no p o lie s o f the rule r himse lf; in
o the r c a se s, he c la ime d a d uty o f up to 30%, a nd the re st o f the luxury g o o d s c o uld o nly b e so ld to
a d e sig na te d g ro up o f b uye rs.
The p o sse ssio n o f suc h luxury g o o d s o b vio usly ha d p o litic a l symb o lism, a nd the rule rs d id a ll
the y c o uld to c o ntro l the ir d istrib utio n. This c a te g o ry o f me rc ha nd ise wa s usua lly no t b o ug ht a nd
so ld in the usua l fa shio n, b y a p ro c e ss o f ha g g ling until a b a rg a in wa s struc k b e twe e n b uye r a nd
se lle r. Inste a d , a c usto ma ry o r d ip lo ma tic p ro c e d ure wa s use d to ne g o tia te a se t o f
"e q uiva le nc ie s" b e twe e n the ite ms b ro ug ht b y the fo re ig n me rc ha nts a nd tho se re turne d b y the
lo c a l inha b ita nts. The id e o lo g y o f e xc ha ng e wa s mo re o f a g e ne ra lize d tha n a sp e c ific re c ip ro c ity,
in a nthro p o lo g ic a l te rms. It wa s no t se e mly to p e rc e ive this kind o f e xc ha ng e a s tra d e . In mo st
insta nc e s the fo re ig n ite ms we re p re se nte d to the lo c a l rule r in the g uise o f trib ute o r g ifts, a nd the
lo c a l rule r re c ip ro c a te d b y g iving p re se nts. The na ture o f the g ifts re turne d b y the rule rs wa s,
ho we ve r, fixe d b y c usto m; a c e rta in a mo unt o f fo re ig n p ro d uc e wo uld e lic it a sp e c ific q ua ntity o f
"g ifts." Thus the a p p e a ra nc e o f tra d e (a nd the use o f mo ne y) we re a vo id e d .
Ind o ne sia n insc rip tio ns sho w tha t we ig hts a nd me a sure s ha d b e c o me sta nd a rd ize d
b e twe e n A.D. 850 a nd 900. The se we ig hts we re he a vily influe nc e d b y Ind ia n units a nd ling uistic
te rmino lo g y, b ut the re we re so me ind ig e no us e le me nts in b o th units a nd na me s.
8
wo rd wya ya , mo d e rn Ind o ne sia n b ia ya , "e xp e nse s," a lso wa s c urre nt in 878. It se e ms tha t in
a d d itio n to p re c io us me ta l, o the r c urre nc y in the fo rm o f iro n b a rs wa s use d until the e a rly te nth
c e ntury (Wic ks, 254-259).
An inte g ra l fig ure in the o rg a niza tio n o f a nc ie nt tra d e wa s the o ffic ia l who a c te d a s the
inte rme d ia ry b e twe e n the fo re ig n me rc ha nt c o mmunitie s a nd the lo c a l rule r. This o ffic ia l ha d
d iffe re nt d e sig na tio ns in e a c h a re a , b ut his d utie s a nd p rivile g e s we re re ma rka b ly simila r in a ll time s
a nd p la c e s. In the So uthe a st Asia n re a lm he wa s c a lle d the sha hb a nd a r (fro m Pe rsia n "Lo rd o f the
Ha rb o r"). In mo d e rn p a rla nc e this te rm is use d to tra nsla te the Eng lish "ha rb o rma ste r," b ut this g ive s
o nly a p a le re fle c tio n o f his a c tivitie s. In ma ny c a se s he wa s c ho se n fro m the fo re ig n c o mmunity,
a nd to e nsure his lo ya lty he wa s fre q ue ntly b e tro the d to a me mb e r o f the lo c a l ro ya lty. He
sup e rvise d the c o lle c tio n o f c usto ms d utie s a nd the wa re ho using o f the imp o rte d g o o d s. He a lso
a c te d a s the ma na g e r fo r the lo c a l rule r's o wn c o mme rc ia l a c tivitie s; ma ny Asia n rule rs the mse lve s
inve ste d in ship s a nd c a rg o e s. The y se ttle d d isp ute s b e twe e n the fo re ig n me rc ha nts a nd rule rs,
a nd c o uld a c t o n the ir o wn initia tive to ma ke tre a tie s with fo re ig ne rs. Suc h p e o p le o b vio usly ha d
nume ro us o p p o rtunitie s to e nric h the mse lve s.
A g o o d d e sc rip tio n o f the syste m is g ive n b y To me Pire s, o ne o f the first Euro p e a ns with a n
intima te kno wle d g e o f its wo rking . He re sid e d in Ma la c c a fro m 1512 to 1515 a nd d e sc rib e s the
sha hb a nd a rs the re , o f whic h the re we re fo ur, e a c h with jurisd ic tio n o ve r me rc ha nts fro m d iffe re nt
a re a s: "The y a re the me n who re c e ive the c a p ta ins o f the junks.... The se me n p re se nt the m to the
Be mda ra (the ro ya l tre a sure r), a llo t the m wa re ho use s, d isp a tc h the ir me rc ha nd ise , p ro vid e the m
with lo d g ing if the y ha ve d o c ume nts, a nd g ive o rd e rs fo r the e le p ha nts..."(C o rte sa o , 1944: II, 265).
The se c ha ra c te ristic s o f the e a rly p o rts o f tra d e in Asia we re a lre a d y in e xiste nc e whe n the
ve il o f histo ry lifts d uring a sho rt p e rio d a ro und two tho usa nd ye a rs a g o . O ne c a n e ve n tra c e the ir
o rig ins furthe r b a c k in time ; the o ld e st d o c ume nts o n tra d e , fro m Me so p o ta mia , a lre a d y ind ic a te
the e xiste nc e o ve r 4,000 ye a rs a g o o f o ffic ia ls in c ha rg e o f lo ng -d ista nc e tra d e , o ffic ia lly
d e sig na te d tra d ing p o rts, trib uta ry tra d e in luxury ite ms, a nd fo re ig n q ua rte rs. This is no t to sug g e st
tha t the se tra its o we the ir e xiste nc e to Me so p o ta mia n influe nc e ; ra the r the y simp ly re fle c t a lo g ic a l
a p p ro a c h to the simila rity o f c o nd itio ns p re va iling in the se d iffe re nt time s a nd p la c e s.
The C hine se we re no t a mo ng the o rig ina l me mb e rs o f the Ind ia n O c e a n tra d ing ne two rk.
Whe n the G ra e c o -Ro ma ns first e nte re d the Asia n wo rld , the C hine se we re still la rg e ly c o nfine d to
the Ye llo w Rive r a re a o f no rthe rn C hina . The ma in ro ute to C hina a t this time wa s still o ve rla nd , via
the Silk Ro ute . Fo r ma ny c e nturie s C hina 's no rthe rn fro ntie r ha d b e e n a zo ne o f c o nsta nt
c o nte ntio n b e twe e n the se ttle d a g ra ria n wa y o f life a nd the no ma d ic a d a p ta tio n o f the ste p p e s
b e yo nd . The no ma d s we re a lwa ys a milita ry thre a t to the C hine se .
O ne o f the ta c tic s tha t the C hine se use d to c o unte ra c t the no ma d s' milita ry sup e rio rity wa s
to e nc o ura g e e xc ha ng e s o f p re stig io us g o o d s a c ro ss the fro ntie r. The C hine se p ro d uc e d
nume ro us ma nufa c ture d ite ms tha t the no ma d s d e sire d ; b y d a ng ling e xo tic a nd ra re c o mmo d itie s
in fro nt o f the no rthe rn b a rb a ria ns, it wa s so me time s p o ssib le to b rib e the m into ma inta ining
p e a c e ful re la tio ns. Do me stic a lly, the imp e ria l d ig nity c o uld b e ma inta ine d b y c a sting the g ifts to
the no ma d s in the fo rm o f a rule r-va ssa l re la tio nship .
The no ma d e lite re c e ive d imp e ria l g ifts in re turn fo r the ir trib ute , re c o g nitio n o f p o litic a l
a uto no my in the ir o wn te rrito ry, a nd p e rmissio n to c o nd uc t limite d p riva te tra d e with the C hine se .
9
This g a ve the p e o p le o f the ste p p e s a c c e ss to C hine se silk, te a , a nd p o rc e la in. The C hine se
o b ta ine d ja d e a nd , imp o rta ntly fo r the ir milita ry p o sitio n, g o o d ho rse s.
Be twe e n 500 a nd 221 B.C ., the la te Zho u Dyna sty, d e ma nd inc re a se d a mo ng the
(no rthe rn) C hine se fo r so uthe rn luxurie s like ivo ry, p e a rls, to rto ise she ll, king fishe r fe a the rs, rhino c e ro s
ho rns, sc e nte d wo o d s, a nd sp ic e s; "this d e ma nd ma y ha ve b e e n the stro ng e st sing le mo tive fo r the
so uthwa rd e xp a nsio n o f C hine se p o litic a l p o we r" (Wa ng , 1958: 5). Q in Sihua ng , the "first e mp e ro r,"
wa s the first rule r to e xte nd no rthe rn C hine se c o ntro l to p a rts o f the so uth c o a st, b o rd e ring o n the
So uth C hina Se a . At this time the e ntire so uth c o a st wa s still p o p ula te d b y Yüe h p e o p le . "The fe w
p re histo ric site s a lo ng the c o a st whic h ha ve so fa r b e e n e xa mine d me re ly sug g e st tha t the p e o p le
we re q uite d iffe re nt fro m the C hine se a nd ha d a d iffe re nt c ultura l p a tte rn" (Wa ng , 1958: 7).
The Yüe h, unlike the no rthe rn C hine se , we re e xp e rt sa ilo rs a nd a lre a d y fre q ue ntly tra d e d
with o the r re g io ns. O ne king d o m, Na n Yüe h, with its c a p ita l ne a r mo d e rn G ua ng zho u, wa s
d e sc rib e d in the first c e ntury B.C . b y the c o nte mp o ra ry a utho r Su-ma C h'ie n a s "the c o lle c ting -
c e nte r o f rhino c e ro s ho rns, e le p ha nt tusks, to rto ise -she lls, p e a rls, fruits a nd c lo th (o f he mp a nd o the r
fib ro us p la nts)" (Wa ng , 1958: 8). Lo Yüe h, a no the r king d o m lo c a te d in the Re d Rive r b a sin ne a r
mo d e rn Ha no i, wa s c a p ture d in 214 B.C ., b ut no t until C hine se tro o p s ha d b e e n d e fe a te d se ve ra l
time s a nd re info rc e me nts ha d b e e n se nt, c o nsisting o f "c rimina ls, b a nishe d me n, so c ia l p a ra site s
a nd me rc ha nts" (Wa ng , 1958: 10). This inte re sting se t o f a sso c ia tio ns fo r me rc ha nts sho ws the lo w
e ste e m in whic h the y we re he ld . Who we re the se e a rly me rc ha nts e xile d to the so uthe rn c o lo nie s?
No info rma tio n e xists.
The re la tio nship b e twe e n the g o ve rning e lite o f C hina a nd the me rc a ntile c la sse s ha s b e e n
ma rke d b y susp ic io n a nd ho stility fo r o ve r two tho usa nd ye a rs. O ne o f the ma in c ha ra c te ristic s o f
C hine se histo ry ha s b e e n the te nsio n b e twe e n the c ulture o f the no rth, the o rig ina l c e nte r o f
C hine se c ulture , ma rke d b y milita rism, a uste rity, iso la tio nism, a nd c e ntra lize d rule , a nd the c ulture
o f the o rig ina lly no n-Ha n C hine se so uth, ma rke d b y a sp irit o f fre e e nte rp rise , c o mme rc ia lism, so c ia l
mo b ility, a nd o utwa rd -lo o king ne ss.
10
The c o mma nd e ry o f Na n-ha i so o n sp lit o ff a nd b e c a me a "minia ture e mp ire ," Na n Yüe h,
whic h rule d the c o a st fro m so uthe rn Fujia n to Vie tna m until 111 B.C ., whe n the Ha n re to o k the
a re a . In 196 B.C . the c hie f wa s ma d e a fe ud a l lo rd b y the Ha n e mp ire , a nd a re g ula r tra d e with the
Ha n d e ve lo p e d , ma inly b a se d o n the a c q uisitio n o f iro n in e xc ha ng e fo r p e a rls, to rto ise she ll, ivo ry,
a nd rhino c e ro s ho rn—c o mmo d itie s tha t we re imp o rte d fro m the So uth Se a s.
The Wu ke p t se nd ing missio ns into the So uth Se a s in se a rc h o f the se ite ms. Two o f the se
e nvo ys, Ka ng Ta i a nd Q u Ying , ma d e a sp e c ia l missio n to the So uth Se a s in 245–250. The y b o th
wro te b o o ks, lo ng lo st, a b o ut the ir missio n; so me q uo ta tio ns fro m Ka ng Ta i ha ve b e e n p re se rve d in
o the r te xts. He me ntio ne d Ja va / Suma tra , whic h he a p p a re ntly visite d , a s we ll a s Ba ng ka , Be litung ,
a nd Bo rne o in a ll, te n p la c e s o n the Ma la y Pe ninsula a nd in the So uthe a st Asia n a rc hip e la g o .
During the Thre e King d o ms p e rio d C hine se ship s we re a p p a re ntly still inc a p a b le o f sa iling in the
o p e n se a ; the e missa rie s tra ve le d in fo re ig n ship s.
11
p e rio d . The G o ve rno r o f Q ing Zho u, o n the ro ute b e twe e n so uth C hina a nd Lo ya ng , the no rthe rn
c a p ita l, wa s fa mo us fo r fla unting his we a lth, inc lud ing c o ra l tre e s, ivo ry, p e a rls, a nd sc e nte d wo o d s.
O ne a c c o unt sa ys tha t he ha d "p o wd e re d g ha ru-wo o d s a s fine a s d ust sp rinkle d o ve r a n ivo ry b e d ,
a nd a ske d tho se tha t he sp e c ia lly lo ve d to ste p o n it" (Wa ng , 1958: 35).
Tra d e ro ute s a nd trib uta ry king d o ms o f So uthe a st Asia in the fifth to se ve nth c e nturie s A.D.
During the Wu a nd Q in d yna stie s, 226-405, C hina re c e ive d missio ns fro m the fo llo wing
c o untrie s: Funa n (7 missio ns), C ha mp a (6), Da q in (the Ea ste rn Ro ma n Emp ire ) (1), Sri La nka (1), a nd
Ta ng ming (? ) (1) (Wa ng , 1958: 120). Sho rtly the re a fte r, b e fo re the b e g inning o f the ne xt ma jo r
histo ric a l p ha se , the fa mo us C hine se Bud d hist mo nk Fa xie n re turne d to C hina fro m Ind ia b y se a
ra the r tha n b y the mo re c o mmo n o ve rla nd ro ute . In 414 he c a lle d a t Ye h-p o -ti, a la rg e tra d ing
p o rt so me whe re ne a r the so uth e nd o f the Stra its o f Ma la c c a (q uite p o ssib ly in no rthwe st Ja va ).
Fro m the re he sa ile d d ire c tly to G ua ng zho u with o ve r two hund re d o the r p e o p le . During a ll his
12
ye a rs in Ind ia he sa w no C hine se , no r we re the re a ny a mo ng the me rc ha nts o n the ship ta king him
to C hina . This is the first re c o rd o f a sa iling c o nne c tio n b e twe e n Ind ia a nd C hina ; a ll ind ic a tio ns a re
tha t C hine se me rc ha nts we re no t p a rtic ip a nts in this tra d e .
The ne xt p e rio d o f imp o rta nt trib uta ry a c tivity o c c urre d d uring the So uthe rn Dyna stie s, 420–
589, whe n a la rg e missio n visite d C hina "to e nsure sa fe a nd p ro fita b le tra d ing fo r the fo re ig n
me rc ha nts a nd tra d ing e nvo ys" (Wa ng , 1958: 38). In a ll, 99 fo re ig n trib ute missio ns visite d C hina
b e twe e n 420 a nd 589 (Wa ng , 1958: 51), a g re a t inc re a se o ve r the p re vio us p e rio d . The flo w o f
trib ute to C hina wa s no t c o nsiste nt, ho we ve r; ra the r it c a me in sp urts. The p a tte rn o f trib ute e xhib its
two p e a ks, o ne d uring the ye a rs 420–460, the o the r in the p e rio d 502–540.
The So uthe a st Asia n c o untrie s a c tive in this trib uta ry tra d e inc lud e the fo llo wing :
Funa n, 430–589, 17. Tra d e g o o d s fro m Funa n inc lud e d so me ite ms fo r re lig io us ritua ls like
g ha ru wo o d (inc e nse ), ivo ry a nd sa nd a lwo o d stup a s a nd sta tue s, a nd g la ss ve sse ls use d fo r
te mp le ritua ls. The ite ms me a nt fo r use b y the no b ility (a s o p p o se d to the te mp le s)
c o nsiste d o f g o ld a nd silve r a rtic le s, c o wrie o rna me nts, sc e nte d wo o d s, ivo ry, p e a c o c k
fe a the rs, to rto ise she lls, re -e xp o rts o f ite ms like g e ms, c o ra l, o p a q ue g la ss, c o tto n, a nd
sto ra x. C hine se "g ifts" to the se a re a s list o nly silk a nd b ro c a d e .
Altho ug h the So uthe rn Dyna stie s we re a n a c tive p e rio d o f c o mmunic a tio n with the So uth
Se a s, the re c o rd s o f this time still e xhib it no re fe re nc e s to C hine se ship s g o ing o ve rse a s. The re a re ,
ho we ve r, ra re p ie c e s o f e vid e nc e whic h e na b le us to re a d b e twe e n the line s a nd to c o nc lud e
tha t c e rta in C hine se we re e xhib iting a "mo d e rn" a ttitud e to wa rd the b e ne fits o f e ng a g ing in
fo re ig n tra d e . In the 479–502 p e rio d , the re is a re fe re nc e to a c e rta in Zha ng Q ing -zhe n who
"c a lc ula te d c a re fully the silks a nd b ro c a d e s whic h he use d to tra d e with the 'K'un-lun p 'o '" (Wa ng ,
1958: 60). The p hra se "K'un-lun p 'o " re fe rs to the ship s o f the p e o p le who live d in the So uth Se a s.
Ap p a re ntly the re wa s a me rc a ntile c la ss in so uth C hina , b ut o the r tha n the ir b a re e xiste nc e , no
o the r info rma tio n re g a rd ing the m survive s.
13
The re fo re ship s c a me in a c o ntinuo us stre a m, a nd me rc ha nts a nd e nvo ys jo stle d with e a c h o the r"
(in Wo lte rs, 1967: 77).
The histo ry o f the d yna sty tha t suc c e e d e d the Liu Sung a nd rule d fro m 479 to 502 a lso re fe rs
to the a c tive ma ritime tra d e o f tha t time : "O f a ll the p re c io us thing s in the wo rld no ne a re b e tte r
tha n tho se o f the so uthe rn b a rb a ria ns. The y a re hid d e n in the mo unta ins a nd in the se a s. The y a re
innume ra b le . Me rc ha nt ship s a rrive fro m a fa r a nd b ring the se thing s to the so uthe rn p ro vinc e s.
Thus it is tha t To ng king a nd Kua ng tung a re ric h a nd we ll sto c ke d . The g o o d s a re sto re d in the
imp e ria l tre a sury."
Ve ry little info rma tio n re g a rd ing the a d ministra tio n o f the tra d e o f this p e rio d survive s. A
missio n fro m the Ja va ne se king d o m o f Ho lo ta n in 430 wa s p a rtly inte nd e d to a c q ua int the C hine se
e mp e ro r with the d iffic ultie s tha t the Ja va ne se me rc ha nts so me time s e xp e rie nc e d with c o rrup t
p o rt o ffic ia ls (Wo lte rs, 1967: 165). This ind ic a te s tha t the c o lle c tio n o f d utie s wa s no t a lwa ys p ro p e rly
sup e rvise d b y the c e ntra l g o ve rnme nt.
The So uthe rn Dyna stie s c a me to a n e nd with the re unific a tio n o f C hina b y the Sui Dyna sty
in 581. The e mp e ro r in 605 mo ve d his c a p ita l a nd o rd e re d the p ro vinc e s to d e live r suc h so uthe rn
luxurie s a s rhino c e ro s ho rns, e le p ha nt tusks, furs a nd fe a the rs, to a d o rn his ne w c o urt (Wa ng , 1958:
63). The sho rt-live d Sui re c o rd e d the fo llo wing missio ns: C ha mp a (2); Da nd a n (2); Pa np a n (1), Re d
Ea rth La nd (3), C a mb o d ia (1), Jia lo shi(? ) (1) (Wa ng , 1958: 122).
Afte r the e sta b lishme nt o f the Ta ng Dyna sty in 618, the so uthe rn o c e a n tra d e e xp a nd e d . In
a d d itio n to luxurie s fo r the c o urt a nd g o o d s o f a re lig io us na ture , ite ms use d fo r me d ic ina l p urp o se s
a nd c o nd ime nts fo r fo o d fo rme d a n inc re a sing p o rtio n o f the imp o rts fro m the So uth Se a s (if the
so urc e s a re a true re fle c tio n o f the situa tio n). Ya ng zho u, a t the junc tio n o f the Ya ng si a nd the
G ra nd C a na l, b e c a me the ma in c e nte r o f tra d e . A ro a d b uilt in 728 c o nne c te d G ua ng zho u with
Ya ng zho u. A so urc e sa ys tha t "the va rio us c o untrie s fro m a c ro ss the se a ma y no w d a ily tra nsp o rt
the ir me rc ha nd ise , so tha t the we a lth o f tusks, hid e s, fe a the rs a nd ha irs, a nd tha t o f fish, sa lt, c la ms
a nd o yste rs c a n...me e t the ne e d s o f the tre a sury a nd ...sa tisfy the d e ma nd s o f the Q ia ng -Hua i
re g io n" (Wa ng , 1958: 79).
Thro ug h the e ig hth a nd into the e a rly ninth c e ntury, tra d e c o ntinue d to e xp a nd und e r the
e ne rg e tic Ta ng rule rs. G ua ng zho u in p a rtic ula r b e ne fite d fro m this e xp a nsio n. As a so urc e fro m
841 sa ys, "G ua ng zho u e njo ye d the p ro fits o f the b a rb a ria n ship s whe re a ll the va lua b le g o o d s we re
g a the re d .... O f a ll tho se who se rve d a t G ua ng zho u, no t o ne re turne d witho ut b e ing fully la d e n
[with the we a lth the y a c q uire d ]" (Wa ng , 1958: 83).
The missio ns whic h visite d C hina mo re tha n o nc e d uring the 278 ye a rs o f the Ta ng Dyna sty
a re a s fo llo ws: C ha mp a (26), Ho ling , Ja va (8), Sri Vija ya (6), Shih-tse (4), C a mb o d ia (3), Q ulo mi (2),
Ja mb i (2), Do ho lo (2), Ka nq ifo (Ind ia ) (2), Mo la (Ind ia ) (2) (Wa ng , 1958: 122–123).
14
Bud d hist tra ve le rs. He the n to o k ship in a no the r Srivija ya n ve sse l a nd sa ile d to Ind ia via Ma la yu
(Ja mb i) a nd Ke d a h.
Afte r re sid ing in Ind ia fo r 18 ye a rs, Yijing re turne d to Srivija ya , no ting tha t in the inte rim it ha d
a b so rb e d b o th Ma la yu a nd Ke d a h. He inte nd e d to re ma in in Srivija ya fo r so me time , b ut o ne d a y,
while he wa s a b o a rd a ship in the ha rb o r in o rd e r to se nd a re q ue st to C hina fo r mo re p a p e r a nd
ink, the ship une xp e c te d ly we ig he d a nc ho r a nd sa ile d stra ig ht to C hina , le a ving him no o p tio n b ut
to g o a lo ng a nd b uy his o wn sup p lie s. Ne ve rthe le ss he so d e sire d to sp e nd mo re time in Suma tra
tha t he re turne d the re fo r so me mo re ye a rs b e fo re fina lly re turning fo r g o o d to C hina in 695.
Yijing 's a c c o unt is use ful b e c a use it me ntio ns o the r Bud d hists who ma d e the p ilg rima g e to
the Bud d hist ho ly la nd , inc lud ing a mo nk who sa ile d in a me rc ha nt ve sse l "he a vily lo a d e d with
g o o d s" fro m G ua ng zho u o r Ha no i to Ho ling . The ship the n we nt to Ma la yu, b ut a fte r p a ssing it sa nk
in a sto rm b e c a use it wa s o ve rlo a d e d ; the mo nk d ro wne d . No d o ub t this inc id e nta l re p o rt
re p re se nts the tip o f the ic e b e rg ; vo ya g ing b e twe e n So uth Suma tra a nd C hina b y Ind o ne sia n ship s
c a rrying a wid e va rie ty o f g o o d s fro m b o th So uthe a st Asia a nd the sho re s o f the Ind ia n O c e a n wa s
p ro b a b ly a c o mmo n a c tivity d uring the Ta ng p e rio d .
The re p o rt o f Yijing is o f utmo st imp o rta nc e to the stud y o f e a rly Ta ng ma ritime tra d e ,
b e c a use it is the o nly d e sc rip tio n o f the se a ro ute s use d b e fo re 750. He d e sc rib e s d ire c t vo ya g e s in
Ind o ne sia n ship s fro m G ua ng zho u to Pa le mb a ng o r (le ss o fte n) Ja va . Fro m the re the sta nd a rd
p o rts o f c a ll we re Ma la ya (Ja mb i) a nd Ke d a h. Re turn vo ya g e s fo llo we d the sa me ro ute in re ve rse .
In the la te se ve nth o r e a rly e ig hth c e ntury, Srivija ya "se nt se ve ra l missio ns to the c o urt to
sub mit c o mp la ints a b o ut b o rd e r o ffic ia ls se izing [the ir g o o d s] a nd a n e d ic t wa s issue d o rd e ring [the
o ffic ia ls a t] G ua ng zho u to a p p e a se the m [b y ma king inq uirie s]" (Wa ng , 1958: 97, q uo ting the Ta ng
shu). "This is the o nly me ntio n in Ta ng re c o rd s o f a ny missio n fro m the Na nha i suc c e ssfully ind uc ing
the c e ntra l g o ve rnme nt to a c t o n b e ha lf o f the me rc ha nts a t C a nto n. This is e vid e nc e tha t
Srivija ya wa s the d o mina nt tra d ing p o we r a nd ha d a lre a d y e a rne d the re sp e c t o f the C hine se "
(Wa ng , 1958: 98-99). Srivija ya ns we re le a d e rs o f the fo re ig n me rc ha nt c o mmunity a t G ua ng zho u
until 742.
In 684 the g o ve rno r o f G ua ng zho u wa s kille d in ma nne r whic h sug g e sts tha t the murd e re r
wa s a n Ind o ne sia n d istre sse d b y o ffic ia ls' misd e e d s (Mille r, 1969: 186). So me suc h inc id e nt ma y
ha ve b e e n re sp o nsib le fo r the re ma rk o f To me Pire s o ve r 800 ye a rs la te r e xp la ining why fo re ig ne rs
we re no t a llo we d to g o to G ua ng zho u: "The y sa y tha t the C hine se ma d e this la w a b o ut no t b e ing
a b le to g o to C a nto n fo r fe a r o f the Ja va ne se a nd Ma la ys" (C o rte sa o , 1944: I, 122).
In 714 we first le a rn o f the e xiste nc e o f a C hine se o ffic ia l c a lle d the Sup e rinte nd e nt o f
Ship p ing Tra d e (a lte rna tive ly c a lle d Sup e rinte nd e nt o f Ba rb a ria n Ship p ing ). This is the first sig n tha t
a n o ffic ia l like the sha hb a nd a r o f the Ind ia n O c e a n wa s a p p o inte d in C hina . The o ffic e wa s ra the r
ind e p e nd e nt o f the p ro vinc ia l a utho ritie s, b e ing a d ministe re d d ire c tly fro m the c e ntra l
g o ve rnme nt, a nd wa s d o mina te d b y e unuc hs. A re c o rd fro m the e a rly ninth c e ntury g ive s so me
ind ic a tio n o f this o ffic ia l's d utie s:
15
he a d o f the o ffic e "d e a lt with the tra nsla tio n o f la ng ua g e s, the o ffe ring o f va lua b le
g ifts, a nd e ve ry ye a r c o nd uc te d the se nd ing o f trib ute s (e ithe r se nd ing tho se d ue
fro m the p ro vinc e itse lf o r a rra ng ing fo r fo re ig n trib ute missio ns to g o to the c a p ita l).
Afte r the la st ship o f the se a so n a rrive d , 30% o f the no n-mo no p o lize d g o o d s wo uld b e ta ke n
a s d uty, a nd the re st wo uld b e g ive n b a c k to the e nvo ys to d isp o se o f the mse lve s (Hirth a nd
Ro c khill, 1911: 15).
The sa me re c o rd sa ys, "Fa r a c ro ss the se a in the So uth, the re we re tho se who d ie d in the
c o untrie s the re . The o ffic ia ls he ld the ir g o o d s. And if the ir wive s o r the ir so ns d id no t c o me within
thre e mo nths to c la im the m, the se wo uld b e c o nfisc a te d . The g o ve rno r [sto p p ing this p ra c tic e ]
sa id 'The se a jo urne y b a c k a nd fo rth is c a lc ula te d in ye a rs; why fix the time in mo nths? If a nyo ne
ha s p ro o f, no ma tte r whe the r he c o me s e a rly o r la te , le t him ha ve a ll" (Wa ng , 1958: 101-102).
In the time o f the suc c e e d ing So ng Dyna sty (960–1279), simila r p ra c tic e s a p p a re ntly
e xiste d :
Wa ng , (1958: 113) d ivid e s e a rly ma ritime tra d e with C hina into thre e p ha se s:
The b rie f Five Dyna stie s p e rio d (907–959) sa w little c o mme rc ia l a c tivity. O nly fo ur missio ns to
C hina a re re c o rd e d : thre e fro m Ja nzhe ng a nd o ne fro m Srivija ya . The fo und a tio n o f the So ng
16
Dyna sty in 960 ushe re d in a ne w a nd e ve n mo re p ro sp e ro us p e rio d o f tra d e , whe n ma ny mo re
p a rtie s b e c a me invo lve d , inc lud ing fo r the first time C hine se me rc ha nts vo ya g ing into the Na nha i.
17
2.2 Trade Interaction During the Song Dynasty (A.D. 960 - 1260)
2.2.1 Introduction
In 960 the So ng Dyna sty re unifie d C hina a fte r a p e rio d o f c ivil w a r, a nd c o m m e rc e in the
p o rts w he re fo re ig n tra d e w a s a llo w e d q uic kly re c o ve re d . A d e c a d e la te r the De p a rtm e nt o f
Fo re ig n Tra d e a t G ua ng zho u w a s re o rg a nize d a s c o m m e rc e w a s e xp a nd ing a t a ra p id p a c e .
The So ng he lp e d to stim ula te this re c o ve ry b y se nd ing fo ur m issio ns a b ro a d in 987. The se m issio ns
"c o nsiste d o f e ig ht c o urt o ffic ia ls, w ho c a rrie d w ith the m im p e ria l e d ic ts, g o ld , a nd c lo th, to
va rio us b a rb a ria n c o untrie s in the So uth Se a s to ind uc e the im p o rt tra d e o f a ro m a tic s, rhino c e ro s
ho rns, p e a rls, a nd Ba ro o s c a m p ho r (so -c a lle d a fte r Ba rus, no rth Sum a tra , so urc e o f the hig he st
q ua lity c a m p ho r)" (Ma , 1971: 33).
The No rthe rn So ng o p e ne d ne w p o rts, e q uiva le nt to the “ tre a ty p o rts” p e rsisting into the
nine te e nth c e ntury. The first a lte rna tive p o rt to G ua ng zho u w a s Q ua nzho u, in 1087. O the r
O ffic e s o f the Ma ritim e Tra d e Sup e rinte nd e nc y (Shih-p o Si) w e re lo c a te d a t Ha ng zho u a nd
Ning b o . La te r, O ffic e s o f the Ma ritim e Tra d e Bure a u (Shih-p o Wu) w e re lo c a te d a t Suzho u,
We nzho u, a nd Jia ng -yin C hun. Altho ug h little q ua ntita tive d a ta e xists to m a ke a firm jud g m e nt,
e no ug h a ne c d o ta l info rm a tio n ha s b e e n p re se rve d to sup p o rt the c o nc lusio n tha t "b y the So ng
p e rio d , the sc a le o f m a ritim e tra d e ha d b e c o m e so la rg e tha t it m a y b e d e e m e d the first p e rio d
o f g re a t o c e a nic tra d e in the histo ry o f the w o rld " (Ma , 1971: 23).
18
It w a s still a c rim ina l o ffe nse fo r ind ivid ua l C hine se to e ng a g e in d ire c t tra d e w ith
fo re ig ne rs, ho w e ve r, a nd the syste m o f ho a rd ing a ll fo re ig n inc e nse a nd o the r luxury g o o d s in
g o ve rnm e nt w a re ho use s w a s still m a inta ine d . Thus fo r the p e rio d b e tw e e n 960 a nd 1126, kno w n
a s the No rthe rn So ng , fo re ig n c o m m e rc e w a s c o ntinuing to e xp a nd , b ut still w ithin the m o ld c a st
b y the C o nfuc ia nists a tho usa nd ye a rs e a rlie r.
Im p o rts via m a ritim e tra d e in the No rthe rn So ng still c o nsiste d o f tw o m a in c a te g o rie s: the
le ss e xp e nsive , c o nsisting o f te xtile s (m o stly c o tto n), sp ic e s, a nd d rug s, a nd the m uc h m o re
va lua b le : je w e ls, ivo ry, rhino c e ro s ho rn, e b o ny, a m b e r, c o ra l, a ro m a tic p ro d uc ts a nd p e rfum e s.
The sa le o f the luxury g o o d s w a s still a g o ve rnm e nt m o no p o ly; o nly lic e nse d d e a le rs c o uld b uy
the m a t g o ve rnm e nt w a re ho use s in Q ua nzho u, a nd to a le sse r e xte nt a t G ua ng zho u, in fixe d
q ua ntitie s a nd a t fixe d p ric e s.
19
In 1194 the g o ve rno r o f a m ilita ry d istric t in Fujia n re fuse d to a llo w p e o p le und e r his
jurisd ic tio n to g o a b ro a d to tra d e w ith fo re ig n p e o p le "w ho se m a ny ship s c o m ing fro m a b ro a d
la d e n w ith a ro m a tic s, rhino c e ro s ho rns, ivo ry a nd king -fishe rs' fe a the rs w e re a lre a d y d ra ining a ll
the c o p p e r c a sh o ut o f the la nd ." Sum p tua ry la w s w e re p a sse d re p e a te d ly (in 1107, 1157, 1201,
a nd 1214) a g a inst use o f king fishe r fe a the rs a nd g o ld fo r o rna m e nts, b ut to no a va il. In 1248, a
"C e nso r, C h'e n C h'iu-lu, a ttrib ute d the d ra in o f c a sh o ut o f C hina to the e xtra va g a nc e o f its
p e o p le in p urc ha sing suc h luxurie s a s p e rfum e s, ivo ry, a nd rhino c e ro s ho rns, a nd to the se a -tra d e
g e ne ra lly" (Ro c khill, 1914: 423).
With the e sta b lishm e nt o f the So uthe rn So ng Dyna sty, the re c a m e a re vo lutio na ry
d e ve lo p m e nt: fo r the first tim e in histo ry, p riva te C hine se w e re a llo w e d , e ve n e nc o ura g e d , to g o
o ve rse a s to tra d e . The e ntire struc ture o f the m a ritim e tra d e syste m o f the So uth Se a s und e rw e nt
fund a m e nta l c ha ng e s a s a re sult o f this ne w p o lic y. Sta tus a s a n o ffic ia l trib ute -b e a ring c o untry
w a s no lo ng e r a p re re q uisite fo r c o nd uc ting c o m m e rc ia l re la tio ns w ith C hina . Tra d e w a s fre e d
fro m its link to d ip lo m a c y. The trib ute syste m w hic h ha d re g ula te d c o nta c ts b e tw e e n So uthe a st
Asia ns a nd C hine se d e c line d sig nific a ntly in im p o rta nc e .
Eve n the o ste nsib ly a lo o f a ttitud e o f the no b ility to w a rd tra d e , b e hind w hic h o fte n la y a
ve ry d iffe re nt c o d e o f c o nd uc t, e ro d e d sig nific a ntly. "In the la te So uthe rn So ng p e rio d , the
re la tive s o f the So ng ro ya l fa m ily w e re vying w ith p riva te e nte rp rise s in Q ua nzho u.... The y use d
the ir p o litic a l sta tus to to y w ith the m a ritim e tra d e rule s to e a rn m uc h p ro fit fro m m a ritim e tra d e .
He nc e the y w e re ve ry unp o p ula r w ith the m e rc ha nt c o m m unity" (Kw e e , 1997: n 35).
The d e c line o f the trib ute syste m p ro b a b ly c o ntrib ute d sig nific a ntly to p o litic a l c ha ng e s
in the So uth Se a s. In p a rtic ula r, the a d ve nt o f C hine se m e rc ha nts a nd ship p e rs in So uthe a st
20
Asia n w a te rs b ro ke d o w n b a rrie rs tha t ha d fo ste re d the p ro sp e rity o f a fe w c e ntra lize d tra d ing
p o rts. The e m p ire o f Srivija ya , b a se d in so uth Sum a tra , ha d re c e ive d a se ve re b lo w fro m the
C o la inva sio n o f 1025; the a p p e a ra nc e o f C hine se ship s in So uthe a st Asia n w a te rs p ro b a b ly
so und e d the o ld tha lla so c ra c y's d e a th kne ll.
The up surg e in C hine se ship p ing a c tivity d id no t, o f c o urse , m e a n tha t So uthe a st Asia n
so c ie ty suffe re d e c o no m ic a lly a s a w ho le ; in fa c t the c o nve rse is a lm o st c e rta inly true .
Num e ro us ne w p o rt site s, m a rke d b y a b und a nt sha rd s o f So ng c e ra m ic s, d a te fro m this tim e ,
sug g e sting tha t p ro sp e rity p ro b a b ly inc re a se d fo r the So uthe a st Asia ns a s c o m m e rc e g re w .
Mo re o ve r, the ne w w e a lth w a s p ro b a b ly m o re w id e ly d istrib ute d . Ne w p o rts g a ve tra d e rs d ire c t
a c c e ss to C hine se m e rc ha nts, b yp a ssing the Srivija ya n rule rs w ho w o uld ha ve ra ke d o ff m o st o f
the g o o d s in d ue s a nd fe e s.
As m ig ht b e e xp e c te d fro m the c la nd e stine na ture o f the e a rly tra d e a nd the inte nsity o f
the sm ug g ling p ra c tic e d e ve n a fte r p riva te tra d e w a s no lo ng e r a n o ffe nse , little d o c um e nta ry
info rm a tio n e xists to illum ina te the c o nd itio ns und e r w hic h e a rly C hine se ship p ing w a s
c o nd uc te d .
21
The ship s w e re se ve ra l hund re d fe e t lo ng , a nd w id e . Me rc ha nts d ivid e d sp a c e in
the ship s fo r sto w ing g o o d s, e a c h g e tting se ve ra l sq ua re fe e t o f flo o r sp a c e , w hile
the y sle p t a b o ve . Mo st o f the g o o d s w e re c e ra m ic ve sse ls, o ne p la c e d w ithin
a no the r a c c o rd ing to size w ith little sp a c e b e tw e e n...." (Q uo te d in Li Zhiya n a nd
C he ng We n, 1989: 102).
Ma ritim e a rc ha e o lo g y is just b e g inning to c o ntrib ute ne w insig hts into the p hysic a l
c o nd itio ns o f the e a rly C hine se m a ritim e tra d e a c tivity. In Ma y–July 1995, a n e xp e d itio n b a se d
o n p re lim ina ry w o rk in 1990 inve stig a te d a ship w re c k just no rth o f Fuzho u, in the Ding ha i a re a .
The m a jo rity o f a rtifa c ts re c o ve re d (69%) w e re p o rc e la ins. The re w e re a lso tw o c o nc re tio ns o f
iro n. Re m a ins o f ship tim b e rs still e xiste d ; m o re e xc a va tio ns a re p la nne d , w hic h m a y she d m uc h
m o re lig ht o n the sub je c t.
22
ha s b e e n c o lle c te d . The o nly im p o rta nt c la ss o f C hine se a rtifa c t fo r w hic h d istrib utio na l d a ta
ha s b e e n c o lle c te d in Ja va is p o rc e la in, a nd o nly o ne re g io na l stud y ha s so fa r b e e n
c o nd uc te d : in no rth-c e ntra l Ja va . In a stud y c o nd uc te d b y a Dutc h sc ho la r in the 1940s, So ng
p o tte ry w a s fo und a t o ve r 20 site s in Re m b a ng , a nd in m o re tha n a hund re d site s in the
ne ig hb o ring re g e nc ie s o f Se m a ra ng , G ro b o g a n, De m a k, Je p a ra , Pa ti, Kud us, a nd Blo ra . The
d istrib utio n p a tte rn se e m s to b e c o rre la te d w ith se ttle m e nt a re a s a nd tra nsp o rt ro ute s.
The d a ta ind ic a te s tha t, b y the e le ve nth c e ntury, p o tte ry in the a re a o f no rth-c e ntra l
Ja va surve ye d b y O rso y d e Fline s (2,500 sq ua re kilo m e te rs) w a s d istrib ute d b y so m e so rt o f
inte g ra te d m a rke ting syste m . The no rth-c e ntra l p a tte rn c o ntra sts w ith the p a tte rn so fa r
d e te c te d in a ha p ha za rd fa shio n fo r the Ta ng d yna sty c e ra m ic s fo und in so uth-c e ntra l Ja va ;
m o st o f the find s o f C hine se p o rc e la in the re a re a sso c ia te d w ith te m p le site s. The re a re ,
ho w e ve r, se ve ra l d iffe re nt va ria b le s tha t m ig ht a c c o unt fo r this, inc lud ing d iffe re nt func tio ns fo r
the p o tte ry, le sse r im p o rta nc e a tta c he d to c e ra m ic s in the Ta ng , d iffe re nt g e o g ra p hic a l a re a s,
a nd d iffe re nt se ttle m e nt p a tte rns, a nd so o n. So m uc h m o re info rm a tio n o n the d istrib utio n o f
C hine se im p o rts in So uthe a st Asia n site s m ust b e c o lle c te d b e fo re the p o ssib le e ffe c ts o f
c ha ng ing C hine se invo lve m e nt in m a ritim e tra d e o n the So uthe a st Asia n so c ie ty a nd e c o no m y
c a n b e o b se rve d a nd d ise nta ng le d fro m o the r sub syste m s e vo lving a t the sa m e tim e .
2.3.1 Introduction
Suc h ind ire c t e vid e nc e d o e s sup p o rt the id e a tha t the tra d e e xp a nsio n c ha ra c te ristic o f
So ng tim e s c o ntinue d to a c c e le ra te d uring the Yua n Dyna sty. Mo re o ve r, Yua n so urc e s sho w
23
c le a re r d istinc tio ns a m o ng va rio us m a ritim e te rrito rie s. Suc h te rm s a s Ea st a nd We st Se a s ( Do ng -
xi-ya ng ), Big g e r Ea st Se a ( Da -d o ng -ya ng ), Little Ea st Se a ( Xia o -d o ng -ya ng ), a nd Little We st Se a
( Xia o -xi-ya ng ) first a p p e a re d . The se a re o b vio us sig ns o f inc re a sing C hine se fa m ilia rity w ith the
m a ritim e w o rld .
O the r so urc e s o f ind ire c t e vid e nc e m ust suffic e to e stim a te the na ture o f the e xp a nsio n
o f Yua n tra d e , no sta tistic s ha ving survive d . Sc hurm a nn (1956: viii; c ite d in Kw e e , 1997: 5-6, n. 13)
o b se rve s tha t "no t a ll the im p o rta nt e c o no m ic institutio ns o f the Yua n a re c o ve re d [in the shi-
huo -zhi se c tio n o f the Yua n shih ]...no thing o n te na nc y, p riva te c o m m e rc e , sto re s, p a w nsho p s,
a nd m a nufa c turing . No ne o f the se institutio ns d ire c tly c o nc e rne d the g o ve rnm e nt, a ltho ug h
the y a re im p o rta nt in the e c o no m ic histo ry o f C hina ; o nly tho se o f d ire c t inte re st to the
g o ve rnm e nt suc h a s ta xe s, la nd surve y, m a ritim e g ra in tra nsp o rt, a nd m o no p o ly ta xe s a re
tre a te d ."
O ne te xt, the Da -d e -na n-ha i-zhi, sta te s tha t the re w e re "m a ny tre a sure s" in the Yua n
Dyna sty, m a ny tim e s m o re tha n p re vio us d yna stie s (Kw e e , 1997: 3, n. 7). Ac c o rd ing to C he n
G a o -hua (1991), the re w e re m o re tha n 160 typ e s o f m a ritim e g o o d s in the So uthe rn So ng , b ut
m o re tha n 220 typ e s in the Yua n (Kw e e , 1997: 4, n. 9). The num b e r o f fo re ig n p o litie s tra d ing w ith
C hina , a s w e ll a s the va rie ty o f p ro d uc e in C hina , inc re a se d d uring the Yua n.
By wa y o f inte re st, a ra re insta nc e o f the use o f ma ritime tra d e a s a p o e tic the me o c c urs in
the wo rk o f Sung Pe n in the e a rly fo urte e nth c e ntury. "The fo re ig n ship s ha ve sa ile d a wa y fro m the ir
a nc ho ra g e . Ye a r a fte r ye a r the y c o me a s if the se a s we re a lwa ys tra nq uil...In the sixth mo nth
whe n the so uth wind b lo ws the y c o me , a nd we g re e t the m with wine a nd music . Is it no t a jo yful
o c c a sio n? " (Whe a tle y, 1959:3).
The Yua n e sta b lishe d the ir first m a ritim e tra d e o ffic e in 1277 a t Q ua nzho u, the m o st
p ro sp e ro us p o rt o f the la te So ng . "Eve ry ye a r, a n invita tio n w a s to b e e xte nd e d to fo re ig n
tra d e rs to tra d e in C hina " ( Yua n shih, jua n 94; Kw e e , 1997). Thre e m o re w e re e sta b lishe d sho rtly
the re a fte r: a t Ning p o (King -yua n), Sha ng ha i, a nd Ka nfu (ne a r Ha ng c ho u, Po lo 's G a nfu). By 1293
the re w e re se ve n. "So m uc h e m p ha sis w a s p la c e d o n re ve nue fro m m a ritim e tra d e tha t e ve n
m o nks, w ho w e re o fte n g ra nte d p rivile g e s, w e re no t e xe m p te d fro m ta xe s."
The Yua n, b e ing Mo ng o ls, la c ke d the a nc ie nt C o nfuc ia n p re jud ic e a g a inst tra d e . Thus it
is no t surp rising tha t the y lib e ra lize d the syste m e ve n furthe r tha n the So ng e m p e ro rs ha d d o ne .
O ffic ia l ve ne ra tio n o f Ma -zu, G o d d e ss o f the Se a , inc re a se d . In 1278 "o ffic ia ls m e m o ria lize d the
thro ne 's c a lling a tte ntio n to the im p o rta nc e o f e nc o ura g ing tra d e re la tio ns w ith the p e o p le s o f
the so uth-e a ste rn [o r so uthe rn a nd e a ste rn] isla nd s, a ll o f w ho m , the w rite rs d e c la re d , w e re fille d
w ith the m o st lo ya l d e vo tio n to C hina " (Ro c khill, 1914: 429). In 1279 a n e nvo y w a s se nt to Ja va .
In 1282 a n e nvo y fro m Ja va c a m e to C hina w ith a shrine o f g o ld a s trib ute .
The Yua n in 1284 a c tua lly institute d a p o lic y o f g o ve rnm e nt inve stm e nt in m a ritim e tra d e .
The p re fe c ts o f Ha ng zho u a nd Q ua nzho u c ho se c e rta in p e rso ns to g o a b ro a d to c o nd uc t tra d e ,
p ro vid ing the m w ith ship s a nd c a p ita l. Ne t p ro fit w a s d istrib ute d a c c o rd ing to a fo rm ula o f 70%
fo r the g o ve rnm e nt, 30% fo r the tra d e r. Se a g o e rs a nd fa m ilie s w e re e xe m p te d fro m c o rvé e . This
p o lic y w a s re se nte d b y b ig m e rc ha nts; its m a in o b je c tive se e m s no t to ha ve b e e n to stim ula te
tra d e b ut to p re ve nt a fe w la rg e m e rc a ntile fa m ilie s fro m b e c o m ing d a ng e ro usly p o w e rful b y
m a king it p o ssib le fo r m o re sm a ll o p e ra to rs to c o m p e te w ith the m . This ne w fo rm o f g o ve rnm e nt
invo lve m e nt in m a ritim e tra d e m a y re fle c t the tra d itio na l sym b io tic re la tio nship b e tw e e n the
24
o rto g h a nd the Mo ng o lia ns in the ir o rig ina l ho m e la nd in the ste p p e s. O rto g h ("p a rtne rs" in Turkic )
w e re c o m m e rc ia l g ro up s, c o nsisting la rg e ly o f c e ntra l Asia tic Muslim m e rc ha nts, w ho b e c a m e a
le a d ing c la ss und e r the Yua n; e xte nsive g o ve rnm e nt fund s w e re lo a ne d to the m fo r c o m m e rc e
a nd usury (Kw e e , 1997: n. 41). Und e r the Yua n g o ve rnm e nt, m o re Muslim to m b sto ne s w e re
e re c te d in Q ua ng zho u tha n d uring the So ng .
In 1326 the Ta i-d ing e m p e ro r re no unc e d trib uta ry tra d e . "In 1329 the p re se nting fo r
tra nsm issio n to C o urt o f e xp e nsive a nd use le ss o b je c ts, a ll o f w hic h ha d to b e p a id fo r a t
re g ula te d p ric e s a nd w hic h w e re no w he ld to b e b ut a c a nke r d e vo uring the ric he s o f the sta te
w a s stric tly fo rb id d e n."
The Yua n w e re m o re e xp a nsio nist tha n the tra d itio na l C hine se e m p ire s ha d b e e n. The y
fo ug ht num e ro us b a ttle s o n the So uthe a st Asia n m a inla nd , w ith Vie tna m , C ha m p a , C a m b o d ia ,
a nd Burm a , o fte n to a tte m p t to fo rc e the So uthe a st Asia ns to a c c e p t a m o re fo rm a l d e g re e o f
sub m issio n to the ir o ve rlo rd ship tha n the C hine se ha d e ve r re q uire d in the c o nte xt o f the
"trib uta ry tra d e ."
25
p rize s o f the m a ritim e tra d e —o ne w hic h a ttra c te d suc h e a rly e xp lo re rs a s C o lum b us—w a s
a c c e ss to the m a c e a nd c lo ve s o f the Sp ic e Isla nd s, the Mo luc c a s. So me a utho rs ha ve a rg ue d
tha t the C hine se a c tua lly re a c he d the Mo luc c a s a s e a rly a s the Yua n Dyna sty, w hile o the rs ha ve
re je c te d this id e a .
The Yua n d yna sty a utho r Wa ng Da yua n (Ro c khill, 1914: 259–60) a nd e a rly Po rtug ue se
so urc e s sa y tha t C hine se tra d e rs o nc e visite d Te rna te a nd Tid o re to b uy c lo ve s.
Ba rro s he ld tha t the Mo luc c a ns live d like sa va g e s until C hine se junks b e g a n to a rrive to
b uy the ir c lo ve s, p ro vid ing in e xc ha ng e the C hine se c a sh tha t b e c a m e the ir m a jo r c urre nc y.
Eve ntua lly "the Ja va ne se a lso re sp o nd e d to the ir c o m m e rc e , a nd the C hine se sto p p e d c o m ing "
[Jo a o d e Ba rro s, Da Asia , 1563, De c . 3, livro 1, 576–79]. O the r Po rtug ue se , Sp a nish, a nd Dutc h
so urc e s re p o rt sim ila r sto rie s c irc ula ting a m o ng the Te rna ta ns. G a lva o , o ne o f the e a rlie st a nd
m o st c a re ful o f the se , c o nc e d e s tha t the Te rna ta ns d iffe re d a s to w he the r the first junks a rriving
fo r c lo ve s w e re C hine se , Ma la y, o r Ja va ne se . "Mo st o f the m inc line to w a rd s the vie w tha t it w a s
the C hine se , a nd tha t se e m s to b e the truth" (G a lva o , A Tre a tise o n the Mo luc c a s [c . 1544] in
Re id , 1996, n. 20).
But b y the e a rly fifte e nth-c e ntury Ming p e rio d , the re is no ind ic a tio n o f d ire c t C hine se
sa iling to the Mo luc c a s. Wha t ha p p e ne d ?
Re id (1996) sug g e sts tha t Ma ja p a hit inc o rp o ra te d the C hine se sa ilo rs, b y the n la rg e ly
re sid e nt in So uthe a st Asia a nd in the p ro c e ss o f b e c o m ing a b so rb e d into the lo c a l p o p ula tio ns,
into the Ja va ne se ship p ing ind ustry. "'C hine se ' m e rc ha nts m a y no lo ng e r ha ve b e e n re p o rte d a s
m a king the vo ya g e b e tw e e n Ja va a nd Ma luku b e c a use the y c e a se d to b e id e ntifie d a s suc h.
The c o nfusio n o f Te rna ta ns a s to w he the r the e a rly tra d e rs w e re C hine se , Ma la ys, o r Ja va ne se
w a s p ro b a b ly justifie d ." This is p la usib le , b ut no t c o m p le te ly c o nvinc ing . The e a rly fifte e nth-
c e ntury Ming vo ya g e s und e r Zhe ng He w e re Muslim -le d , so it se e m s like ly tha t so m e kno w le d g e
o f this a nc e stry w o uld ha ve b e e n c o m m unic a te d to the m . It a lso c re a te s the im p lic a tio n tha t
the Ja va ne se w e re le ss a w a re tha n C hine se o f the ro ute s to e a ste rn Ind o ne sia . Ano the r
p o ssib ility is tha t the e a rly Ming p ro hib itio n a g a inst fo re ig n tra d e se ve re d the C hina -Mo luc c a s
c o nne c tio n.
26
2.4 Trade Commodities
2.4.1 Historical Sources
The re a re fe w so urc e s w hic h c o nta in usa b le info rm a tio n o n C hina / So uthe a st Asia tra d e
o f this p e rio d , la rg e ly d ue to the o ffic ia l p re jud ic e a g a inst c o m m e rc e e ve n d uring the re la tive ly
fre e a tm o sp he re o f the So ng a nd Yua n Dyna sty. The Ling Wa i Da i Da , "Info rm a tio n o n Wha t is
Be yo nd the Pa sse s,” b y Zho u Q ufe i (1178), ha s b e e n lo st b ut w a s q uo te d b y la te r so urc e s. The
o ld e st w e ll-p re se rve d te xt w a s w ritte n b y the ha rb o rm a ste r o f G ua ng zho u, Zha o Rug ua , Zhu Fa n
Zhi, "Re c o rd s o f Fo re ig n Pe o p le s,” in 1225. He d id no t le a ve C hina , b ut a c c um ula te d his
info rm a tio n b y inte rvie w ing sa ilo rs. The m o st inte re sting te xt is the Da o Yi Zhi Lue [DYZL], the
"De sc rip tio n o f the Ba rb a ria ns o f the Isle s" w ritte n b y Wa ng Da yua n, c o g no m e n Hua n-c ha ng , a
na tive o f Na nc ha ng in Jia ng si, in 1349. This is the first in-d e p th a c c o unt o f So uthe a st Asia n tra d e
w ritte n b y a n e ye w itne ss. Ano the r im p o rta nt C hine se re fe re nc e w o rk o n So uthe a st Asia n
c o m m e rc e w a s w ritte n b y Ma G ua n, e ntitle d Ying -Ya i She ng -La n [YYSL], "A C o m p re he nsive
Surve y o f the Sho re s o f the O c e a n," p ro b a b ly w ritte n b e tw e e n 1425-1432, b y a n o the rw ise
unkno w n C hine se Muslim w ho kne w fo re ig n la ng ua g e s a nd w e nt a s inte rp re te r a nd re c o rd e r
w ith the 1413 e xp e d itio n o f Zhe ng He . The Xing C ha She ng La n [ [XC SL] o r "De sc rip tio n o f the
Sta rry Ra ft," w a s w ritte n b y Fe i Xin in 1436; he m a d e se ve ra l vo ya g e s w ith Zhe ng He , in a n
unkno w n c a p a c ity.
G la ss b e a d s C o ra l b e a d s C o tto n
Ta ffe ta s Da m a sk C hintz
Silk Sa tin Pa to la c lo th
Bro c a d e s Muslin G o ld
Silve r Me rc ury Bo ra x
Tin Be te l nuts C o w rie she lls
Sa lt Sp irits La c q ue rw a re
Music a l instrum e nts Wo o d e n c o m b s Pe p p e r
27
Ro se w a te r C a m p ho r G yp sum
Alum Brim sto ne Sulp hur
Rhino c e ro s ho rns Hid e s Ivo ry
To rto ise she ll Iro n La ka w o o d
Sa p a n w o o d G ha ru w o o d Ro se w o o d
Sa nd a l w o o d C a la m b a c w o o d C a rd a m o n
King fishe rs’ fe a the rs Dra g o n’ s b lo o d G e ms
Ra tta n Be e sw a x Am b e rg ris
Pe a rls C o c o nuts Nutm e g
C lo ve s Ma c e Pa nd a nus
Ma ts
2.4.3.1 Ivory
So urc e s o f ivo ry a nd ro ute s fo r the ivo ry tra d e d uring the So ng d yna sty.
Wild e le p ha nts w e re still fo und in so uth Fujia n until A.D. 1050, a nd in Yunna n until A.D.
1388 (Ara sa ra tna m , 1991). Ho w e ve r, ivo ry w a s im p o rte d to C hina fro m a t le a st a s e a rly a s the
te nth c e ntury a s a m a jo r ite m o f trib uta ry tra d e . No rthe rn Vie tna m se nt la rg e q ua ntitie s o n
ne a rly e ve ry m issio n. In the ye a r 980, “ 100 tusks o f ivo ry” w e re se nt; in 1164, “ 30 p ie c e s o f ivo ry
tusks” ; a nd in 1177, “ 70 ivo ry tusks.” In 1173, 11 d o m e stic e le p ha nts w e re se nt to C hina a s trib ute .
C ha m p a (c e ntra l Vie tna m ) se nt 168 ivo ry tusks in 1155. The Srivija ya e m p ire o f so uthe rn Sum a tra
se nt 87 tusks w e ig hing 4,065 ka tis in 1156, a nd a furthe r 60 tusks in 1178. Ivo ry w a s se nt fro m a s fa r
a s Afric a via Ara b tra d e rs. The Ab b a sid d yna sty o f Ara b ia se nt “ 209 p ie c e s o f b ig ivo ry tusks” in
1131 (Wo ng , 1979). Ivo ry, a c c o rd ing to Zha o , c a m e fro m Anna m , Re d Rive r, C a m b o d ia , the e a st
c o a st o f the Ma la y Pe ninsula , Sum a tra , a nd Ja va (the la tte r lie s o utsid e the e le p ha nt's ra ng e
a nd in re a lity m ust ha ve re -e xp o rte d ivo ry).
28
Whilst the p rim a ry c a rg o o n the Ja va Se a Wre c k w a s iro n a nd c e ra m ic s fro m C hina , the
ivo ry c a rg o stro ng ly sug g e sts tha t the ship sto p p e d a t a p o rt, o r p o rts, a lo ng the ro ute fro m
C hina to Ja va fo r se c o nd a ry tra d e . The ivo ry m a y ha ve c o m e fro m Vie tna m , Tha ila nd o r
Sum a tra .
2.4.3.2 Resin
Thro ug ho ut Asia , re sin w a s b urnt a s a n o ffe ring , o r a s a w a y o f c a lling c e rta in sp irits to the
a id o f a he a le r. In Ma la y c ulture it w a s im p o rta nt fo r ric e p la nting a nd re a p ing ritua ls in w hic h
the sup p lic a nt is trying to c o a x the ric e sp irit to sta y a nd a llo w a n a b und a nt ha rve st.
2.4.3.3 Glass
Zha o fo und Ara b g la ssw a re b e tte r tha n C hine se g la ss b e c a use it w a s he a t re sista nt, le ss
b rittle , a nd so m e tim e s d e c o ra te d w ith e ng ra ving s. He sa ys (p . 227) "Liu-li [g la ss] c o m e s fro m
se ve ra l o f the c o untrie s o f the Ta -shï. The m e tho d fo llo w e d in m e lting it is the sa m e a s tha t o f
C hina , tha t is to sa y, it is m a d e b y b urning o xid e o f le a d , nitra te o f p o ta sh, a nd g yp sum . To the se
m a te ria ls the Ta -shï a d d so uthe rn b o ra x, w hic h c a use s the g la ss to b e e la stic w itho ut b e ing
b rittle , a nd ind iffe re nt to te m p e ra ture , so tha t o ne m a y p ut it in w a te r fo r a lo ng tim e w itho ut
sp o iling it. It is, the re fo re , m o re va lua b le tha n the C hine se p ro d uc t." A se ve nth-c e ntury so urc e
sa ys tha t Funa n ship s b ro ug ht g la ss m irro rs to C hina (Hirth a nd Ro c khill, 1911: 228). Id risi the Ara b
m e ntio ns the m a nufa c ture o f g la ss in C hina , a t Kha nfu, Ha ng zho u.
29
Euro p e a n o nio n b o ttle , is c le a rly o f C hine se m a nufa c ture (se e Se c tio n 7.10). The re is o nly o ne
re fe re nc e in Zha o to C hine se g la ss e xp o rts: b e a d s a nd b o ttle s w e re se nt to Bo rne o . In the DYZL,
o nly g la ss b e a d s a re liste d a s ha ving b e e n e xp o rte d . A la rg e q ua ntity o f C hine se g la ss
fra g m e nts o f b o ttle s a nd o the r c o nta ine rs ha s b e e n fo und in a fo urte e nth-c e ntury site in
Sing a p o re . A ve ry fe w inta c t e xa m p le s o f the sa m e p e rio d ha ve b e e n re c o ve re d fro m b uria l
site s in Ria u. It se e m s tha t o the r tha n b e a d s, ho w e ve r, C hine se g la ss w a s no t a c o m m o n e xp o rt
d uring the So ng -Yua n e ra . In a re c e nt stud y b y a C hine se sc ho la r (An, 1996), the a utho r o nly
d isc usse s the tra d e o f g la ss into C hina , a nd d o e s no t m e ntio n a ny e xp o rts.
"Be c a use o f the a c ute sho rta g e o f the m e ta l, in the 976–83 p e rio d p e o p le w e re d ig g ing
up c o p p e r a rtic le s fro m a nc ie nt to m b s o r d e stro ying Bud d hist sta tue s in o rd e r to o b ta in c o p p e r
fo r illic it m inting " (C h'e n, 1965: 617), a nd a n e d ic t issue d in 991 "fo rb id d ing p e o p le fro m m e lting
d o w n c o ins fo r m a nufa c turing p urp o se s" a c kno w le d g e s the p ro b le m .
The issue o f c o ins in C hina c a n b e p lo tte d fo r so m e ye a rs. The fo llo w ing ta b le (fro m
C h'e n, 1965: 619, ta b le 3) g ive s so m e d a ta fo r the num b e rs o f c o ins m inte d in p a rtic ula r p e rio d s.
30
Ta ng Dyna sty: No rthe rn So ng : So uthe rn So ng :
"The So uthe rn So ng suffe re d a lm o st c o ntinuo us infla tio n. The sm a llne ss o f the fig ure s is
d ue to the e xc lusio n o f 'b ig c o ins', iro n c o ins, a nd p a p e r no te s. In a p e rio d o f se rio us c o p p e r
sho rta g e the sta nd a rd c a sh c o uld ha ve b e e n issue d o nly in sm a ll q ua ntitie s" (C h'e n, 1965: 619-
620). A p ro c e ss o f d e b a se m e nt c a n a lso b e d e te c te d in So ng c o ins (C h'e n, 1965):
An a llo y kno w n a s d a n-tung , e sse ntia lly a c o p p e r sulp ha te so lutio n, w a s a lso use d to
c o p p e r-p la te iro n c o ins.
Ano the r instruc tive se t o f q ua ntita tive d a ta c o nc e rns the e d ic ts tha t so ug ht to ste m the
he m o rrha g e o f c o ina g e fro m C hina . The list sho w s tha t d uring the So ng Dyna sty the m a in
so urc e s o f the le a k shifte d fro m the no rth to the so uth b o rd e r.
Lo c a tio ns c ite d in injunc tio ns a g a inst c o in e xp o rts issue d d uring the So ng Dyna sty (C h'e n, 1965:
621):
31
1165 - o utsid e the e m p ire
1178 - o utsid e the e m p ire
1182 - G ua ng zho u, Q ua nzho u, Ming zho u, Suzho u
1198 - a ll se a p o rts
1212 - a ll Ya ng zi p o rts
1216 - o nly iro n c o ins a llo w e d in fro ntie r a re a
1234 - a ll se a p o rts
1244 - a ll se a p o rts
1250 - a ll se a p o rts
1252 - a ll se a p o rts
1253 - a ll se a p o rts
Silve r c o ins a re ra re in Sum a tra , in c o ntra st to Ja va . The o nly sig nific a nt d isc o ve ry o f silve r
c o ins is a c a c he o f 79 fo und a t Krui, Be ng kulu, in 1904 (Wic ks, 1985: 219). O the r m a jo r find s o f
sa nd a lw o o d flo w e r c o ins, a t Ba rus a nd Be ng kulu, ha ve b e e n o f g o ld .
Tin c o ins w e re use d in Sum e nd a la , Ac e h (YYSL). The tin c o ins w e re the m a in c urre nc y
use d in tra d ing , b ut the y a lso c a st g o ld c o ins c a lle d d ina r. The Hsi Ya ng C ha o Kung Tie n Lu sa ys
in a no te tha t "The y c a st a c o in o f p a le g o ld a n inc h a nd 5 te nths in d ia m e te r a nd o n b o th sid e s
o f w hic h the re a re d e sig ns. It w e ig hs 3 c a nd a re e ns 5 li. O ne a utho rity sa ys tha t 48 o f the m is
e q ua l to o ne ta e l fo ur c a nd a re e ns in g o ld ." (Ro c khill, 1914: 154, n. 1.)
32
c o nve rsio n o f the Ja va ne se e c o no m y c a n b e vie w e d a s a sig nific a nt w a te rshe d in the e vo lutio n
o f So uthe a st Asia n so c ie ty.
The c o m ing o f Isla m to Sum a tra in the e a rly fo urte e nth c e ntury intro d uc e d a ne w fo rm o f
c o ina g e . "By the e a rly fifte e nth c e ntury this c o ina g e w o uld b e c o m e the c o m m e rc ia l a nd
a c c o unting sta nd a rd thro ug ho ut isla nd So uthe a st Asia , a p o sitio n it m a inta ine d fo r m o re tha n
tw o hund re d ye a rs" (Wic ks, 1993). C hine se c o ins no lo ng e r fo rm e d the b a sis o f tra d e .
33
3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROGRAM b y Mic hae l Fle c ke r
A p re lim ina ry inve stig a tio n o f the w re c k site ind ic a te d a p rim a ry c a rg o o f iro n a nd So ng
Dyna sty c e ra m ic s. Be fo re the e xc a va tio n c o m m e nc e d , re se a rc h w a s und e rta ke n to d isc o ve r
m o re a b o ut thirte e nth-c e ntury tra d e thro ug ho ut Asia , a s w e ll a s C hine se a nd So uthe a st Asia n
ship b uild ing te c hniq ue s a t the tim e . By kno w ing w ha t to e xp e c t in te rm s o f a rtifa c ts a nd hull
struc ture , e xc a va tio n, d o c um e nta tio n, c o nse rva tio n, a nd sto ra g e c o uld b e p la nne d w ith
sp e c ific s in m ind . Ac tua l find s a lw a ys d iffe r to so m e e xte nt fro m e xp e c ta tio ns, b ut it is a
w o rthw hile e xe rc ise to find o ut a s m uc h a s p o ssib le a b o ut a site b e fo re it is d isturb e d .
The a rtifa c ts the m se lve s m ust b e sta b ilize d a nd c o nse rve d . It is the a rtifa c ts tha t p ro vid e
so m uc h info rm a tio n o n tra d e p a tte rns, a nc ie nt te c hno lo g y, c ultura l inte ra c tio ns, life o n b o a rd ,
a nd life in g e ne ra l a t the tim e o f the lo ss. The a rtifa c ts a nd the ir c o nstitue nt m a te ria ls w e re
stud ie d in d e ta il. Fo llo w -up re se a rc h w a s und e rta ke n. Muc h w a s le a rne d , a s d e ta ile d in the
fo llo w ing se c tio ns.
34
TABLE 3.1 ARC HAEO LO G IC AL PRO C EDURE FLO W C HART
Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s
36
ABEX TS mo o re d o ve r the site . ABEX TS a c c o mmo d a tio n.
A fo ur-p o int m o o ring syste m , run o ff tw o hyd ra ulic d o ub le -d rum w inc he s, e na b le d the
b a rg e to b e m a ne uve re d p re c ise ly o ve r the g rid b e ing w o rke d . The g ro und ta c kle fo r e a c h
m o o ring p o int c o nsiste d o f a thre e -to n sto c kle ss a nc ho r c o nne c te d to a p e nna nt b uo y b y 27 m
o f stud -link c ha in a nd 40 m o f 25 m m p e nna nt w ire . The b a rg e ’ s 25 m m m o o ring w ire ra n
thro ug h fa irle a d s to the p e nna nt b uo y. The a nc ho r p a tte rn re q uire d a ve ry w id e sp re a d , so tha t
the b a rg e c o uld b e m o ve d a nyw he re o ve r the 70 m lo ng w re c k site w itho ut ha ving to re d e p lo y
a nc ho rs.
37
Five c o nta ine rs w e re lo a d e d o nto the fo rw a rd d e c k, tw o o f
the m d o ub le sta c ke d . Thre e c o nta ine d p a c king m a te ria l fo r
the c e ra m ic s fro m the w re c k; o ne w a s fo r p a c king a nd
sto ring the c e ra m ic s; a nd o ne w a s a n a rtifa c t sto re a nd
c o nse rva tio n a re a . Be fo re d e p a rting fro m Sing a p o re , 300
to ns o f p o ta b le w a te r, 100 to ns o f w a shing w a te r, a nd 80
to ns o f d ie se l fue l w e re lo a d e d into the fo ur d e sig na te d
ta nks, suffic ie nt fo r a n e xte nd e d o p e ra tio n w itho ut
re sup p ly fro m sho re .
Tug a nd a nc ho r ha nd le r, ATSA I.
38
3.2.2 Diving Systems
Oxygen
Quad
Communications Communications
Single Double
Scuba Tanks Tanks
2 Aquarium
Dive Panel
Recompression Chamber
Air
Communications
Kluge
Scuba
O2 Divers
Regulator
Down
Line
Stage
KMB Divers
39
The d iving sp re a d w a s m o unte d a t the b o w
o f the b a rg e , so the b a rg e w a s m o o re d w ith
the ste rn fa c ing the p re va iling w e a the r in
o rd e r to p ut the b o w in the le e . The m a in
e q uip m e nt w a s insta lle d in tw o 20 ft
c o nta ine rs. The fo rw a rd c o nta ine r, w ith a
c le a r vie w o f the w o rking d e c k, ho use d a
tw o -d ive r a ir-c o ntro l p a ne l a nd a 48 in
d o ub le lo c k De c k De c o m p re ssio n C ha m b e r
(DDC ). The se c o nd c o nta ine r ho use d a n 86
c fm lo w -p re ssure c o m p re sso r, a 9 c fm hig h-
p re ssure c o m p re sso r, an 8-c ylind e r
e m e rg e nc y a ir b a nk, a nd w o rksho p a nd
O xyg e n ra c ks fo r surfa c e d e c o mp re ssio n.
sto ra g e sp a c e . In a ro w a lo ng sid e b o th
c o nta ine rs w e re nine 16-b o ttle ra c ks o f m e d ic a l o xyg e n ne e d e d fo r surfa c e d e c o m p re ssio n.
40
Diving o p e ra tio ns w e re c o ntro lle d fro m the fo rw a rd c o nta ine r a t the a ir c o ntro l p a ne l.
Air w a s sup p lie d to the tw o -d ive r p a ne l fro m b o th the lo w -p re ssure c o m p re sso r a nd the
e m e rg e nc y a ir b a nk. Pne um o fa tho m e te rs b uilt into the p a ne l a llo w e d a c c ura te m o nito ring o f
the d e p th o f e a c h d ive r, a nd a ra d io m o unte d just b e lo w the p a ne l p ro vid e d tw o -w a y
c o m m unic a tio ns.
40
Surfa c e d e c o m p re ssio n o n o xyg e n a t the d e p th o f this site ha s thre e m a in a d va nta g e s.
First, the d ive rs c a n b e re m o ve d fro m the w a te r a nd c o m p le te the ir d e c o m p re ssio n in a c a re fully
c o ntro lle d e nviro nm e nt. Se c o nd , d e c o m p re ssio n tim e is re d uc e d b y b re a thing o xyg e n ra the r
tha n a ir. La stly, b y tra nsfe rring the d ive rs into the DDC , it fre e s up the d iving e q uip m e nt, a llo w ing
the ne xt p a ir o f d ive rs to im m e d ia te ly e nte r the w a te r.
De c o m p re ssio n sc he d ule s w e re ta ke n fro m the US Na vy Surfa c e -De c o m p re ssio n-o n-
O xyg e n ta b le s a nd m o d ifie d a c c o rd ing to sta nd a rd o ffsho re d iving p ra c tic e . Bo tto m tim e s
ra ng e d b e tw e e n 100 a nd 105 m inute s a t a d e p th o f 85 ft (26 m ). Inste a d o f using a 110/ 90’
ta b le , the 130/ 90’ ta b le w a s c ho se n (a n inc re a se o f tw o ta b le s) to ta ke into a c c o unt the
nitro g e n b uild -up d ue to m a ny c o nse c utive d a ys o f d iving . The US Na vy p ro c e d ure is to tra ve l
d ire c tly to the surfa c e w itho ut a ny in-w a te r sto p s, e nte r the c ha m b e r, a nd b e p re ssure d d o w n to
40 ft fo r 48 m inute s, b re a thing o xyg e n. O n c o m p le tio n the d ive r tra ve ls to the surfa c e a t 25 ft p e r
m inute . Mo d ific a tio ns to this p ro c e d ure inc lud e d a 3 m inute w a te r sto p a t a d e p th o f 30 ft,
p re ssuring the c ha m b e r d o w n to 50 ft w hile b re a thing o xyg e n fo r 10 m inute s b e fo re a sc e nd ing
to 40 ft, a nd the n slo w ing d o w n the a sc e nt to the surfa c e suc h tha t it to o k 10 m inute s ra the r
tha n 1 m inute , 40 se c o nd s. An a ir b re a k o f 5 m inute s w a s a lso ta ke n fo r e ve ry 20 m inute s o n
o xyg e n to m inim ize the c ha nc e s o f suffe ring fro m o xyg e n to xic ity. The se m o d ific a tio ns g re a tly
re d uc e d the risk o f d e c o m p re ssio n sic kne ss.
C o mp a ny a t the sc ub a d e c o mp re ssio n
A sc ub a d ive r le a ve s the b a rg e .
sta g ing .
41
3.3 Excavation Techniques
Be fo re e xc a va tio n c o uld c o m m e nc e , a g rid syste m ha d to b e se t up o ve r the w re c k site .
A lo ng itud ina l g a p ra n b e tw e e n the ro w s o f iro n c o nc re tio ns tha t p ro trud e d fro m the c e nte r o f
the site . This g a p w a s the o nly re m a ining e vid e nc e o f a lo ng itud ina l b ulkhe a d tha t m ust ha ve
run the full le ng th o f the w re c ke d ship . It p ro vid e d a ve ry c o nve nie nt c e nte r-line o rie nta tio n.
G rid ro p e a nd ta g in a n une xc a va te d a re a .
42
KMB d ive r e xc a va ting within a g rid sq ua re . Surfa c e sig ns o f a irlifts a t wo rk.
At the e nd o f a d ive e a c h d ive r w o uld p la c e his w o rking b a ske t in a ste e l lift b a ske t,
re g a rd le ss o f ho w m uc h w a s in it. The re w e re a lw a ys sp a re la b e le d p la stic b a ske ts in the ste e l
b a ske t in c a se the first o ne w a s fille d . The ste e l b a ske t w a s w inc he d to the surfa c e a t the e nd o f
e a c h d ive . Wo rking b a ske ts w e re re m o ve d , a nd ne w o ne s p ut in a nd lo w e re d to the b o tto m fo r
the ne xt p a ir o f d ive rs.
43
C e ra m ic s w e re re c o rd e d b y
g rid -sq ua re , d ue to the hug e
q ua ntitie s invo lve d . Artifa c ts suc h a s
the sto ne a nc ho rs a nd the iro n
c o nc re tio ns w e re p lo tte d w ith
re fe re nc e to the g rid line s. The
c o nc re tio ns w e re m o re tho ro ug hly
re c o rd e d by m e a ns of a
p ho to m o sa ic , w hic h w ill b e d isc usse d
in m o re d e ta il in Se c tio n 3.4.4.
Site c ro ss se c tio ns a nd
c o nc re tio n he ig hts w e re d e te rm ine d
by ta king so und ing s w ith a
d e c o m p re ssio n m e te r tha t wa s
a c c ura te to 0.1 m . A re fe re nc e p o int
on a g rid sta ke e nsure d tha t
so und ing s c o uld b e c o rre c te d fo r tid a l
va ria tio ns.
45
3.4 Photographic Procedures
Eve ry ste p o f the p ro je c t w a s d o c um e nte d o n still film a nd o n vid e o ta p e .
46
he ld o ut a t full a rm ’ s le ng th o n its lo ng jo inte d a rm s to re d uc e the re fle c tio n o f the lig ht o ff the
susp e nd e d m a tte r in the w a te r (b a c k sc a tte r). No rm a lly the m a in fla sh w a s a b o ve a nd to the
le ft o f the sub je c t, b ut this w a s va rie d a c c o rd ing to the sub je c t’ s o rie nta tio n. An Iso te c hnic s
Iso te nd e r sla ve fla sh, fire d b y a se nso r d e te c ting the m a in fla sh a nd a im e d fro m the rig ht-ha nd
sid e , p ro vid e d a d d itio na l lig hting m a ny tim e s. Fo r the c o nc re tio ns it w a s p la c e d o n the se a b e d
to lig ht up o ve rha ng ing p o rtio ns.
A p a ir o f No va 500 w a tt tung ste n ha lo g e n lig hts w a s use d fo r d iffe re nt lig hting e ffe c ts.
The se w e re m o unte d o n a n a lum inum b a r w ith a p o w e r sup p ly c a b le fro m the surfa c e . The
a rra ng e m e nt w a s m a d e le ss c um b e rso m e w ith a sm a ll lift b a g , b ut still ha d to b e m a ne uve re d
b y a n a ssista nt d ive r. Fo r the sta nd a rd 100 ASA film the e xp o sure re q uire d w a s 1/ 8th o f a se c o nd ,
w id e o p e n a t f2.8. With the d a m p ing e ffe c ts o f the w a te r a nd b y lying o n the b o tto m , slo w
shutte r sp e e d s c a n b e use d und e rw a te r, b ut the m o ve m e nts o f the a irlifting w o uld b e b lurre d .
The re fo re , 400 ASA film w a s use d , up g ra d e d to 800 ASA, to g ive re a so na b le sp e e d s o f 1/ 60th o f a
se c o nd .
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p ro vid e d the ne c e ssa ry illum ina tio n fo r film ing a irlifting o p e ra tio ns a nd fo r c o lo rful sho ts o f the
und isturb e d c e ra m ic s fie ld . The y c o uld a lso b e use d fo r a rtistic b a c kg ro und illum ina tio n.
3.4.4 Photomosaic
Thre e p a ra lle l ro p e line s w e re insta lle d a t the sa m e le ve l a c ro ss the c o nc re tio ns, the
c e nte r o ne b e ing c le a rly m a rke d w ith o ne m e te r d ivisio ns. The c a m e ra w a s he ld ve rtic a lly w ith
the a ssista nc e o f a sm a ll b ub b le le ve l g lue d o nto the ho using . Pla na r a lig nm e nt w a s a c hie ve d
b y ke e p ing o ne o f the ro p e line s p a ra lle l w ith the e d g e o f the vie w find e r. And a c o nsta nt le ve l
w a s a c hie ve d b y m a inta ining a c o nsta nt d e p th re a d ing . O f c o urse , it w a s im p o ssib le to w a tc h
a ll thre e ind ic a to rs a t the sa m e tim e , b ut re sults w e re re a so na b ly c o nsiste nt no ne the le ss. A lo ng
le a d -in sw im g a ve tim e to a d just a nd sta b ilize . Line s w e re sw um , o r ra the r d rifte d , w ith the
c urre nt in a n e a st to w e st d ire c tio n. In a ll, e ig ht line s w e re film e d , a nd six o f tho se w e re use d fo r
the m o sa ic .
No a rtific ia l lig hting w a s use d fo r the p ho to m o sa ic runs o ve r the c o nc re tio ns, d ue to the ir
ra p id ly va rying he ig hts fro m the se a b e d . This w o uld c a use the c a m e ra to c o nsta ntly a lte r
e xp o sure le ve ls a nd re sult in ha rsh sha d o w s a nd g la re . The c a m e ra is m o re lig ht se nsitive tha n
the hum a n e ye , so re a so na b le re sults w e re a c hie ve d w itho ut a rtific ia l lig hting .
In the o ry, suc c e ssive line s c o uld ha ve b e e n c o m b ine d w ith the first to p ro vid e a
c o m p le te m o sa ic o f the c o nc re tio ns. In a c tua lity, the PC (se e Se c tio n 3.5, Re g istra tio n Syste m s)
d id no t ha ve the p o w e r to d o this a nd suffe re d m e m o ry o ve rlo a d . Inste a d , e a c h run w a s
p ro c e sse d a nd p rinte d o ut a s a m o sa ic strip . The se strip s w e re the n c ut a nd p a ste d to fo rm the
48
c o m p le te m o sa ic . This w a s use d in c o njunc tio n w ith a c tua l m e a sure m e nts to ske tc h the
c o nc re tio n fie ld .
49
3.5 Registration System
Thre e d a ta b a se s w e re re q uire d
fo r the p ro je c t: c e ra m ic s re g istra tio n
w ith g rid lo c a tio n a s the p ivo ta l d a ta ;
a rtifa c t re g istra tio n w ith the sa m e
e m p ha sis; a nd a p a c king inve nto ry fo r
G o ve rnm e nt m o nito ring . Inste a d o f a
c o nve ntio na l c a rd re g istra tio n syste m ,
a ll info rm a tio n inc lud ing im a g e s w a s
re c o rd e d o n c o m p ute r.
The a rtifa c t re g istra tio n d a ta b a se c o nta ins a ll info rm a tio n o n the a rtifa c ts a nd c a n b e
up d a te d a s the a rtifa c ts a re c le a ne d a nd c o nse rve d , w hic h o fte n re ve a ls d e ta ils no t a p p a re nt
w he n the y a re first re c o ve re d . The d a ta b a se c o nta ins 12 fie ld s, inc lud ing 2 fo r im a g e s. The fie ld s
a nd a sso c ia te d p ull d o w n-lists a re inc lud e d a s Ta b le 3.3.
50
The c e ra m ic s p a c king inve nto ry is a sim p lifie d ve rsio n o f the c e ra m ic s re g istra tio n
d a ta b a se . It w a s re q uire d to ke e p tra c k o f the c o nte nts o f e a c h b o x tha t w a s p a c ke d a nd to
m o nito r the q ua ntitie s b e ing re c o ve re d o n a d a ily b a sis. O nly six fie ld s w e re ne c e ssa ry, a nd the
p ull-d o w n lists a re id e ntic a l to tho se in the c e ra m ic s re g istra tio n d a ta b a se .
G rid
Ma te ria l
Ea rthe nw a re Sto ne w a re Po rc e la in
Fo rm
Bo x w ith c o ve r Ja r Ba sin
Bo x c o ve r Ja rle t Bo ttle
Bo x b a se Ke nd i Va se
Ew e r Lid Dish
Size
Ve ry Sm a ll Sm a ll Me d ium La rg e Ve ry La rg e
Tra it
G la ze
G re e n Q ing b a i Bro w n
Pa le G re e n G ra y Burnishe d
O live White C izho u
De c o ra tio n Me tho d
Co mb e d Ap p liq ué Mo ld e d / Pa inte d
Mo ld e d Pa inte d No ne
Inc ise d Inc ise d / Pa inte d
Co mb e d Pla in Wa vy Zig za g
Flo ra l Sw e p t Stria te d Sc ro lls
Lo tus Rib b e d Ring e d
De sc rip tio n
Bo d y C o nd itio n
G la ze C o nd itio n
51
Po o r Ma rg ina l Go o d Exc e lle nt
Ta b le 3.3: Artifa c t Re g istra tio n Da ta b a se
Artifa c t Num b e r
Lo c a tio n/ G rid
Re c o ve ry Info rm a tio n
Ma te ria l
Fo rm
Fe a ture s
C la ssific a tio n
Sto re d Im a g e s
52
3.5.4 Data Analysis and Display
Sim ila rly, the sum o f the d iffe re nt typ e s o f c e ra m ic s w a s d e te rm ine d fo r e a c h g rid . By
p lo tting this in the sa m e m a nne r, it is ve ry e a sy to se e w hic h typ e s w e re sto w e d in w hic h p a rt o f
the ship .
By using the fo rm func tio n in Ac c e ss, e xc e lle nt-q ua lity c a ta lo g s w ith c o lo r im a g e s c o uld
b e p ro d uc e d fo r b o th the c e ra m ic s a nd the a rtifa c t d a ta b a se s.
At the e nd o f e a c h d ive the fo a m -p a d d e d ste e l b a ske t c o nta ining the p la stic g rid
b a ske ts w a s w inc he d to the surfa c e . The g rid b a ske ts w e re c a re fully re m o ve d a nd ta ke n
d ire c tly to the c e ra m ic s w a shing ta b le , w hic h w a s lo c a te d o n the p o rt b o w o f the b a rg e und e r
a n a w ning . A sub m e rsib le p um p sup p lie d a c o ntinuo us flo w o f se a w a te r via p ip ing a nd fo ur
d isc ha rg e ho se s a tta c he d to the b a c k o f the ta b le . A fo a m m a ttre ss w a s fixe d to the ste e l
g ra ting ta b le to p . He re the c e ra m ic s w e re c le a ne d o f m ud , sp o ng e s, o yste r she lls a nd c o ra l
w ith sc rub b ing b rushe s a nd p la stic c ho p stic ks. The m o re te na c io us m a rine g ro w th, a nd the re
w a s a lo t o f it, w a s le ft fo r re m o va l in the c o nse rva tio n la b o ra to ry. C e ra m ic s fro m e a c h g rid
b a ske t w e re ke p t c o m p le te ly se p a ra te .
Unlo a d ing c e ra mic s o nto the wa shing C e ra mic s c le a ning in full swing .
ta b le .
53
Afte r w a shing , the c e ra m ic s w e re rinse d in fre sh w a te r, the n so rte d a c c o rd ing to fo rm , size ,
g la ze , a nd c o nd itio n in p re p a ra tio n fo r re g iste ring . The so rte d c e ra m ic s w e re sta c ke d o n the
sha d e d d e c k in se p a ra te a re a s d e sig na te d b y g rid ta g s. Exc e p t fo r p e rio d s o f inc le m e nt
w e a the r, a ll c e ra m ic s re g istra tio n to o k p la c e o n d e c k im m e d ia te ly a fte r w a shing . O ne p e rso n
w o uld e xa m ine the so rte d c e ra m ic s a nd c a ll o ut the p e rtine nt info rm a tio n to a no the r fo r d a ta
e ntry into a no te b o o k c o m p ute r. Info rm a tio n o n e a c h p ie c e inc lud e d the fo llo w ing : g rid
sq ua re , q ua ntity o f p ie c e s w ith the sa m e a ttrib ute s, w a re , m a te ria l, fo rm , size , g la ze typ e ,
d e c o ra tio n m e tho d , inte rna l d e c o ra tio n, e xte rna l d e c o ra tio n, b o d y c o nd itio n, a nd g la ze
c o nd itio n. O ne a d d itio na l fie ld w a s p ro vid e d to re c o rd g e ne ra l tra its, suc h a s “ no fo o tring ” o r
“ ung la ze d ring ,” a nd a no the r fo r a ny furthe r d e sc rip tio n uniq ue to the p ie c e b e ing re g iste re d ,
suc h a s “ sp o ut b ro ke n” o r “ d isto rte d rim .” A sm a ll ro ta ting sta ff o f thre e p e o p le w a s use d fo r
c a lling a nd d a ta e ntry in o rd e r to m a inta in the c o nsiste nc y o f lo g g e d info rm a tio n. Uniq ue o r
e xc e p tio na l p ie c e s a nd re p re se nta tive e xa m p le s o f e a c h c e ra m ic s typ e w e re se t a sid e fo r
d ig ita l im a g ing .
54
A se p a ra te d a ta b a se w a s use d to ke e p tra c k o f e a c h b o x’ s c o nte nts, b a se d o n fo rm ,
size , c o nd itio n, a nd q ua ntity. Da ily p a c king lists w e re p rinte d o ut e a c h e ve ning fo r jo int sig ning
b y the Ind o ne sia n G o ve rnm e nt Re p re se nta tive a nd b y Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s.
55
On c o m p le tio n of m e c ha nic a l
c le a ning , p ie c e s tha t re q uire d m o re w o rk
w e re le ft o ve rnig ht in a ve ry d ilute
hyd ro c hlo ric a c id so lutio n. Afte r this
tre a tm e nt the p ie c e s w e re sc rub b e d c le a n in
fre sh w a te r, the n c a re fully sta c ke d in
fre shw a te r b a ths fo r d e sa lina tio n, the d e ta ils
o f w hic h a re g ive n in Se c tio n 3.7,
C o nse rva tio n. Pla stic she e ting w a s p la c e d
o ve r the b a ths to p re ve nt e va p o ra tio n a nd
the b re e d ing o f m o sq uito e s.
3.7 Conservation
C o nse rva tio n o f c e ra m ic s is fa irly stra ig htfo rw a rd . Afte r c le a ning o ff the m a rine g ro w th, it
is e sse ntia l to le a c h o ut the sa lts tha t ha ve e nte re d the g la ze a nd b o d y o f the p ie c e d uring the
hund re d s o f ye a rs tha t it re ste d o n the se a b e d . If this is no t d o ne , the p re ssure c re a te d b y sa lt
c rysta lizing o ut o f so lutio n, p a rtic ula rly b e tw e e n the g la ze a nd the b o d y o f a n im p e rfe c tly g la ze d
p ie c e , c a n re sult in e xfo lia tio n a nd c ra c king .
56
so o n a s the c o nd uc tivity sta rte d to le ve l o ut, the w a te r w a s c ha ng e d . The first w a sh inc re a se d in
sa linity ve ry q uic kly, p a rtic ula rly the b a th c o nta ining sto ne w a re ja rs, w hic h a re m o re p o ro us tha n
the g la ze d c e ra m ic s. Sub se q ue nt w a she s w e re typ ic a lly c ha ng e d o nc e e ve ry 10 d a ys o r so .
The to ta l d e sa lina tio n p e rio d w a s typ ic a lly 3 m o nths.
Sta b le sto ra g e a nd c o nse rva tio n tre a tm e nt a re d e te rm ine d la rg e ly b y m a te ria l typ e . The
d iffe re nt m a te ria ls tha t ha d to b e tre a te d o n this w re c k inc lud e d iro n, c o p p e r a llo y, g la ss, ivo ry,
a nd w o o d .
The iro n w a s in the fo rm o f c o nc re tio ns, a m a trix o f iro n c o rro sio n p ro d uc ts, sa nd , a nd
c a lc a re o us m a rine g ro w th tha t fo rm s a ro und a n iro n a rtifa c t a nd o fte n g ro w s to se ve ra l
c e ntim e te rs thic k. In a c tua l fa c t, the re w a s no iro n b a se m e ta l le ft a fte r 750 ye a rs o r so . So m e
c o nc re tio ns c o nta ine d a b la c k m a te ria l tha t w a s q uite so lid in p la c e s, b ut c o uld re a d ily b e
p ic ke d o ut, a nd o the r c o nc re tio ns c o nta ine d slush. So m e c o nc re tio ns tha t w e re no t to ta lly
e nc lo se d w e re c o m p le te ly ho llo w . O b vio usly no thing c a n b e d o ne to sa ve the c o nte nts, b ut
the c o nc re tio ns ha ve b e c o m e a m o ld o f the o rig ina l o b je c t. The y w e re sto re d in w a te r, a s the y
ve ry q uic kly e xp a nd a nd c ra c k o p e n if a llo w e d to d ry.
57
O nly a fe w p ie c e s o f hig hly d e g ra d e d w o o d w e re re c o ve re d . Tw o o f the se ha d a d o w e l
ho le in the m a nd he nc e w e re c o nse rve d . As the y w e re o nly fist size d , the a c e to ne / ro sin
m e tho d , a s d e sc rib e d fo r ivo ry a b o ve , w a s use d . Ap a rt fro m a fe w sm a ll shrinka g e c ra c ks, the
m e tho d se e m s to ha ve w o rke d w e ll.
58
4.0 SITE CONDITIONS b y Mic hae l
Fle c ke r
At nig ht the so uthe rn ho rizo n is d isturb e d b y a flic ke ring o ra ng e g lo w tha t m a rks the
no rthe rnm o st p ro d uc tio n p la tfo rm o f the Ma xis O ilfie ld . Fishing b o a ts a nd ship s na vig a ting
thro ug h the Ba nka Stra its p a ss b y a t re g ula r inte rva ls, b ut fro m tim e to tim e the se a p re se nts 360
d e g re e s o f uninte rrup te d ho rizo n.
Pro je c ting so m e 1.5 to 2.0 m a b o ve the surro und ing se d im e nts, the w re c k m o und fo rm s a
sig nific a nt fe a ture o n a n o the rw ise fe a ture le ss se a b e d . A se rie s o f m a ssive iro n c o nc re tio ns
p ro trud e s a furthe r 1.5 m a b o ve the m o und , c re a ting a thriving a rtific ia l re e f, a n o a sis in a n
a q ue o us d e se rt.
The re is a p a tte rn to the c o nc re tio ns. The iro n c a rg o e vid e ntly c o nc re te d to g e the r
b e fo re the ship c o m p le te ly d isinte g ra te d . C o m p a rtm e nts a nd b ulkhe a d lo c a tio ns c a n b e
re a d ily d isc e rne d fro m the p re se nt c o nc re tio n d isp o sitio n. A lo ng -g o ne lo ng itud ina l b ulkhe a d o r
p a rtitio n ha s d ivid e d the c o nc re tio ns into tw o ro w s. Sm a ll c o nc re tio n c hunks lie sc a tte re d
a ro und the m a in b lo c ks, p o ssib ly the re sult o f fishe rm e n’ s e xp lo sive s.
58
4.2 Oceanographic and Meteorological Conditions
The Ja va Se a is sub je c t to the typ ic a l m o nso o na l w e a the r syste m o f the so uthe rn
he m isp he re tro p ic s. The so uthe a st m o nso o n p re va ils fro m Ma y thro ug h Se p te m b e r. The
no rthw e st m o nso o n b lo w s fro m No ve m b e r thro ug h Ma rc h a nd te nd s to ha ve stro ng e r, m o re
c o nsiste nt w ind s tha n the so uthe a st m o nso o n. Ap ril a nd O c to b e r/ No ve m b e r te nd to b e p e rio d s
o f tra nsitio n w ith va ria b le w ind s a nd c a lm s.
Mo nso o n-ind uc e d c urre nts te nd to se t in a m o nth o r so p rio r to the true o nse t o f the
m o nso o n, flo w ing w e st to no rthw e st d uring the so uthe a st m o nso o n a nd e a st to so uthe a st d uring
the no rthw e st m o nso o n. The se c urre nts a re w e a k a nd a re usua lly o ve rrid d e n b y tid a l c urre nts.
Ac c o rd ing to Ad m ira lty w e a the r c ha rts the m o nso o n c urre nts ra re ly e xc e e d ha lf a kno t.
59
O ne unusua l p he no m e no n o b se rve d d uring the e xc a va tio n, w hic h w a s und e rta ke n fro m
the b e g inning o f Se p te m b e r to the e nd o f O c to b e r 1996, w a s tha t c urre nts te nd e d to b e
stro ng e r d uring the ha lf-m o o n p ha se tha n d uring full o r ne w m o o n, a c o ntra st to the no rm .
C urre nt shifts w e re typ ic a lly d iurna l w ith a t le a st a n ho ur o f sla c k w a te r b e tw e e n shifts a nd w e re
ra re ly d ia m e tric a lly o p p o se d .
The a c tua l w e a the r c o nd itio ns o b se rve d o n the site d uring the e xc a va tio n w e re
so m e w ha t d iffe re nt fro m the e xp e c te d m o nso o n p a tte rn. During the first tw o w e e ks o f
Se p te m b e r the w ind b le w p re d ic ta b ly fro m the so uthe a st thro ug h to no rthe a st w ith m o d e ra te
ve lo c ity a nd so m e he a vy ra ins e a rly o n. The re w e re a lso o c c a sio na l sq ua lls, the w o rst g usting to
25 kno ts fo r a full d a y in m id -Se p te m b e r. Wind s w e re the n c o nsiste ntly lig ht fro m the so uthe a st
w ith no ra in until the la st w e e k o f the m o nth, w he n the y sw ung so uth a nd so uthw e st a nd b le w
ha rd fo r fo ur d a ys, c re a ting sho rt 2 m se a s. A so uthe rly sw e ll p re c e d e d this b lo w b y a full d a y.
The first thre e w e e ks o f O c to b e r w e re typ ic a l o f the m o nso o na l tra nsitio n p e rio d , w ith w ind s
g e ne ra lly b lo w ing lig htly fro m so uth to e a st, a nd o c c a sio na l sq ua lls a nd ra in fro m the so uth. O nly
o ne d a y w a s fla t c a lm . Fro m 20 O c to b e r the re w e re fre q ue nt sq ua lls w ith ve ry he a vy ra in fro m
the so uth a nd so uthw e st, la sting fo ur d a ys. The re a fte r, w ind s w e re lig ht fro m the so uth to e a st.
O nly o nc e d id the w ind b lo w fro m the no rthw e st, a nd tha t w a s d ue to a sho rt-live d lo c a l
thund e rsto rm .
First, it is inte re sting to no te tha t the a b und a nt life o b se rve d is re stric te d a lm o st e ntire ly to
the w re c k m o und . Fifty-m e te r sw im surve ys und e rta ke n in the fo ur c a rd ina l d ire c tio ns fro m the
o ute r lim its o f the m o und re ve a le d the o c c a sio na l sho ve le r shrim p w ith its a tte nd a nt g o b y a nd a
fe w w o rm ho le s. O the rw ise , the g e ntly und ula ting sa nd y se a b e d a p p e a re d life le ss.
60
Live c o ra ls w e re sc a rc e . The re w e re a fe w sm a ll a re a s o f e nc rusting c o ra ls o n the
c o nc re tio ns a nd se ve ra l so ft w hip c o ra ls o f d iffe re nt c o lo r, w hic h o fte n g re w o n sha rd s sc a tte re d
a b o ut.
The c o nc re tio ns p ro vid e d the m a in fo c us fo r fish life in the a re a . Rising up to 1.5 m fro m
a n o the rw ise fla t b o tto m , the y se rve d a s a re fug e fo r re sid e nt fish a nd a hunting g ro und fo r the
p re d a to ry fish. The b a rg e a lso a ttra c te d p e la g ic fish. La rg e sc ho o ls o f ja c ks w e re o fte n sig hte d
b e ne a th the b a rg e , inte rm ing le d w ith b a tfish, ra inb o w runne rs, a nd fusilie rs. Sc ub a d ive rs
d e c o m p re ssing o n a line und e r the b a rg e p ro vid e d a c o nve nie nt re fug e fo r fry, b ut fusilie rs a nd
ja c ks o fte n d isre g a rd e d the sa nc tua ry o f the d ive r a nd a tta c ke d a nyw a y. C o nsta nt d o d g ing
ke p t the d ive r’ s b lo o d c irc ula ting .
Fa r fro m ha ving a d e trim e nta l e ffe c t o n the m a rine life , the e xc a va tio n c a use d a
te m p o ra ry inc re a se in a c tivity, la rg e ly b ro ug ht a b o ut b y the stirring up o f fo o d fro m the
se d im e nts. Se d im e nt fro m the a irlift d isc ha rg e b la nke te d c o ra ls a nd sp o ng e s o n the c o nc re tio ns
a t tim e s, b ut m o d e ra te c urre nts p re ve nte d sig nific a nt a c c um ula tio n. The c o nc re tio ns w e re no t
d isturb e d , so re sid e nt m a rine o rg a nism s w e re no t d isp la c e d .
61
Nurse sha rk (Ne b rius fe rrug ine us) Ma rb le d g ro up e r (Ep ine p he lus p o lyp he ka d io n)
Blue line d a ng e lfish (Po mo c a nthus a nnula ris) Ma rb le d g ro up e r (Ep ine p he lus p o lyp he ka d io n)
Ye llo w ta il b a rra c ud a (Sp hyra e na je llo ) Sc ra wle d file fish (Alute rus sc rip ta )
Ha wksb ill turtle (Ere tmo c he lys imb ric a ta ) Bla c k sp o tte d sting ra y (Ta e niura me la no sp ilo s)
62
Nud ib ra nc h (Bo rne lla sp .)
63
5.0 THE WRECKING PROCESS b y Mic ha e l
Fle c ke r
A d e sc rip tio n o f the site p rio r to e xc a va tio n is g ive n in Se c tio n 4.1, Site De sc rip tio n. To
re c a p itula te , the surfa c e c e ra m ic s sc a tte r o c c urs o ve r a n o va l-sha p e d a re a a p p ro xim a te ly 70 m
lo ng b y 55 m w id e , w hic h is slig htly le ss tha n the e xte nt o f the so -c a lle d w re c k m o und . The
hig he st p o int o n the m o und p ro je c ts ne a rly 2 m a b o ve the surro und ing se a b e d . In the c e nte r o f
the m o und a re tw o ro w s o f iro n c o nc re tio ns tha t a ssum e d the sha p e o f the c o m p a rtm e nts in
w hic h the iro n c a rg o w a s sto re d b e fo re the ship d isinte g ra te d . The c o nc re tio ns c o ve r a n a re a o f
a p p ro xim a te ly 18 m b y 10 m in the sa m e a lig nm e nt a s the m o und a nd p ro je c t a furthe r 1.5 m
a b o ve the se d im e nts.
Ano the r p uzzling d isc o ve ry w a s tha t a b so lute ly no ne o f the hull ha d survive d inta c t, no t
e ve n und e r the iro n c o nc re tio ns. The o nly w o o d tha t w a s fo und w a s in fist-size d e ro d e d c hunks,
a nd the re w e re o nly a fe w d o ze n o f tho se .
64
Furthe rm o re , e ve ry c e ra m ic ite m tha t w a s re c o ve re d , w itho ut e xc e p tio n, ha d so m e
m a rine g ro w th o n it, w he the r o yste r she lls, c o ra l o r sp o ng e s. So e ve ry p ie c e ha s b e e n
c o m p le te ly e xp o se d fo r a t le a st so m e o f its life o n the se a b e d .
65
c re a te d b y tub e w o rm s a nd is c o ve re d in sm a ll c hunks o f c la y. O n a la rg e r sc a le , the re a re
ho le s a nd tre nc he s in the c la y w e ll o ve r a m e te r d e e p a nd se ve ra l m e te rs in e xte nt, p o ssib ly
w he re the c la y w a s le ss stiff a nd he nc e m o re e a sily e ro d e d (the se a re no t to b e m ista ke n fo r the
ho le s d ug b y e a rlie r sa lvo rs). The se ho le s ha ve b e c o m e tra p s fo r c e ra m ic s.
It is inte re sting to no te tha t the c la y o f the surro und ing se a b e d , a nd p re sum a b ly tha t
und e rlying the m o und , is sig nific a ntly d iffe re nt to the c la y in the m o und . The m o und c la y is
stre a ke d w ith re d . Whe n kne a d e d it b e c o m e s a unifo rm o c hre c o lo r. The se a b e d c la y is
g e ne ra lly g ra y w ith so m e b ro w n inc lusio ns, a nd it is c o nsid e ra b ly so fte r, ha ving a va ne she a r o f
25 kN/ m 2 10 c m b e lo w the c la y surfa c e . This is sim ila r to the c la y fo und 24 c m b e lo w the c la y
surfa c e o n the m o und a nd im p lie s tha t m o st o f the 2 m o r so tha t ha s e ro d e d a w a y w a s a so ft
c la y. It w a s a lso a fa irly silty c la y, a s ind ic a te d b y a p a rtic le size d istrib utio n te st, w ith up to 36%
silt.
So , ra the r tha n a n inta c t hull fille d w ith iro n a nd c e ra m ic s still in the ir o rig ina l p a c king , the
site d isc lo se d a hug e sc a tte r o f b ro ke n c e ra m ic s. It is e stim a te d tha t a t le a st 80% o f the
c e ra m ic s c a rg o w a s b ro ke n. G ive n the d ista nc e p ie c e s ha ve tra ve le d fro m the o rig ina l w re c k
lo c a tio n, this is no t to o surp rising . As if this w a s no t e no ug h, it se e m s tha t e xp lo sive s ha ve b e e n
use d o n the site fo r fishing . The re is e vid e nc e to sup p o rt this. In iso la te d a re a s the re is ne a rly
100% b re a ka g e , a nd the sha rd s a re sm a lle r tha n usua l. The stiff c la y la ye r w o uld a c t a s a w a ll
a nd b o unc e the sho c k w a ve s b a c k, so the re w a s little c ha nc e fo r the c e ra m ic s ne a r g ro und
ze ro .
66
6.0 INTERPRETING THE SHIP b y Mic hae l Fle c ke r
66
the y a re sim ila rly se p a ra te d . The se g a p s a re the p o sitio ns o f b ulkhe a d s tha t ro tte d a w a y lo ng
ago.
Tra nsve rse g a p s sug g e st a m inim um o f tw e lve b ulkhe a d s, d ivid ing the ship into thirte e n
c o m p a rtm e nts. The c o m p a rtm e nt w id ths va rie d fro m 1.2 to 1.5 m in the c e ntra l p o rtio n o f the
ship .
Tw o sto ne a nc ho rs w e re fo und lying sid e b y sid e in G rid K3, a stro ng ind ic a to r tha t the
b o w o f the ship is fa c ing e a st. This sup p o sitio n is sup p o rte d b y the sha p e o f C o nc re tio n 19, the
e a ste rnm o st b lo c k. Lo o king a t this c o nc re tio n fro m the no rthe a st a t se a b e d le ve l, o ne c a n
c le a rly se e the d e e p V se c tio n o f the b o w . The b lo c k se e m s to ha ve ske w e d 45 d e g re e s w he n
the hull c o lla p se d . In the o rig ina l c o nfig ura tio n the lo w e r le ve ls o f the fo rw a rd ho ld m ust ha ve
b e e n fille d w ith iro n b a rs a nd c a uld ro ns. The lo ng itud ina l b ulkhe a d a p p e a rs to ha ve sto p p e d a t
the fo re m o st b ulkhe a d a nd no t c o ntinue d a ll the w a y to the b o w . Lo o king d o w n o n C o nc re tio n
19, it c a n b e se e n tha t the b o w fla re d o ut ve ry q uic kly fro m a fine p ro w . The b o w c o m p a rtm e nt
w a s a p p ro xim a te ly 2.7 m in lo ng itud ina l e xte nt.
67
End vie w o f the “ b o w” c o nc re tio n. Pla n vie w o f the “ b o w” c o nc re tio n (the b o tto m le ft is the
“ b o w” ).
68
Altho ug h ve ry fe w p ie c e s o f
w o o d survive d , tw o sm a ll c hunks d id
ha ve id e ntifia b le d o w e l ho le s. O ne
w a s o nly a c ro ss se c tio n w ith a d o w e l
d ia m e te r o f 15 m m . The o the r e nc a se d
the e ntire ho le w ith a d o w e l d ia m e te r
o f 27 m m .
Do we l ho le in a wo o d fra g me nt.
By c a lc ula ting the vo lum e o f the iro n c o nc re tio ns, m a king a 30 % a llo w a nc e fo r
e xp a nsio n a nd p a c king inte rstic e s a nd using a sp e c ific g ra vity o f 7.2 fo r c a st iro n, the to ta l
w e ig ht c a n b e e stim a te d a t 340 to ns.
To g e t a n id e a o f the
sto w a g e o f the c e ra m ic s, it is
w o rth lo o king a t the O ve ra ll Site
Pla n (Se c tio n 4.1) a nd the O ve ra ll
C e ra m ic s Distrib utio n Plo t
(Ap p e nd ix C ). The c e ra m ic s
ha ve sp re a d o ut 20 to 25 m in a ll
d ire c tio ns fro m the iro n
c o nc re tio ns. The C e ra m ic s
Distrib utio n Plo t m ust be
inte rp re te d w ith c a utio n sinc e a s
m a ny a s 12,000 p ie c e s w e re
re c o ve re d in e a rlie r e xc a va tio ns.
It d o e s, ho w e ve r, ind ic a te tre nd s.
The re is a d e a rth o f p ie c e s in the
so uthe a st q ua d ra nt, b ut this is
Bund le s o f iro n b a rs c o nc re te d to g e the r.
69
o ffse t b y a n a b und a nc e to the no rthe a st. O ve ra ll, the d istrib utio n o f c e ra m ic s is fa irly e ve n
a lo ng the w ho le le ng th o f the site , sug g e sting tha t c e ra m ic s w e re lo a d e d in e ve ry ho ld o f the
ve sse l. The y m ust ha ve b e e n lo a d e d o n to p o f the iro n c a rg o , p ro b a b ly in stra w c ylind e rs a nd
w o o d e n b a rre ls. No thing re m a ins o f the p a c king m a te ria l.
It is inte re sting to stud y the d istrib utio n o f the va rio us typ e s o f c e ra m ic s to d e te rm ine in
w hic h p a rt o f the ship the y w e re sto w e d (se e Ap p e nd ix D, C e ra m ic s Distrib utio n Plo ts).
Ea rthe nw a re ke nd is w e re sto w e d thro ug ho ut the ship , a ltho ug h the re a re m uc h hig he r
c o nc e ntra tio ns just fo rw a rd o f m id ship s a nd a t the b o w . As the ke nd is a re p ro b a b ly no t fro m
C hina , b ut ra the r w e re p ic ke d up a t a p o rt e n ro ute to Ja va , it is re a so na b le to c o nc lud e tha t
the y w e re lo a d e d o n to p o f the C hine se c e ra m ic s c a rg o a lo ng the le ng th o f the ship w he re ve r
the re w a s re m a ining ho ld sp a c e . In fa c t, so m e o f the C hine se c e ra m ic s m a y ha ve b e e n
b a rte re d fo r the ke nd is w hic h w e re ve ry p o p ula r in Ind o ne sia .
Me rc ha nts w e re g e ne ra lly a llo tte d c o m p a rtm e nts o r p o rtio ns o f c o m p a rtm e nts fo r the ir
tra d e g o o d s. Unfo rtuna te ly, the hug e sc a tte r o f c e ra m ic s m a ke s it im p o ssib le to d e te rm ine the
sto w a g e p a tte rn b y c o m p a rtm e nt. So it is d iffic ult to sa y w he the r the d iffe re nt typ e s o f c e ra m ic s
lo a d e d thro ug ho ut the ship w e re d e te rm ine d b y the p re fe re nc e o f ind ivid ua l m e rc ha nts o r w e re
g o ve rne d b y a fe w ind ivid ua ls ship p ing a la rg e c o nsig nm e nt.
70
Ma nd a ila s) b e st m a tc hing the sa m p le s. Pa ra ste m o n sp e c ie s a re na tive to So uthe a st Asia a nd
ne ig hb o ring re g io ns, b e ing fo und in We ste rn Ira n, Pa p ua Ne w G uine a , So lo m a n Isla nd s,
Mya nm a r, Ind o ne sia , a nd the Ma la y Pe ninsula , a s w e ll a s so m e a d ja c e nt c o untrie s a nd isla nd s.
Ano the r p o ssib le m a tc h fo r this tim b e r, a ltho ug h le ss like ly tha n Pa ra ste m o n , is Pa rina ri.
This is fo und thro ug ho ut So uthe a st Asia a nd in so uthe rn C hina to so m e e xte nt. The d ra w b a c k o n
b o th o f the se sp e c ie s is tha t the tre e s a re no t p a rtic ula rly la rg e a nd the tim b e r is m o re d iffic ult to
w o rk.
71
fo urte e nth o r e a rly fifte e nth c e ntury a nd w a s a lm o st c e rta inly b uilt in Tha ila nd , a ltho ug h
p ro b a b ly und e r C hine se sup e rvisio n o r influe nc e .
72
A b a s re lie f o n the Ba yo n o f Ang ko r in
C a m b o d ia c le a rly d e p ic ts a n a nc ho r b e ing
lo w e re d fro m a la rg e se a g o ing ve sse l. The
a nc ho r a p p e a rs to ha ve a la rg e sto ne sla b
fa ste ne d ne a r the c ro w n (m o re like a m o d e rn
d a nfo rth a nc ho r tha n a n a d m ira lty p a tte rn
a nc ho r) tha t ha s the sto c k w e ll d o w n the sha nk.
This fla t sto ne sla b d e p ic te d o n the b a s re lie f
b e a rs fa r m o re re se m b la nc e to the Ja va Se a
Wre c k a nc ho rs tha n to e xa m p le s o n the
Q ua nzho u a nd Bre a ke r Sho a l Wre c ks, w hic h a re
b o th tho ug ht to b e C hine se ve sse ls.
6.4.3 Fastenings
73
6.4.4 Bulkheads
C o m p a rtm e nta lize d d e sig n ha s lo ng b e e n a ttrib ute d to the C hine se , p rim a rily thro ug h
the stud y o f e a rly C hine se m a nusc rip ts (Ne e d ha m , 1971). The Tha i w re c ks m e ntio ne d a b o ve a lso
ha d b ulkhe a d s. G re e n (1978) sug g e sts tha t a s a re sult o f the d ra stic re d uc tio n in the e xp o rt o f
C hine se p o rc e la in c a use d b y the so -c a lle d “ Ming Ba n” o n p riva te o ve rse a s tra d e , w hic h c a m e
into e ffe c t in 1371, a nd the Inte rre g num (1435-65) c a lling fo r the c lo sure o f the im p e ria l kilns a t
Jing d e zhe n, C hine se e m ig ra nts in So uthe a st Asia m a y ha ve b e e n b uild ing fle e ts o f tra d ing
ve sse ls to e sta b lish a ne w b a sis o f tra d e in the re g io n. Suc h ship s w o uld na tura lly inc o rp o ra te
a sp e c ts o f b o th C hine se a nd lo c a l ship b uild ing tra d itio ns. Mo st o f tha t ne w tra d e w a s in Tha i
c e ra m ic s (w hic h a re a lso he a vily influe nc e d b y C hine se w a re , p a rtic ula rly Sa w a nkha lo k w a re
w hic h ha s stro ng p a ra lle ls to Lo ng q ua n w a re fro m no rthe rn C hina ), so it is re a so na b le to a ssum e
tha t the ve sse ls re q uire d to im p le m e nt the tra d e w e re a lso b uilt in Tha ila nd .
Pla n o f the C e ntra l G ulf o f Tha ila nd Wre c k, a Tha i ve sse l with b ulkhe a d c o nstruc tio n.
The a ttrib ute s o f e a rly Ind o ne sia n ve sse ls a re d e te rm ine d m o stly fro m a ve ry lim ite d
num b e r o f te m p le c a rving s, suc h a s the ninth c e ntury re lie f a t C a nd i Bo ro b ud ur in Ja va , w hic h is
tho ug ht to b e a c o a sta l tra d ing ve sse l ra the r tha n a n o c e a n-g o ing ship . O b vio usly, no thing c a n
b e a sc e rta ine d a b o ut inte rna l struc ture fro m suc h so urc e s. Ac c o rd ing to Ma ng uin (1980),
sixte e nth- a nd se ve nte e nth-c e ntury Dutc h a nd Po rtug ue se tra ve le rs d e sc rib e Ind o ne sia n ve sse ls
in c o nsid e ra b le d e ta il, b ut no w he re is the re m e ntio n o f b ulkhe a d s; w he re a s e a rly fo re ig n w rite rs
d e sc rib ing C hine se ve sse ls a re e nthra lle d b y the m (Ne e d ha m , 1971). Furthe rm o re , no m o d e rn
74
Ind o ne sia n ve sse l still c o nstruc te d b y the d o w e l e d g e -jo ine d m e tho d inc o rp o ra te s b ulkhe a d s in
the ir d e sig n. So it se e m s unlike ly tha t c o m p a rtm e nta lize d c o nstruc tio n w a s a n Ind o ne sia n
ship b uild ing fe a ture .
The re is o ne o the r Tha i w re c k w ith no te w o rthy sim ila ritie s. The Ko Si C ha ng III w re c k o f the
fifte e nth o r sixte e nth c e ntury is e stim a te d to ha ve ha d sixte e n b ulkhe a d s, c re a ting
c o m p a rtm e nts a p p ro xim a te ly 1.2 m w id e . The a sp e c t ra tio o f 1:3.3 is a lm o st the sa m e a s the
Ja va Se a Wre c k, a ltho ug h it is c o nsid e ra b ly sm a lle r a t 20 m LO A.
6.4.5 Conclusion
The w o o d id e ntific a tio n ind ic a te s tha t the ve sse l w a s no t b uilt in C hina . But the a b se nc e
o f te a k m a y a lso p la c e d o ub t o n Tha ila nd a s the p la c e o f o rig in. The sto ne a nc ho rs se e m to b e
no n-C hine se fro m the ve ry lim ite d info rm a tio n a va ila b le . The d o w e l ho le s in tw o surviving p ie c e s
o f tim b e r a nd the a b se nc e o f iro n fa ste ning s, so m e o f w hic h sho uld ha ve survive d in c o nc re tio n
fo rm ha d the y b e e n p re se nt, a d d s to the like liho o d tha t C hina is no t the p la c e . While c o m m o n
in C hine se a nd Tha i ship s, b ulkhe a d s a re no t kno w n to ha ve b e e n utilize d in Ind o ne sia n
ship b uild ing , a ltho ug h the re is a lm o st no e vid e nc e o n the inte rna l la yo ut o f suc h c ra ft.
Bo th Ro xa nna Bro w n a nd Dr. Jo hn Miksic d a te the ship to the m id -thirte e nth c e ntury,
b a se d o n a stylistic a na lysis o f the c e ra m ic s c a rg o . In o rd e r to c he c k this hyp o the sis, a re sin
sa m p le w a s se nt to Be ta Ana lytic , Inc ., a ra d io c a rb o n-d a ting la b o ra to ry in the USA, fo r C 14
c o nte nt m e a sure m e nt a nd C 13/ C 12 ra tio a na lysis (se e Ap p e nd ix H).
The C 13/ C 12 ra tio is use d to c o rre c t the m e a sure d C 14 a g e a nd to c a lib ra te the re sult to
the c o nve ntio na l c a le nd a r. Fro m the a na lysis the re is a 95% p ro b a b ility d a te ra ng e o f AD 1215
to 1405. The 68% p ro b a b ility d a te ra ng e is AD 1265 to 1310. So it c a n b e sa id w ith so m e
c e rta inty tha t the c e ra m ic s c a rg o d o e s no t p re d a te the thirte e nth c e ntury. This is sig nific a nt, a s
se ve ra l o f the fine r w a re s d id sug g e st a n e a rlie r d a te . While it is c e rta inly fe a sib le tha t suc h
w a re s w e re m a nufa c ture d o ve r a lo ng e r p e rio d tha n p re vio usly tho ug ht, it is unlike ly tha t
p ro d uc tio n c o ntinue d o n into the fo urte e nth c e ntury. Thus, the thirte e nth c e ntury re m a ins the
m o st like ly d a te fo r the w re c k a nd its c a rg o .
75
The re is o ne o the r Tha i w re c k w ith no te w o rthy sim ila ritie s. The Ko Si C ha ng III w re c k o f the
fifte e nth o r sixte e nth c e ntury is e stim a te d to ha ve ha d sixte e n b ulkhe a d s, c re a ting
c o m p a rtm e nts a p p ro xim a te ly 1.2 m w id e . The a sp e c t ra tio o f 1:3.3 is a lm o st the sa m e a s the
Ja va Se a Wre c k, a ltho ug h it is c o nsid e ra b ly sm a lle r a t 20 m le ng th o ve ra ll.
6.4.5 Conclusion
The w o o d id e ntific a tio n ind ic a te s tha t the ve sse l w a s no t b uilt in C hina . But the a b se nc e
o f te a k m a y a lso p la c e d o ub t o n Tha ila nd a s the p la c e o f o rig in. The sto ne a nc ho rs se e m to b e
no n-C hine se fro m the ve ry lim ite d info rm a tio n a va ila b le . The d o w e l ho le s in tw o surviving p ie c e s
o f tim b e r a nd the a b se nc e o f iro n fa ste ning s, so m e o f w hic h sho uld ha ve survive d in c o nc re tio n
fo rm ha d the y b e e n p re se nt, a d d s to the like liho o d tha t C hina is no t the p la c e . While c o m m o n
in C hine se a nd Tha i ship s, b ulkhe a d s a re no t kno w n to ha ve b e e n utilize d in Ind o ne sia n
ship b uild ing , a ltho ug h the re is a lm o st no e vid e nc e o n the inte rna l la yo ut o f suc h c ra ft.
Bo th Ro xa nna Bro w n a nd Dr. Jo hn Miksic d a te the ship to the m id -thirte e nth c e ntury,
b a se d o n a stylistic a na lysis o f the c e ra m ic s c a rg o . In o rd e r to c he c k this hyp o the sis, a re sin
sa m p le w a s se nt to Be ta Ana lytic , Inc ., a ra d io c a rb o n-d a ting la b o ra to ry in the USA, fo r C 14
c o nte nt m e a sure m e nt a nd C 13/ C 12 ra tio a na lysis (se e Ap p e nd ix H).
The C 13/ C 12 ra tio is use d to c o rre c t the m e a sure d C 14 a g e a nd to c a lib ra te the re sult to
the c o nve ntio na l c a le nd a r. Fro m the a na lysis the re is a 95% p ro b a b ility d a te ra ng e o f AD 1215
to 1405. The 68% p ro b a b ility d a te ra ng e is AD 1265 to 1310. So it c a n b e sa id w ith so m e
c e rta inty tha t the c e ra m ic s c a rg o d o e s no t p re d a te the thirte e nth c e ntury. This is sig nific a nt, a s
se ve ra l o f the fine r w a re s d id sug g e st a n e a rlie r d a te . While it is c e rta inly fe a sib le tha t suc h
w a re s w e re m a nufa c ture d o ve r a lo ng e r p e rio d tha n p re vio usly tho ug ht, it is unlike ly tha t
p ro d uc tio n c o ntinue d o n into the fo urte e nth c e ntury. Thus, the thirte e nth c e ntury re m a ins the
m o st like ly d a te fo r the w re c k a nd its c a rg o .
77
7. ARTIFACTS b y Mic ha e l
Fle c ke r
The p o sitio ns o f ind ivid ua l a rtifa c ts a re d e p ic te d in the Artifa c t Distrib utio n Pla n (se e
Ap p e nd ix C ).
7.1 Iron
7.1.1 Cauldrons
77
Afte r the thic k c o nc re ting m a te ria l m a d e up o f iro n c o rro sio n p ro d uc ts, sa nd , a nd
c a lc a re o us m a rine g ro w th w a s c a re fully c hip p e d o ff the o utsid e o f o ne sta c k, 7 ind ivid ua l
c a uld ro ns c o uld b e d isc e rne d . The re w a s no b a se m e ta l re m a ining . The c a st iro n ha d
tra nsfo rm e d to a b la c k m a te ria l tha t in so m e a re a s w a s b rittle a nd in o the rs c o uld b e w a she d
o ut w ith a je t o f w a te r. This b la c k m a te ria l d id , ho w e ve r, m a inta in the o rig ina l sha p e o f the
c a uld ro ns. The y w e re 510 m m in d ia m e te r a nd 2.6 m m thic k. The w id e rim s w e re d e c o ra te d
w ith tw o se ts o f thre e c o nc e ntric ring s, e ithe r c a st o r e tc he d fine ly into the surfa c e .
Re c ta ng ula r iro n b a rs b o und with ra tta n. De ta il o f the ma te ria l c o ve ring the re c ta ng ula r iro n b a rs.
78
A b ro ke n c o nc re tio n sho wing b und le s o f b a rs sta c ke d Ind ivid ua l c o nc re tio ns o f tra p e zo id a l b a rs.
e nd -to -e nd .
79
C ro ss se c tio n o f a b und le o f tra p e zo id a l iro n b a rs. Lo ng se c tio n o f a b und le o f b a rs c le a rly sho wing the ra tta n
b ind ing .
7.1.3 Ax
7.2 Ivory
80
In the so uthw e st q ua d ra nt o f the site ,
16 p ie c e s o f ivo ry w e re re c o ve re d . Fro m the
re a so na b ly c o nc e ntra te d na ture o f the find s
(Artifa c t Distrib utio n Pla n, Ap p e nd ix C ), it
se e m s tha t the ivo ry w a s sto w e d in the ste rn
o f the ship o n the sta rb o a rd sid e .
7.3 Resin
Eig ht p ie c e s o f re sin w e re re c o ve re d . Like the ivo ry, the y te nd e d to b e in the so uthe a st
q ua d ra nt o f the site . Ho w e ve r, the y w e re m o re sp re a d o ut, p ro b a b ly d ue to the ir lo w sp e c ific
g ra vity. In fa c t, o ne sm a ll p ie c e w a s fo und a t the o p p o site e nd o f the site in G rid N2. As w ith the
ivo ry, it is like ly tha t the re sin w a s sto w e d in the ste rn o f the ve sse l, p ro b a b ly o n the sta rb o a rd
sid e .
81
A b lo c k o f re sin, 410 mm lo ng .
82
Diffe re nt typ e s o f b a la nc e we ig hts p la in C u a llo y (to p le ft), sc a llo p e d C u a llo y (b o tto m
le ft a nd rig ht), c o mp o site (b o tto m c e nte r), a nd q ua rtz (to p rig ht).
1. - - 27 -
2. 37 - - -
3. 70 71 - -
4. 171, 190 189 - -
5. 340, 363, 364 384 - -
6. 760, 762 - - 727
83
Tw o b a la nc e b a rs w e re a lso fo und .
While b e ing ve ry d iffe re nt in size , the y a re
e xa c tly the sa m e sha p e , a ro und b a r ta p e ring
fro m the c e nte r to a p p ro xim a te ly ha lf the
d ia m e te r a t b o th e nd s. The e nd s a re “ turne d ”
a nd the re is a fla t p ivo t p o int in the c e nte r tha t
is b ro ke n o n b o th p ie c e s. The sm a ll b a la nc e
b a r w a s fo und in G rid K3 a nd is 150 m m lo ng ,
a nd the la rg e o ne w a s fo und in G rid E2 a nd is
221 m m lo ng . Pre sum a b ly the d iffe re nt size d
b a rs w e re use d fo r d iffe re nt w e ig ht c a te g o rie s
a nd b o th typ e s m a y ha ve b e e n in a se t,
a ltho ug h c o nte xtua l e vid e nc e sug g e sts this Ba la nc e b a rs.
w a s no t the c a se .
84
The o the r fig urine w a s d isc o ve re d in G rid H2. Me a suring 172 m m lo ng , it is a fig urine o f a
w o m a n rid ing a se a c re a ture . The c re a ture b e a rs a n unc a nny re se m b la nc e to tho se sp o uting
m o nste rs d e p ic te d o n Euro p e a n se a c ha rts o f the sixte e nth a nd se ve nte e nth c e nturie s, ha ving a
la rg e m o uth, b ulb o us no se , a nd thre e p ro ng e d d o rsa l, p e c to ra l, a nd ta il fins. The rid e r sits w ith
o ne le g c ro sse d o ve r the o the r. He r rig ht ha nd re sts o n he r kne e . He r le ft a rm is m issing . She ha s
lo ng ha ir flo w ing ha lf w a y d o w n he r b a c k a nd lo o ks o ut to the le ft, he r he a d slig htly b o w e d .
Bro nze fig urine . Bro nze fig urine (sc a le in c m).
Pre -Ma ja p a hit fo lklo re e xp la ins the ro le o f this fine la d y a nd he r unusua l ste e d . An
a nc ie nt Ja va ne se te xt, the Sri Ta njung , d e sc rib e s the a fte rlife jo urne y o f a p rinc e ss w ho w a s kille d
b e fo re she ha d m a d e p re p a ra tio ns to lib e ra te he r so ul a nd the re fo re c o uld no t a tta in sa lva tio n.
He r so ul w a s re sc ue d b y a m o nstro us fish a nd c a rrie d to the ne xt w o rld . This sc e ne is d e p ic te d
o n a d ive rse ra ng e o f Ma ja p a hit re lic s, suc h a s a b ro nze ha ng ing la m p , a c a rve d sto ne w ind o w
g rill, a nd a g o ld m o d e sty c o ve r (Miksic & So e ka tno , 1995).
85
The o the r w a s fo und in G rid E2. This o ne ha s the a p p e a ra nc e o f a m a sq ue ra d e p a rty
m a sk w ith ho le s fo r the e ye s a nd d istinc t up turne d e ye b ro w s. It ha s a w a vy c ro ss se c tio n,
inc o rp o ra ting a stylize d m o uth a nd no se .
The se finia ls w e re o rig ina lly m o unte d o n w o o d e n sta ffs a nd w e re c a rrie d b y p rie sts d uring
re lig io us c e re m o nie s. Finia ls fro m the Ma ja p a hit e ra ha ve b e e n une a rthe d in e a ste rn Ja va a nd
in Ba li. The y o fte n d e p ic t na g a s, a m ythic a l c o b ra -like c re a ture . Bro nze finia ls w ith lo o se ring s
tha t ra ttle d ( kha kkha ra ) a d o rne d the to p o f w a lking sta ffs c a rrie d b y m e nd ic a nt p rie sts (Miksic &
So e ka tno , 1995).
7.6 Trays
Unfo rtuna te ly, no c o m p le te tra ys
w e re fo und . The lo ng e xp o se d site
a ffo rd e d no p ro te c tio n fo r the se thin
c o p p e r a llo y a rtifa c ts. O nly the thic ke r
rim s, a nd in a fe w c a se s the c e ntra l
p o rtio n, o f a va rie ty o f tra ys re m a ine d . A
tra y is d e fine d lo o se ly he re a s b e ing a
sha llo w d ish w ith a d istinc t ra ise d rim . A
fe w rim s ha ve suffic ie nt b o d y still a tta c he d
to c o nfirm this id e ntific a tio n, a nd a ll the
thin she e t fra g m e nts a re re la tive ly fla t.
O the r rim typ e s w itho ut id e ntifia b le
fra g m e nts m a y b e fro m d e e p e r ve sse ls,
Tra y fra g me nts.
suc h a s c o p p e r b o w ls o r c a uld ro ns.
86
The re a re fo ur d istinc t typ e s o f rim . The first is a ha lf-ro und se c tio n a nd is d e finite ly fro m a
tra y. The rim thic kne ss is a p p ro xim a te ly 1.5 m m , w hile the tra y b o d y is le ss tha n 1 m m thic k. The
rim is d e c o ra te d w ith a fa intly im p re sse d d o ub le line o n the inne r surfa c e . The se tra ys w o uld
ha ve ha d a d ia m e te r o f a p p ro xim a te ly 420 m m .
Ano the r d e finite tra y is he a vie r a nd una d o rne d . It ha s a n e ve rte d rim , a p p ro xim a te ly 12
m m w id e a nd 3 m m thic k. The b o d y o f the tra y is 1.5 m m thic k. The d ia m e te r w o uld ha ve b e e n
a p p ro xim a te ly 520 m m .
The third typ e is ve ry so lid ly m a d e ; b ut a s o nly rim fra g m e nts survive d , it c a nno t
d e finitive ly b e te rm e d a tra y. The rim is sq ua re d a nd b e ve le d in tie rs a nd is typ ic a lly 4 m m thic k.
The o rig ina l ve sse l w o uld ha ve ha d a d ia m e te r o f o nly 250 m m , sug g e sting tha t p e rha p s it w a s a
so lid b o w l ra the r tha n a tra y.
The fo urth typ e is re p re se nte d b y o nly tw o sm a ll rim fra g m e nts. The y a re ro ug hly ha lf
ro und , o nly 8 m m w id e a nd 4 m m thic k, sug g e sting tha t the y m a y b e c a st. The d ia m e te r w o uld
ha ve b e e n 160 m m .
Thin c o p p e r a llo y she e ts, he a vily c o rro d e d a ro und the e d g e s, a re tho ug ht to b e the
c e ntra l p a rts o f tra ys. O ne la rg e p ie c e , m e a suring 290 x 220 m m a nd a p p ro xim a te ly 1 m m thic k,
m a y b e the c e nte r p o rtio n o f the first typ e o f tra y d e sc rib e d a b o ve . Thre e g ro up ing s o f
c o nc e ntric c irc le s d e c o ra te this fra g m e nt: a c e ntra l g ro up o f 30 m m d ia m e te r, a m id d le p a ir o f
160 m m d ia m e te r, a nd a ve ry fa int o ute r p a ir o f 340 m m d ia m e te r. O ne slig htly b o w e d p ie c e
w ith a thic kne ss o f 2 m m m a y b e fro m the se c o nd typ e o f tra y d e sc rib e d . Like the rim , it is
und e c o ra te d .
During the Ma ja p a hit e ra , b ro nze tra ys w ith inc ise d c irc ula r d e c o ra tio ns w e re use d a s
o ffe ring tra ys in re lig io us c e re m o nie s (Miksic & So e ka tno , 1995). So m e w e re m o re e la b o ra te w ith
inc ise d lo tus b lo sso m s a nd sc ro lls.
7.7 Gongs
O nly tw o g o ng s w e re re c o ve re d :
o ne m o re tha n ha lf inta c t a nd the o the r
just a hig hly c o rro d e d c e ntra l p o rtio n.
The y w e re fo und re la tive ly c lo se
to g e the r in the ste rn a re a o f the ship in
G rid s B3 a nd D3. The b e tte r p re se rve d
p ie c e ha s a n o ve ra ll d ia m e te r o f 270
m m , a nd the c e ntra l ra ise d d o m e is 60
m m in d ia m e te r. The fra g m e nt ha s a
slig htly la rg e r ra ise d d o m e w ith a
d ia m e te r o f 65 m m . The re is no sig n o f
d e c o ra tio n o n e ithe r p ie c e .
A b ro nze g o ng .
87
ship w a s p ro b a b ly b o und fro m Ayud hya to the Philip p ine s. O the rs w ith a six-p o inte d sta r
d e c o ra tio n w e re fo und o n a sixte e nth c e ntury tra d ing ve sse l, p ro b a b ly C hine se , tha t w a s lo st o n
Ro ya l C a p ta in Sho a l in the Philip p ine s (G o d d io , 1988). It is p o stula te d tha t this ship w a s b o und
fro m C hina to Bo rne o w ith a p rim a ry c a rg o o f p o rc e la in.
87
7.9 Miscellaneous Copper Alloy Artifacts
Po ssib ly p a rt o f a we ig hing sc a le se t.
A c o m p le te rim o f 110 m m
d ia m e te r is p ro b a b ly tha t o f a sm a ll
c o p p e r a llo y b o w l. No ne o f the
inte rio r ha s survive d .
A sm a ll tub ula r p ie c e o f
c o p p e r a llo y, slig htly p inc he d a t the
w a ist, m a y b e a b ushing fo r a sm a ll
w o o d e n p ulle y. It is fro m g rid G 3.
Po ssib ly a ha nd le .
An unusua l p ie c e re se m b le s the
b a se o f a la rg e c a nd le stic k a nd is
b a d ly c o rro d e d a nd hig hly p o ro us. The
b a se is slig htly d o m e d , a nd is
d e c o ra te d w ith c o nc e ntric c irc le s a nd
stria tio ns. The ne c k o f the p ie c e is
fla ng e d . The c o p p e r a llo y c a sting ha s
b e e n fille d w ith a no the r m e ta l, p o ssib ly
a n a llo y o f le a d , w hic h is no w e xp o se d
w he re the c o p p e r ha s c o rro d e d a w a y.
It w a s fo und in G rid D0. Its func tio n is a
c o m p le te m yste ry.
Unid e ntifie d c o p p e r a llo y a rtifa c t.
88
A c o nic a l ho llo w p ie c e , o p e n a t e a c h e nd , c a nno t e ve n b e g ue sse d a t. The b o tto m se e m s to
b e the o rig ina l surfa c e , b ut the to p ha s b e e n b ro ke n o ff o r e ro d e d a w a y.
7.10 Glassware
A ra ng e o f g la ss a rtifa c ts lid (b o tto m le ft), ‘ o nio n b o ttle ’ (to p le ft, b o tto m c e nte r), thic ke r
‘ o nio n b o ttle ’ (to p rig ht), a nd stic k (b o tto m rig ht).
89
d e struc tive q ua lita tive te c hniq ue w he re the first tw o p rinc ip a l c o m p o ne nts a re p lo tte d using the
re la tive c o nc e ntra tio ns o f 17 e le m e nts in o rd e r to c o m p a re d ire c tly to sa m p le s o f kno w n o rig in.
The re sults a re p lo tte d b e lo w .
16
14
12
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT 1
10
ONION BOTTLE SAMPLE
8
STICK SAMPLE
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT 2
90
7.11 Rocks
Eve ry ro c k fo und o n the site w a s b ro ug ht to the surfa c e . The y va ry in size fro m rive r
ro und e d sto ne s w e ig hing 5 kg to fing e rtip -size d p e b b le s. So m e o f the ro c ks ha ve o b vio usly b e e n
ha nd sha p e d , a nd the se ha ve b e e n tre a te d se p a ra te ly in Se c tio n 7.12. The to ta l num b e r
re c o ve re d w a s 64. O nly ha lf o f tho se c o uld b e c la sse d a b a lla st sto ne size , a nd , w ith ra re
e xc e p tio ns, tho se a re w e ll ro und e d a nd w a te rw o rn. With the m a ssive iro n c a rg o it is p la in tha t
the re w a s no ne e d fo r sto ne b a lla st o n the la st vo ya g e . The la rg e r sto ne s m a y b e re m na nts fro m
a p re vio us vo ya g e w he re b a lla st w a s ne c e ssa ry, a nd m a ny o f the sm a ll ro c ks m a y b e c hip s a nd
p e b b le s m ixe d w ith the b a lla st. The id e ntific a tio n o f m a ny o f the se ro c ks b y G ina Ro c ke tt, the
c ura to r o f the E. d e C la rke G e o lo g y Muse um a t the Unive rsity o f We ste rn Austra lia , a nd he r
a sso c ia te , Jo hn Rid le y, p ro vid e s o the r p o ssib ilitie s a s fo llo w s:
f) Six sm a ll, he a vy ro c ks w ith a re d d ish-p urp le surfa c e a nd c rysta lline inte rio r ha ve b e e n
te nta tive ly id e ntifie d a s rho d o nite , a c a lc ium m a ng a ne se silic a te . The y w e re a ll fo und w ithin
m e te rs o f e a c h o the r. Whe n p o lishe d , rho d o nite is re g a rd e d a s a g e m sto ne ; the re fo re , this
ro c k m a y ha ve b e e n p a rt o f the c a rg o , p o ssib le a p riva te tra d e ite m jud g ing fro m the lim ite d
q ua ntity re c o ve re d . An a tte m p t to p o lish o ne o f the se ro c ks w a s unsuc c e ssful, a s it b ro ke
into p ie c e s d ue to inte rna l w e a the ring .
91
c lo se to g e the r, in G rid s B1, B2, a nd C 1. The ir ind ivid ua l c ha ra c te ristic s a re suffic ie ntly
d iffe re nt to m a ke it unlike ly tha t the y d e rive d fro m o ne la rg e r p ie c e . O n c o nte xtua l g ro und s,
the y w e re initia lly tho ug ht to b e so m e fo rm o f p ro c e sse d m ine ra l tha t w a s p a rt o f the ship ’ s
c a rg o , p o ssib ly lim e o r so m e kind o f flux fo r sm e lting . It ha s sinc e b e e n sug g e ste d tha t the y
a re rhyo lite b o m b s, la va fra g m e nts thro w n into the a ir b y vo lc a nic e xp lo sio ns. Pum ic e , w hic h
is a rhyo lite la va b lo w n into a sp o ng e -like c o nsiste nc y b y the re le a se o f g a se s, ha s b e e n
p o sitive ly id e ntifie d o n the site , the re b y sup p o rting this the o ry.
j) O ne ra w q ua rtz c rysta l wa s
re c o ve re d fro m G rid H8. The m a in
he xa g o na l c rysta l is 60 m m lo ng , a nd
the re is o ne sm a ll o ffsho o t c rysta l.
The surfa c e is slig htly sta ine d w ith a
b ro w n iro n c o rro sio n p ro d uc t.
Altho ug h the re a re so m e inte rna l
fra c ture s, the re a re fe w im p uritie s
w ithin the c rysta l. This w a s p ro b a b ly
a c urio b e lo ng ing to o ne o f the ship ’ s
c o m p a ny.
l) Mo st o f the b a lla st-size d ro c ks a re se d im e nta ry, ra ng ing fro m a c o urse -g ra ine d sa nd sto ne to
the ve ry fine -g ra ine d g re yw a c ky m e ntio ne d a b o ve . Tw o e xc e p tio ns a p p e a r to b e g a b b ro
a nd d io rite w ith so m e q ua rtz c o nte nt, b o th ig ne o us ro c ks. The re is o nly o ne e xa m p le o f
e a c h.
Nine sto ne a rtifa c ts ha ve b e e n p o sitive ly id e ntifie d a s sha rp e ning sto ne s. Five o f the m
a re sm a ll a nd e a sily he ld in o ne ha nd , w hile the o the r fo ur w o uld ha ve re ste d o n the g ro und .
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The ha nd -he ld sha rp e ning sto ne s
a re sha p e d o ut o f a ha rd siltsto ne . Fo ur
a re m o re o r le ss fing e r sha p e d , b ut o ne
o f a lig hte r c o lo re d sto ne ha s the sha p e
o f a fla tte ne d “ L” . All ha ve o ne surfa c e
w o rn sm o o th, so the y ha ve a ll se e n
a c tive d uty. The y w e re w e ll sc a tte re d ,
lying in g rid s C 1, E9, G 0, I8, a nd J8.
The la rg e r sto ne s te nd e d to b e
w a te r-w o rn, e lo ng a te d p ie c e s o f ro c k.
O ne 350 m m lo ng p ie c e is c o m p le te ly
sm o o th a lo ng its full le ng th o n o ne sid e ,
a nd ha s tw o w e ll-w o rn ho llo w s o n the
Sma ll sha rp e ning sto ne s.
o the r.
O ne o the r sim ila r sto ne ha s b e e n ha nd sha p e d , a ltho ug h it is no t a c tua lly a sha rp e ning
sto ne . It is like a ro lle r, w ith b o th e nd s ta p e re d slig htly a s if to fit e nd b e a ring s. The surfa c e o f this
so c a lle d ro lle r ha s b e e n w o rn sm o o th. It ha s a le ng th o f 280 m m a nd a d ia m e te r o f 80 m m .
The fa c t tha t a ll o f the sha rp e ning sto ne s w e re w e ll use d im p lie s tha t the y w e re p a rt o f
the ship ’ s e q uip m e nt o r p e rha p s b e lo ng e d to so ld ie rs a ssig ne d to p ro te c t the ve sse l, ra the r tha n
ite m s fo r tra d e .
93
b e c a na rium , o r c a na ry nut, w hic h is typ ic a lly use d fo r fo o d fla vo ring . Ano the r ve ry d e g ra d e d
sp e c im e n w a s id e ntifie d a s the fruit fro m a nip a p a lm , w hic h c o nta ins w ha t a re c o m m o nly
kno w n a s a ta p se e d s. The se se e d s a re sw e e t a nd c he w y, a nd hig hly e d ib le . The nip a p a lm is
fo und thro ug ho ut So uthe a st Asia a nd g ro w s p ro lific a lly in sw a m p y rive r d e lta s.
The o the r o rg a nic find s inc lud e ra tta n tha t w a s use d to b ind the b und le s o f iro n b a rs, a nd
a sm a ll p ie c e o f he ssia n-like m a te ria l tha t w a s use d to w ra p up a b und le o f fo ur re c ta ng ula r iro n
b a rs. The se w e re p re se rve d b y the e nc a sing iro n c o nc re tio n.
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The d e ta ile d re sults o f the m e ta l a nd c o rro sio n p ro d uc ts a na lysis fo r b o th ing o ts c a n b e
fo und in Ap p e nd ix I.
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8.0 THE IRON INDUSTRY AND TRADE b y Dr. Be nne t
Bro nso n
The ra w m a te ria ls fo r iro n m a king a re d istrib ute d q uite une ve nly w ithin So uthe a st Asia .
This is e sp e c ia lly true o f la rg e d e p o sits o f hig h-g ra d e iro n o re s. Se ve ra l a re a s ha ve no ne ,
inc lud ing Ja va , Sula w e si a nd Mind a na o (a ll o f w hic h ha ve sub sta ntia l lo w e r-g ra d e d e p o sits) a s
w e ll a s so uthe rn Vie tna m a nd the Visa ya s (w he re e ve n lo w -g ra d e o re s a re q uite sc a rc e ). O the r
a re a s, ho w e ve r, a re ric h in e xc e lle nt iro n o re s, no ta b ly Luzo n, the Ma la y Pe ninsula , a nd a b e lt
tha t runs fro m no rthe rn Tha ila nd thro ug h La o s to no rthe rn Vie tna m a nd C hina . Altho ug h
a va ila b le info rm a tio n o n sm a lle r hig h-g ra d e d e p o sits in the 10,000-500,000 to n ra ng e is ve ry
inc o m p le te , it se e m s re a so na b le o n g e o lo g ic a l g ro und s to c o nc lud e tha t m o st o f the se o c c ur in
the sa m e a re a s a s the m ultim illio n-to n d e p o sits. Use ful q ua ntitie s o f ric h o re s a lso e xist in C e ntra l
Tha ila nd , Bo rne o a nd the isla nd s b e tw e e n Bo rne o a nd Sum a tra (Surve y, 1970; Be m m e le n, 1949;
MRDS-39, 1972; DMR, 1975).
Existing histo ric a l re c o rd s ind ic a te tha t c o m m e rc ia l iro n m a king d uring p re ind ustria l tim e s
w a s c o nc e ntra te d in a re a s w ith hig h-g ra d e o re s, like tho se o f Phno m De k in no rthe rn C a m b o d ia
(Mo ura , 1883:43-6), o r w ith unusua l o re s like the iro n-nic ke l d e p o sits o f c e ntra l Sula w e si
(Ab e nd a no n, 1917-8). Whe re a s a lm o st a ll p a rts o f So uthe a st Asia c o nta in e no ug h m e d io c re
se d im e nta ry o re s (m a ny o f the m la te ritic ) fo r a c o m p e te nt e a rly sm e lte r to m a ke suffic ie nt iro n
fo r lo c a l use , p ro d uc tio n o n a slig htly la rg e r sc a le se e m s to ha ve re q uire d ric h c o nta c t-
m e ta m o rp hic o re s. This w a s no t b e c a use iro n m a d e fro m le a n o re s w a s w o rse in q ua lity b ut
b e c a use it w a s m o re e xp e nsive , re q uiring m o re fue l a nd la b o r to p ro d uc e a unit o f finishe d
m e ta l. He nc e , o re -d e fic ie nt a re a s suc h a s so uthe rn C a m b o d ia a nd so uthe rn Vie tna m m a y
ne ve r ha ve b e e n p ro d uc e rs o f iro n.
This im b a la nc e e ithe r o f re so urc e s o r inte re st in using the m re sulte d in a n a c tive iro n tra d e
in a nd a ro und the Ja va Se a . In re c e nt c e nturie s, a num b e r o f re g io na l c e nte rs a re kno w n to
ha ve p ro vid e d ra w o r w o rke d iro n to b e fe d into the tra d itio na l m a ritim e tra d e ne tw o rk o f
w e ste rn Ind o ne sia . Exa m p le s inc lud e the Ng a ju Da ya k o f So uth Ka lim a nta n, w ho se iro n a nd
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ste e l w e re fa b ric a te d a t Ne g a ra ne a r Ba nje rm a sin a nd e xp o rte d b y se a to o the r isla nd s
(He nd riks, 1842); the We st To ra ja a nd To Ba d a o f c e ntra l Sula w e si, w ho se to o ls sup p lie d the
Mo luc c a s (Kruyt, 1901:148-9) a nd w ho se nic ke l-c o nta ining unw o rke d iro n, the fa m e d p a m o r
luwu, w a s c a rrie d a s fa r a s no rthe rn Sum a tra (G ro ne m a n, 1910:138); the inha b ita nts o f Be litung
a nd Ka rim a ta , w ho se b a r iro n a nd m uc h-e ste e m e d p a ra ng s a nd a xe s w e re use d thro ug ho ut
Ind o ne sia (e .g ., Da g hre g iste r, v.1679: 121, 137, 178, 222, 229, 342; Re id , 1988: 110-1); a nd the
Mina ng ka b a u o f Sum a tra , no te d kris e xp o rte rs (Va le ntyn, 1726,5:2) a nd sup p lie rs o f iro n to
se ve ra l o the r p a rts o f tha t isla nd (Ma rsc ha ll, 1968: 130-2).
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8.2 Iron-Making Technology
The first suc h issue re la te s to the fa c t tha t until the m id -nine te e nth c e ntury m o st o f the
iro n use d in the w o rld w a s o f the lo w -c a rb o n va rie ty kno w n a s w ro ug ht iro n. This is c ha ra c te rize d
b y a hig h m e lting te m p e ra ture , w hic h m a ke s it im p o ssib le to sha p e b y c a sting ; b y re la tive
so ftne ss a nd d uc tility a t re d o r w hite he a t, m a king it e a sy to sha p e b y fo rg ing ; a nd b y re la tive
to ug hne ss a nd lo w stre ng th. A p ure w ro ug ht iro n c o nta ins a lm o st no c a rb o n a nd is in fa c t le ss
stro ng a nd ha rd tha n m a ny b ro nze s. Ho w e ve r, it ha s tw o a d va nta g e s o ve r a ny b ro nze o r o the r
c o p p e r a llo y: (1) b e c a use iro n o re s a re ve ry a b und a nt, it is m uc h c he a p e r, a nd (2) thro ug h
a d d ing so m e b ut no t to o m uc h c a rb o n b y o ne o f se ve ra l m e tho d s it c a n b e c o nve rte d to ste e l,
w hic h in te rm s o f c o m b ine d to ug hne ss, stre ng th a nd ha rd ne ss is sup e rio r no t o nly to b ro nze b ut
to m o st o the r a nc ie nt o r m o d e rn m a te ria ls.
Lo w -c a rb o n w ro ug ht iro n a nd its d e riva tive , ste e l, w e re the o nly typ e s o f iro n use d in m o st
p la c e s fo r m o st o f histo ry. Ea st Asia , ho w e ve r, b e g a n a t a n e a rly d a te to e m p lo y a third typ e :
the ve ry ha rd , b rittle a nd m o ld a b le hig h-c a rb o n m e ta l kno w n a s "c a st" iro n w hic h, tho ug h a
g o o d m a te ria l fo r m a king o b je c ts like ke ttle s a nd sto ve s, is unsuita b le fo r func tio ns re q uiring
sho c k re sista nc e , a s in a xe s o r sw o rd s, a nd w hic h c a nno t b e sha p e d b y fo rg ing . The m e tho d s o f
ha nd ling c a st iro n se e m to ha ve b e e n unkno w n to the o the r te c hno lo g ic a lly a d va nc e d na tio ns
o f a ntiq uity, g iving C hina a w o rld m o no p o ly o n c a st iro n p ro d uc tio n fo r p e rha p s a tho usa nd
ye a rs. The te c hno lo g y o f c a st iro n w a s p ic ke d up b y the Ko re a ns a nd Ja p a ne se so m e tim e in the
e a rly first m ille nnium A.D. a nd b y C e ntra l Asia ns se ve ra l c e nturie s a fte r tha t; it w a s no t le a rne d b y
Euro p e a ns until a b o ut A.D. 1300. And ye t e ve n in C hina the m a rke t fo r a b rittle , c a sta b le iro n
w a s lim ite d . As in o the r c o untrie s a g re a t d e a l o f the iro n use d b y the C hine se w a s o f the
fo rg e a b le w ro ug ht va rie ty.
The o the r m e tho d fo r m a king a lo w -c a rb o n w ro ug ht iro n, the "ind ire c t" p ro c e ss, a p p e a rs
to ha ve b e e n use d in e a rly tim e s o nly in C hina , the n la te r in Ko re a a nd Ja p a n, a nd no t until
re c e nt c e nturie s in the We st. As its na m e im p lie s, the p ro c e ss invo lve d m o re tha n o ne sta g e .
The o re a nd fue l (e ithe r c ha rc o a l, m ine ra l c o a l o r c o ke ) w e re first he a te d , a lm o st a lw a ys in a
97
true b la st furna c e , a la rg e r a nd ta lle r struc ture tha n the b lo o m e rie s use d in the d ire c t p ro c e ss, to
a te m p e ra ture hig h e no ug h a c tua lly to liq ue fy the iro n (a b o ut 1350 d e g re e s C e lsius). Muc h
la rg e r b e llo w s ha d to b e use d , w hic h m e a nt e ithe r w a te r p o w e r o r a la rg e num b e r o f b e llo w s
o p e ra to rs. Due to the hig h te m p e ra ture s re a c he d , no t o nly the sla g b ut a lso the iro n c o uld b e
ta p p e d fro m the furna c e in liq uid fo rm thro ug h a sm a ll o p e ning in the lo w e r p a rt o f the furna c e .
This m a d e it p o ssib le to o p e ra te suc h furna c e s c o ntinuo usly, o fte n fo r p e rio d s o f w e e ks o r
m o nths, w hic h sa ve d fue l a nd inc re a se d p e r-d a y p ro d uc tio n.
The liq uid m e ta l tha t is ta p p e d fro m a ny b la st furna c e c o o ls q uic kly, so lid ifying a s a p ie c e
o f b rittle c a st iro n w ith a ve ry hig h c a rb o n c o nte nt in the 3-5% ra ng e a s w e ll a s sig nific a nt
a m o unts o f p ho sp ho rus, sulfur a nd silic o n. It is o f c o urse p o ssib le to re m e lt this typ e o f iro n a nd to
p o ur it into m o ld s the n a nd the re — the te c hniq ue s a nd te m p e ra ture s ne e d e d fo r m o ld ing c a st
iro n d o no t d iffe r g re a tly fro m tho se ne e d e d in c a sting b ro nze . C a st iro n a s a m e ta l is g o o d fo r
m a king b e lls, is e xtre m e ly ha rd b ut e a sily b ro ke n, a n o nly fa ir c o nd uc to r o f he a t (w hic h m a ke s it
he a t e ve nly w he n use d fo r c o o king o r ind ustria l p urp o se s), re sista nt to c he m ic a l d a m a g e , a nd
c a p a b le o f b e ing fo rm e d into ve ry c o m p le x sha p e s w ith o nly m inim a l e xp e nd iture o f la b o r.
98
p e rio d s. C hine se m e rc ha nts sho uld ha ve fo und c a st iro n im p le m e nts a nd c o o king w a re s to b e
id e a l c o m m o d itie s fo r lo ng -d ista nc e tra d e : re la tive ly ine xp e nsive to p ro d uc e , im p o ssib le fo r
So uthe a st Asia n c o nsum e rs to c o p y d ue to the c o m p le x te c hno lo g y invo lve d , a nd w ith sp e c ia l
p ro p e rtie s (e ve nne ss o f he a t d istrib utio n, stre ng th, c he m ic a l re sista nc e a nd she e r size ) tha t
m a d e the m irre p la c e a b le b y ind ig e no us m e ta l w a re s. But b a r iro n, o ne w o uld think, w a s q uite a
d iffe re nt m a tte r. The C hine se p ro d uc t w o uld ha ve fa c e d re a l c o m p e titio n fro m lo c a lly m a d e
So uthe a st Asia n b lo o m iro n a s w e ll a s fro m Ind ia n iro n a nd ste e l.
The list b e lo w sum m a rize s the p la c e s w hic h, a c c o rd ing to Wa ng , im p o rte d C hine se iro n.
Altho ug h m a ny c a nno t b e c o nfid e ntly lo c a te d o n a m o d e rn m a p , the re is no d o ub t tha t a hig h
p ro p o rtio n w e re in So uthe a st Asia .
99
Pie c e s o f (sc ra p ? ) iro n, p re sum a b ly w ro ug ht ra the r tha n c a st: Rili [Pa tta ni in S. Tha ila nd ?
So m e w he re in W. Ma la ysia o r S. Vie tna m ? ]; Sa nd a o [so m e w he re in the Philip p ine s]; Ma yi [Ma it/
Mind o ro , C . Philip p ine s? ]
Iro n, va rie ty no t sp e c ifie d : Sia n [Sia m ]; Jia o zhi [N Vie tna m ]; Suluo li [? ]; Dud uya o r Dud ua n [? ];
We nla o g u [Ma luku Is.? ]
Iro n trip o d c a uld ro ns: Ba d um a [Ma rta b a n, S Burm a ? ]; Ba nzhu [Pa nc ur, Sing a p o re Rive r Estua ry];
Da jila [? ]; Jia nsha n [? ]; Jinta [in Tha ila nd o r Burm a ? ]; Lo ng ya b o d i [La ng ka w i Is., W. Ma la ysia ? ];
Lo ng ya m e n [Ke p p e l Ha rb o r, Sing a p o re ]; Ma lilu [so m e w he re in no rthe a st Ma la y Pe ninsula ? ];
Ma yi [Ma it/ Mind o ro , C Philip p ine s? ]; Wuzhip a [? ]; Zhe nlu [? ]
Re c e nt e xc a va tio ns o n the isla nd o f Ba ng ka , just o ff the Musi Rive r, fo und five p ile s o f
tw e lfth-c e ntury q ing b a i b o w ls o n to p o f five p ile s o f iro n w o ks fa c ing up w a rd , w hic h in turn
re ste d o n thre e p ile s o f w o ks fa c ing d o w nw a rd , ne a rly 2 m d e e p in a Vishnu te m p le o f the sixth
to se ve nth c e ntury (AC RO Up d a te : 1995). This e nig m a tic site ra ise s m a ny q ue stio ns w hic h o nly
furthe r e xc a va tio ns c a n re so lve . So m e fra g m e nts o f iro n e xc a va te d a t the Pa rlia m e nt Ho use
C o m p le x site in Sing a p o re , o f the fo urte e nth c e ntury, o n a na lysis, p ro ve d to b e c a st iro n a nd
the re fo re C hine se im p o rts.
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c o nc re te d in sta c ks, a s w e ll a s b und le s o f iro n p a ra ng s still tie d in b unc he s w ith so m e typ e o f
ra tta n-like fib e r. The Vung Ta u w re c k, a C hine se lo rc ha o f c . 1690 (Fle c ke r, 1992), ha d the
m id ship s c a rg o ho ld full o f la rg e sta c ke d c a uld ro ns a nd w o ks w ith ha nd le s. This ve sse l w a s o n its
w a y fro m C hina to Ba ta via w ith a p rim a ry c a rg o o f b lue -a nd -w hite p o rc e la in. Thus the
So uthe a st Asia n d e m a nd fo r c a st iro n ve sse ls fro m C hina c o ntinue d fo r m a ny c e nturie s.
By w a y o f inte re st, se ve ra l Tha i ship w re c ks o f the fifte e nth a nd sixte e nth c e nturie s ha d
o ne o r m o re c a rg o ho ld s fille d w ith iro n. The Pa tta ya w re c k (G re e n, 1983), the Ro ya l Na nha i
w re c k (Sjo stra nd , p e rs. c o m m .), a nd the Phu Q uo c w re c k (Bla ke a nd Fle c ke r, 1994) a ll ha d iro n
c a rg o e s tha t inte re sting ly ha d fo rm e d a m o rp ho us c o nc re tio ns e ntra p p ing se ve ra l la rg e sto ra g e
ja rs. So m e o f the se ja rs w e re c o m p le te ly e nc a se d in iro n c o nc re tio n, sug g e sting tha t the iro n
w a s sto w e d a ro und the ja rs. Wo rke d iro n sha p e s c o uld no t b e d isc e rne d w ithin the c o nc re tio ns,
so it se e m s unlike ly tha t the iro n is a tra nsship p e d c a rg o o rig ina ting fro m C hina . It ha s b e e n
sug g e ste d tha t the o rig ina l c a rg o w a s in the fo rm o f p e lle ts o r hig h g ra d e o re . While lo ng -
d ista nc e ship p ing o f ra w o r b e ne fic ia te d (p e lle tize d ) iro n o re is no t kno w n to ha ve e xiste d
a nyw he re in the w o rld b e fo re the la te nine te e nth c e ntury, the p o ssib ility m ust b e b o rne in m ind
a s o the r ship w re c ks a re e xc a va te d in the future .
The c a uld ro n sho w e d hig h c o nc e ntra tio ns o f m a g ne sium , a lum inum , silic o n, c hlo rine ,
c a lc ium , a nd sulfur. The hig h sulfur c o nte nt is a c le a r ind ic a tio n o f c a sting . The silic o n m a y ha ve
b e e n a d e riva tive o f the c a sting p ro c e ss, b ut it c o uld a lso ha ve b e e n fro m sa nd c o nta m ina tio n
fro m the w re c k site . Alum inum a nd m a g ne sium m o st like ly c a m e fro m c la y c o nta m ina tio n. The
c hlo rine is fro m d isso lve d sa lts in se a w a te r.
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The re sults fo r the iro n b a r a re ve ry inte re sting . The re a re hig h c o nc e ntra tio ns o f silic o n,
c hlo rine a nd sulfur. The p re se nc e o f silic o n a nd c hlo rine ha ve b e e n e xp la ine d , b ut the p re se nc e
o f sulfur in a w ro ug ht iro n is a lm o st d e finite p ro o f tha t the b a rs w e re p ro d uc e d in C hina b y the
“ fining ” o f c a st iro n (se e Se c tio n 8.2). O nc e sulfur is intro d uc e d into c a st iro n b y the c o a l fue l it is
ve ry d iffic ult to re m o ve . C o nte m p o ra ry So uthe a st Asia n, Ind ia n, a nd Euro p e a n w ro ug ht iro n
m a nufa c ture rs use d the “ b lo o m ” m e tho d w hic h d id no t intro d uc e sulfur into the e nd p ro d uc t.
102
9.0 HIGH-FIRED CERAMICS OF SONG DYNASTY CHINA:
THE JAVA SEA CARGO IN CONTEXT b y Ro xa nna
Bro wn
9.1 Introduction
C hina he ld a wo rld tra d e mo no p o ly o n hig h-fire d c e ra mic s fo r a lmo st two tho usa nd ye a rs.
Whe re ve r C hine se tra d e rs we nt, a nd o fte n fa r b e yo nd , the re a re no w tra c e s o f the ir c e ra mic s.
C hina 's p o tte ry wa s so sup e rio r, fo r so lo ng , tha t its ve ry na me c a me to sta nd fo r d ishe s ma d e o f
c la y. Until Euro p e a ns b e g a n ma king suc c e ssful imita tio ns o f "c hina wa re " in the e ig hte e nth c e ntury,
the ma rke t se e me d insa tia b le . C e ra mic s, a lo ng with silk, ma d e C hina ric h.
Exp o rt ro ute s a nd re g io ns whe re C hine se c e ra mic s we re imp o rte d d uring the So ng d yna sty.
103
rive rs; c la y c o uld b e fo und a lmo st e ve rywhe re . The re wa s a lso p ra c tic a lly unlimite d e ne rg y
a va ila b le fro m c o a l (Ma rc o Po lo 's sto ry o f b la c k sto ne s tha t b urne d , it mig ht b e re c a lle d , me t with
d isb e lie f a t ho me in Euro p e ). De sp ite the a b und a nc e o f c o a l, c e ra mic te c hno lo g y ma d e its
g re a te st p ro g re ss a fte r the So ng c o urt's re lo c a tio n to Ha ng zho u, in so uthe rn C hina , in 1127, whe n
a b und a nt sup p lie s o f wo o d la rg e ly re p la c e d c o a l.
O f c o urse , a ll the se ma te ria ls we re use d a t o ne time o r a no the r in C hina a s we ll. But, g ive n
the initia l suc c e ss o f a kiln d e sig n tha t c o uld a ssure susta ine d hig h te mp e ra ture s, p lus c la ys tha t
c o uld withsta nd tho se te mp e ra ture s, it wa s the fie ld o f c e ra mic s tha t wa s c o ntinua lly e xp lo re d .
Exa mp le s o f hig h-fire d g la ze d wa re a p p e a r a s e a rly a s the Sha ng d yna sty, in the p e rio d o f a b o ut
1300-1028 B.C . Tha t a ma zing b e g inning c a n p e rha p s b e a ttrib ute d to luc k; no thing simila r se e ms to
ha ve ha p p e ne d a nywhe re e lse in the wo rld . Still, fo r re a lizing the p o te ntia ls o f this te c hno lo g y, o ne
must tha nk g e ne ra tio ns o f C hine se p o tte rs a nd e ntre p re ne urs, who ha d , o f c o urse , a ste a d y
c lie nte le o f ma ssive numb e rs o f d o me stic c o nsume rs fro m a ll the so c ia l c la sse s, a nd a t time s a va st
o ve rse a s tra d e . At a ny ra te , the p a rtic ula r c o mb ina tio n o f c irc umsta nc e s p re va iling in C hina d id
sp ur c e ra mic te c hno lo g y to he ig hts o f a rt a nd ma te ria l sc ie nc e tha t c o uld o nly b e a p p ro xima te ly
imita te d a nywhe re e lse until c o mp a ra tive ly re c e nt time s.
Rive r va lle ys, whic h we re usua lly the first p la c e s to sup p o rt la rg e p o p ula tio ns, yie ld
se c o nd a ry c la ys. Se c o nd a ry c la ys ha ve b e e n wa she d a wa y fro m the p a re nt ro c k a nd ha ve
usua lly g a ine d a numb e r o f mine ra l imp uritie s a lo ng the wa y. The mo st c o mmo n o f the se is iro n,
whic h, in c o nc e ntra tio n, c a n c o lo r the c la y re d d ish. The sma lle r g ra in size o f se c o nd a ry c la ys
ma ke s the m e a sie r to mo d e l tha n p rima ry c la ys.
104
9.4 Firing Temperatures
C o nc e rning the d iffe re nc e s in the c a te g o rie s o f c e ra mic s, o ne c o uld sa y tha t e a rthe nwa re
c o nsists o f a n imp ure c la y fire d a t lo w te mp e ra ture ; sto ne wa re c o nsists o f p ure r c la y (fe we r
imp uritie s) fire d a t a hig he r te mp e ra ture ; a nd p o rc e la in is a p ure c la y fire d a t ve ry hig h
te mp e ra ture . Ea rthe nwa re a nd sto ne wa re a re e a c h ma d e with a sing le c la y, e ve n tho ug h it ma y
b e a mixture o f c la ys fro m d iffe re nt so urc e s. Po rc e la in is ma d e fro m two d istinc t ma te ria ls: ka o lin, a
p ra c tic a lly p ure p rima ry c la y, a nd the n p e tuntse , a p re p a re d fo rm o f d e c a ye d g ra nite . It is the
struc ture o f the p e tuntse tha t ho ld s a p o t to g e the r a t hig h te mp e ra ture whe n the re ma ind e r o f the
ma ss is visc o us. Sto ne wa re c la y fire d a t hig h te mp e ra ture s ma y b e e no ug h like p o rc e la in to b e
c a lle d p o rc e lla ne o us.
9.5 Glazes
Ano the r wa y to c a te g o rize c e ra mic s is a c c o rd ing to the ir g la ze s. Esse ntia lly a typ e o f g la ss
c o a ting , g la ze s a d d p hysic a l stre ng th to the fo rm, d e c o ra te it, a nd ma ke it imp e rme a b le . With
g la ze , a p o t d o e s no t b re a k q uite so e a sily, a nd g la ze d ja rs p ro vid e sa nita ry c o nta ine rs fo r liq uid s
a nd fo o d p ro d uc ts. This q ua lity, ind e e d , is a so urc e fo r the Mid d le Ea ste rn myth tha t a p e rso n
wo uld b e wa rne d a b o ut p o iso ne d fo o d if it we re se rve d in C hine se c e la d o n-g la ze d d ishe s: the
d ish, the y b e lie ve d , wo uld c ha ng e c o lo r. O nly the sp e c ific link b e twe e n e a ting a nd p o iso n wa s
misid e ntifie d . The p o iso ning c a me , c e rta inly, fro m the lo c a lly p ro d uc e d le a d -g la ze d d ishe s tha t
we re the a lte rna tive to C hine se wa re s; tho se who a te fro m the m o fte n e no ug h wo uld ha ve
suffe re d fro m le a d p o iso ning . At a ny ra te , the so lutio n wo rke d : d ining fro m hig h-fire d C hine se wa re
so lve d the p ro b le m.
Blue -a nd -white is a sso c ia te d with the Ming d yna sty. The n the re a re the c o lo rful, intric a te ly
p a inte d , e na me l-d e c o ra te d p o rc e la ins tha t typ ify the Q ing d yna sty. A simp listic b ut he lp ful
g e ne ra liza tio n o f C hine se c e ra mic histo ry is thus c o nta ine d in the p hra se "So ng c e la d o n, Ming
b lue -a nd -white , Q ing p o lyc hro me ."
105
Blue -a nd -white wa re s, in fa c t, se e me d to ha ve a p p e a re d d uring the Yua n d yna sty, se ve ra l
d e c a d e s b e fo re the b e g inning o f the Ming . With e vid e nc e c urre ntly a va ila b le , the c lo se st o ne
c a n d a te its a p p e a ra nc e is within the q ua rte r c e ntury b e twe e n 1325 a nd 1350. This imp o rta nt
inno va tio n wa s in p a rt the re sult o f inte nse c o mp e titio n fo r the we a lthy Muslim Mid d le Ea ste rn
ma rke t, a tra d e a c tive ly e nc o ura g e d b y the Mo ng o l rule rs who ha d c o nq ue re d so uthe rn C hina b y
1280.
Hig h-fire d C hine se g la ze s c a n b e c a lle d a lka line (me a ning in e ffe c t, le a d -fre e ), o r
fe lsp a thic (c o mp o se d la rg e ly o f fe ld sp a rs, a na tura l c o mp o ne nt o f c la y), a nd a sh g la ze s.
Esse ntia lly, the te c hniq ue e mp lo ye d a mixture o f c la y, a she s, a nd wa te r. A b a sic c e la d o n g la ze ,
fo r e xa mp le , mig ht b e c o mp o se d o f wo o d a sh ke p t fro m a p re vio us firing o f the kiln mixe d with the
sa me c la y a s use d fo r the b o d y, a nd wa te r. A sma ll a mo unt o f iro n p re se nt in the c la y, no t mo re
tha n 1 to 4%, is re sp o nsib le fo r the g re e n c o lo r. So me time s o ne se e s b ro wn c e la d o n, sho wing a
slig htly g re a te r p e rc e nta g e o f iro n. The typ e o f wo o d fro m whic h the a sh is ta ke n ma y c a use the
sha d e o f g re e n to b e b luish o r g re e n. Po tte rs in no rthe rn Tha ila nd , fo r insta nc e , c a n p ro d uc e five
d istinc t sha d e s o f c e la d o n b y va rying o nly the typ e o f wo o d a sh. White g la ze s a re ma d e fro m a n
iro n-fre e mixture .
106
insta nc e , b o th und e rg la ze b lue a nd und e rg la ze re d we re a tte mp te d , b ut und e rg la ze -re d
d e c o ra te d wa re s we re q uic kly d isc o ntinue d b e c a use o f the d iffic ultie s o f p ro d uc tio n. Mo re o fte n
tha n no t, the g la ze fire d to a b ro wn o r g ra y c o lo r. C o b a lt, o xid ize d o r re d uc e d , will p ro d uc e b lue .
It is no a c c id e nt tha t a b lue -a nd -white c o lo r sc he me is a sso c ia te d with p o rc e la in. O f the thre e
mine ra l c o lo ra nts kno wn, c o b a lt is the le a st d iffic ult to fire , a nd the mo st c o lo rful.
4
JAVA SEA KENDI
THAI EARTHENWARE
3.5 JAVANESE EARTHENWARE
SUMATRAN EARTHENWARE
3
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT 1
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT 2
107
Up rig ht sha p e s d e c o ra te d with p a inte d d e sig ns in und e rg la ze b la c k, a nd o rig ina lly
c o ve re d in a g re e n le a d g la ze , c o nstitute a n unusua l find . In g e ne ra l the ir c la y a nd d e c o ra tive
mo tifs a re simila r to tho se a sso c ia te d to the C izho u kiln c o mp le x. The y a re usua lly d e c o ra te d with
flo ra l d e sig ns in slig ht re lie f, with the b a c kg ro und p a inte d so lid und e rg la ze b la c k. De sig ns p a inte d
in b la c k o n a fla t surfa c e a re le ss c o mmo n.
108
Bro wn-g la ze d ja rs in the c a rg o a re d istinc t in the ir struc ture a nd p urp o se . Ra the r tha n
b e ing ite ms o f tra d e , the y we re use d to sto re fo o d a nd wa te r fo r the ship ’ s c re w, a nd fo r p a c king
o rg a nic p ro d uc ts fo r tra d e . To p re se rve the c o nte nts, the mo uths o f the ja rs we re o fte n se a le d with
a d isk o f wa x o r wo o d , se c ure d with tie string s lo o p e d thro ug h sma ll ha nd le s o n the ja r sho uld e r.
Sta mp e d C hine se c ha ra c te rs a d o rn the sho uld e rs o f the ma jo rity o f the la rg e r ja rs.
109
10.0 THIRTEENTH CENTURY POTTING TECHNIQUES:
AS EVIDENCED BY THE JAVA SEA CARGO b y Ro xa nna
Bro wn
108
10.3 Furnishing the Kiln
So m e tim e s kiln sta c king sup p o rts fo r se p a ra ting w a re s in the kiln a re a lso re q uire d .
Ap p a re ntly the se w e re no t c o nsiste ntly use d fo r the w a re s o f this ship w re c k; o nly a fe w p ie c e s
sho w tra c e s o f c irc ula r sc a rs o n the ir b a se s fro m the tub ula r sup p o rts, o r p o ntils, o nto w hic h the
p o ts w e re se t.
109
e a sily a nd q uic kly m a d e o n a fa st-turning p o tte r's w he e l. Fo r this func tio n ye t a no the r se t o f
skille d w o rke rs w e re e m p lo ye d . So m e w e re tra ine d in turning sm a lle r p ie c e s, w hile o the rs m a d e
la rg e r sha p e s. The w he e l, e sse ntia lly a ro und w o o d e n ta b le se t o n a p e rp e nd ic ula r a xle , is
m a d e to turn c o ntinuo usly. The p o tte r ra ise s the sha p e fro m a p re p a re d b a ll o f c la y, using his
fing e rs a nd ha nd s. A skille d p o tte r c a n m a ke the b a sic fo rm o f a d ish sha p e in a fe w m inute s.
10.7 Decoration
In the So ng d yna sty fa c to rie s, a no the r g ro up o f sp e c ia lly skille d w o rke rs w o uld a p p ly
inc ise d o r c a rve d d e c o ra tio n to the surfa c e s o f ro und sha p e s b e g un b y w he e l. Va rio us ha nd
to o ls, suc h a s knive s a nd b a m b o o c o m b s, w e re use d fo r this w o rk. A flo ra l d e c o ra tio n, fo r
e xa m p le , w ill first ha ve a he a vy o utline c a rve d , a nd the n the p e ta ls a nd le a ve s w ill b e
e nha nc e d w ith stro ke s o f a c o m b .
10.8 Firing
Sta c king the kiln c o uld ta ke a d a y o r m o re , d e p e nd ing o n its size . The fine r w a re s w o uld
first b e se t in sa g g e rs, the n c a rrie d in sta c ks to the kiln. Insid e the firing c ha m b e r, the p o ts w e re
a rra ng e d to ta ke a d va nta g e o f e ve ry sq ua re inc h o f sp a c e w itho ut inhib iting the flo w o f he a t
fro m the fire b o x to the c him ne y. O ld C hine se kilns w e re lo ng a nd na rro w , a nd b uilt up a n inc line
to w a rd the c him ne y. The he a t w o uld b e m o st inte nse a t the up p e r e nd , so w a re s re q uiring m o re
o r le ss he a t w e re p o sitio ne d a c c o rd ing ly.
A suffic ie nt fue l sup p ly ha d to b e m a inta ine d fo r the kiln firing s, w hic h usua lly re q uire d
thre e d a ys o f c o ntinuo usly susta ine d he a t. In no rthe rn C hina , c o a l w a s no rm a lly use d , b ut in the
la nd s so uth o f the Ya ng tse Rive r, w o o d -b urning kilns w e re m o re c o m m o n.
110
tho se tha t c o ntrib ute d to the ir c re a tio n m ust ha ve fe lt inte nse p le a sure a nd re lie f.
Any c e le b ra tio ns a t the c o m p le tio n o f a suc c e ssful firing , ho w e ve r, p ro vid e d o nly a sho rt
b re a k. Afte r the c e ra m ic s w e re ta ke n o ut o f the kiln, the y ha d to b e p a c ke d fo r tra nsp o rt. In the
m e a n tim e , a ll the d e p a rtm e nts o f the fa c to ry w o uld ha ve b e e n sim ulta ne o usly p re p a ring fo r
the ne xt firing , a nd the o ne a fte r tha t.
2. WHEEL-THROWING
3. MOLDING
111
4. FINISHING
5. INCISED DECORATION
6. UNDERGLAZE DECORATION
O nc e the c la y is c o mp le te ly d ry a nd ha rd , und e rg la ze
d e c o ra tio n c a n b e a d d e d with a b rush. Iro n b la c k a nd c o b a lt
b lue a re the mo st c o mmo n c o lo rs. Stra ig ht line s a ro und the
b o d y o f a p o t c a n b e a p p lie d e a sily if the p o t itse lf mo ve s o n a
turning ta b le .
112
7. GLAZING
8. FIRING
113
11.0 CERAMICS INVENTORY b y Ro xa nna
Bro wn
The p a inte d w a re d e sig ns a re b a sic a lly flo ra l, usua lly fe a turing a p e o ny sp ra y, so m e tim e s
a lo ng w ith le a f sc ro lls. The re a re a lso e xa m p le s o f the p ho e nix fro ze n in flig ht o n the c o ve rs o f
b o xe s, b ut sta nd ing w he n the y a p p e a r o n up rig ht sha p e s. The re a re tw o b o x c o ve rs w ith a
sinuo us d ra g o n d ra w n in und e rg la ze b la c k.
BOWL SHAPES
116
Small Bowl
Exa m p le : 1
Dia m e te r: 14 c m
Large Bowls
Exa m p le s: 4 d a m a g e d
Estim a te d d ia m e te r o f la rg e st b o w l: 25 c m
117
Large Dishes
Exa m p le s: 3 d a m a g e d
La rg e st d ia m e te r: 30 c m
COVERS
Exa m p le s: 3
Dia m e te r: 6.8 - 7.5 c m
118
C o nc a ve c e nte r a re a se t w ith a tiny ring ha nd le a t o ne sid e
a nd w id e , fla t m o uth fla ng e , c o ve re d o n the up p e r sid e w ith
b rig ht g re e n g la ze .
Exa m p le s: 11
Dia m e te r: 8 c m
Exa m p le s: 14
Dia m e te r: 7.2 - 7.5 c m
Sm a lle r Exa m p le s: 17
Dia m e te r: 7 cm
La rg e r Exa m p le s: 2 w ith a re ta ining ring to o ne sid e in
p la c e o f the p e rfo ra tio ns
Dia m e te r: 8 cm
Exa m p le s: 3
Dia m e te r: 5.2 c m
119
EWERS
120
121
122
123
WINE POTS
Sm a ll e xa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 10 c m
La rg e r e xa m p le s: 2 d a m a g e d
He ig ht: 15 c m
124
COVERED BOXES
Dia m e te r: 9 - 13.5 c m
125
BOTTLES
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht to b re a k a t ne c k: 19 c m
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht to b re a k a t up p e r ne c k: 24 c m
126
Pe a r-sha p e d b o ttle , w ith a c a rve d sp la ye d
fo o tring a nd sha rp ly e ve rte d m o uth fla tte ne d o n
its up p e r sid e , d e c o ra te d in und e rg la ze b la c k w ith
sp ra ys o f fo lia g e . Its o rig ina l lo w -te m p e ra ture ,
b rig ht-g re e n le a d b a se d g la ze is c o m p le te ly
g o ne .
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 21.5 c m
JAR
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 12.5 c m
127
VASES
Va se , w ith a m o re w hitish, m o re c o m p a c t c la y
b o d y tha n a p p a re nt o n o the r p a inte d w a re
sha p e s; the m a in b o d y a lm o st sp he ric a l, the
fo o t fla re d , a nd w ith a ta ll g ra c e ful ne c k tha t
o p e ns o utw a rd into a lo tus le a f sha p e d
m o uthrim ; d e c o ra te d ro und the b o d y w ith a n
inc ise d p e o ny sc ro ll se t o n a n und e rg la ze b la c k
g ro und .
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 17 c m
128
a nd fa irly stra ig ht sid e s, the ne c k stra ig ht, sla nte d inw a rd a nd ung la ze d , a s tho ug h it w e re m e a nt
to ha ve a c o ve r – p ro b a b ly o ne o f the c up -sha p e d c o ve rs a lso re c o ve re d ; d e c o ra te d o n the
b o d y w ith inc ise d p e o ny sp ra ys re se rve d o n a n und e rg la ze b la c k g ro und ; the c la y b o d y d a rk
g ra y.
Exa m p le s: 1
Pre se nt he ig ht: 14 c m
AMBROSIA BOTTLES
This sha p e is ra re a m o ng e xisting p o tte ry in So uthe a st Asia , b ut it is w e ll-kno w n fro m Ind ia n-style
sc ulp ture w he re suc h b o ttle s a re o fte n he ld in the ha nd o f g o d s a nd sa id to ho ld the e lixir o f
im m o rta lity. It w a s p e rha p s a c o nta ine r fo r e sp e c ia lly tre a sure d m e d ic ine s. A fe w sim ila r
e xa m p le s a re re c o rd e d fro m the Bre a ke r Sho a l ship w re c k in the Philip p ine s (Dup o iza t, 1995, Fig .
38), a nd a sing le w hite -g la ze d o ne w a s fo und in a Yua n-d yna sty (1280-1369) c o nte xt in Sa ra w a k
(C hin, 1988, Pla te 37).
Exa m p le s: 2 inta c t, 3 d a m a g e d
He ig ht: 10 c m
129
11.2 Black-Glazed Ware
The re a re o nly b o w ls in this c a te g o ry,
a nd the y a re a sta nd a rd size a nd sha p e
va lue d a s a te a -d rinking b o w l. The g la ze is
“ te m m o ku” b la c k w ith b ro w nish p a tc he s, thin
a t the m o uthrim b ut flo w ing thic kly o nto the
lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls. The m o uth is p o tte d w ith a
slig ht c urve to fo rm a lip fro m w hic h a liq uid
c o uld b e sip p e d . The fo o tring is ro ug hly
c a rve d le a ving a sha llo w b ut thic k b a se .
So m e b o w ls w e re m a d e w ith a ro ug h g ra iny
g ra y c la y; o the rs d isp la y a sim ila rly g ra iny
b ro w n c la y b o d y .
130
11.3 Molded White/Qingbai Ware
This g ro up o f w a re m a d e e xc e lle nt use o f a na tive w hite Fujia n c la y tha t w a s a p p a re ntly
re la tive ly no n-p la stic ; the p ro b le m o f its no t b e ing e a sily sha p e d o n a p o tte r’ s w he e l w a s so lve d
b y thinning the c la y to a visc o us c o nsiste nc y a nd p o uring o r p re ssing it into m o ld s tha t fo rm e d
b o th the sha p e s a nd d e c o ra tio n in re lie f. Sm a ll va se s a nd c o ve re d b o xe s, p a rtic ula rly, c o uld b e
m a d e e a sily in q ua ntity. The va se s w e re p ro b a b ly use d a t a lta rs to c o nta in flo w e rs o r p e rha p s
stic ks o f inc e nse , a nd the b o xe s c o uld b e use d fo r sto ring c o sm e tic s, p e rfum e s a nd m e d ic ine s
o r fo r the m a ny m isc e lla ne o us use s fo r w hic h b o xe s m ig ht b e use d e ve n to d a y. In Ind o ne sia n
b uria ls, b o xe s so m e tim e s c o nta in je w e lry. In la te r ye a rs sc ulp tura l fig ure s w o uld b e a d d e d to the
Fujia n w hite w a re re p e rto ire . The g la ze c o lo r va rie s fro m w hite to g ra y to b luish-g re e n. Pro b a b ly
the va rying sha d e s w e re c ha nc e re sults fro m ind ivid ua l p la c e m e nt in kilns a nd na tura lly va rying
firing c o nd itio ns. Am o ng this w a re , the sp e c ific c o lo r w a s m o stly fo rtuito us. At o the r kilns the se
e ffe c ts c o uld b e p la nne d a nd a tta ine d w ith p ro p e r g la ze p ro p o rtio ns a nd stric t c o ntro l o f firing
c o nd itio ns. All the w hite -g la ze d w a re o f the c a rg o re p re se nt c e ra m ic s m a d e in Fujia n p ro vinc e ,
a t b o th the De hua a nd Anxi kilns (Hug he s-Sta nto n a nd Ke rr, 1980).
VASE
Exa m p le s: 5 inta c t, 65 d a m a g e d
He ig ht: a ve ra g e 11 c m ; a d d itio na l b ro ke n m inia ture , 6 c m in he ig ht
131
BOTTLE
Exa m p le : 1
Pre se nt he ig ht: 3.5 c m
COVERED BOXES
132
Tw o hund re d a nd sixty-e ig ht b o xe s w e re re c o ve re d se a le d . Ma ny, m a yb e e ve n m o st, o f the m
w e re ship p e d in this sta te . The y a re se a le d b y g la ze ha ving run fro m the c o ve r o nto the lo w e r
p o rtio n. Why the y w e re ship p e d in this w a y is a m yste ry. Pe rha p s it w a s a so rt o f g ua ra nte e se a l,
o ne tha t c o uld b e b ro ke n b y a jud ic io us ha m m e r b lo w , a nd m a yb e lo c a l b ro ke rs p ro vid e d this
se rvic e , in the w a y tha t c e rta in p e rso ns b e c o m e skille d a t c ra c king o p e n c o c o nuts. Mud a nd
w a te r d id g ra d ua lly se e p thro ug h o p e n c ra c ks b e tw e e n the tw o ha lve s d uring the ir tim e
und e rw a te r, so tha t the se se a le d e xa m p le s a re p re se ntly he a vy; o the rw ise the y w e re ship p e d
e m p ty.
The se a re d e c o ra te d w ith fine , lush sp ra ys o f a va rie ty o f flo w e rs a t the fla tte ne d c e nte r o f the
c o ve r a nd w ith b a nd s o f rib b ing a t the sho uld e r a nd ro und the lo w e r se c tio n. The ung la ze d
b a se is fla t ra the r tha n c o nc a ve a s o n la rg e r e xa m p le s.
Dia m e te r: 5 c m
133
Small Covered Boxes
Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 6 c m
Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 8.5 c m
134
Fruit-Shaped Covered Boxes
Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 8 c m
Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 8.5 c m
135
Unusual Examples of Covered Boxes
O ne sm a ll und e c o ra te d , p e rha p s
w he e l-thro w n b o x, w ith a ha nd -
m o d e le d a nd d e ta ile d sc ulp tura l
re p re se nta tio n o f a n e ntw ine d ,
c o p ula ting c o up le a tta c he d to
the insid e b o tto m .
Dia m e te r: 5.6 c m
Va rio us c o ve rs w ith uniq ue d e sig ns, inc lud ing o ne w ith a Bud d hist sw a stika , a no the r w ith fish,
a nd o ne w ith a g e o m e tric p a tte rn, a ll fro m la rg e b o xe s.
Dia m e te r: 11.5 c m
136
Chinese Characters and Marks
DISHES
Exa m p le s: 1 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 15 c m
137
Zi Ind e c ip he ra b le m o ld e d Ind e c ip he ra b le m o ld e d o n the Li a surna m e m o ld e d o n
o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x b a se o f a C izho u-typ e e w e r the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x
138
Yi La ng - a surna m e m o ld e d
“ Zhe ng ” — a surna m e — o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x C he n a surna m e
m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a m o ld e d o n the b a se o f
q ing b a i b o x a q ing b a i b o x
Da ‘ b ig ’ , To ng ‘ b ra ss/ c o p p e r’ , o nly
tw o c ha ra c te rs d e c ip he ra b le m o ld e d Wu a surna m e
Ind e c ip he ra b le m o ld e d o n o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x m o ld e d o n the b a se o f
the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x a q ing b a i b o x
139
Dish, o r p e rha p s a c o ve r, Jing d e zhe n q ing b a i w a re , w ith c o nic a l w a lls a nd g la ze d a ll o ve r
e xc e p t a t the stra ig ht m o uthrim . It is p la in w ith no inc ise d o r m o ld e d d e c o ra tio n.
Exa m p le : 1
Dia m e te r: 9 c m
COVERED BOX
Exa m p le s: 2, o ne o f the m se a le d
Dia m e te r: 5.4 c m
Exa m p le : 1
Dia m e te r: 11 c m
140
VASES
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 9.5 c m
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 20.5 c m
(b ro ke n a t up p e r ne c k)
141
A m o uth se c tio n fro m a va se o r
p e rha p s b o ttle , m a d e w ith e ig ht
lo b e s o n the e xte rio r w hic h a t the
fla re d m o uth a re d ra w n o utw a rd
to m a ke a fo lia te d rim ; the b luish-
g re e n g la ze c ra c kle d ; the c la y
b o d y g ra y.
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 5.5 c m
Mo uth d ia m e te r: 7.4 c m
DISHES
Sm a ll a nd thin, w ith a fla t ung la ze d b a se a nd a w id e ring ro und the inte rio r b o tto m , o the rw ise
p la in.
142
With a n inc ise d ring a t the inte rio r b o tto m se t d ire c tly a b o ve
the c irc um fe re nc e o f a ve ry sho rt c a rve d fo o tring . The b a se
is slig htly c o nc a ve a nd ung la ze d . Fa intly im p re sse d
d e c o ra tio n a t the c e nte r is no lo ng e r c le a r. The b luish g la ze
is he a vily c ra ze d . The c la y b o d y is g ra y a nd g ra iny.
Exa m p le : 1 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 18 c m
Exa m p le : 1 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 20 c m
143
Fra g m e nts o nly, o f a sa uc e r-like d ish w ith a
sho rt c a rve d fo o tring a nd e ve rte d m o uth
w ith fo lia te d rim . Ela b o ra te ly d e c o ra te d
w ith a sw irling flo ra l m o tif o n the inte rio r in
suc h hig h re lie f tha t the d ish m ust ha ve
b e e n fo rm e d b y p re ssing the c la y into a
m o ld . A sm a lle r inc ise d o r m o ld e d flo w e r
sp ra y d e c o ra te s a ring a t the inte rio r c e nte r.
C o ve re d in thic k b luish-g re e n g la ze . The
e xte rio r w a lls a re p la in. Fra g m e nts sim ila r to
this a nd the fo llo w ing d ish ha ve b e e n
d isc o ve re d a t the Jing d e zhe n kilns, (O rie nta l
C e ra m ic So c ie ty o f Ho ng Ko ng , 1984, No . 11.)
Exa m p le s: 2
Dia m e te r: 16.5 c m
144
BOWLS
Sturd ily p o tte d , w ith the fo o tring c a rve d so tha t the b a se is o nly slig htly inse t a nd so unusua lly
thic k. The inte rio r is inc ise d a nd c o m b e d w ith d e nse flo ra l sc ro lling . The g la ze is b luish-g re e n a nd
the c la y b o d y p a le g ra y. All e xa m p le s ha ve tra c e s o f a c irc ula r kiln sta c king sc a r o n the b a se .
EWERS
Ve ry thinly p o tte d , w ith e ig ht fla tte ne d p a ne ls a ro und the w a lls, e a c h o f the p a ne ls inc ise d w ith
a flo ra l d e sig n a c c e nte d w ith c o m b ing . At the up p e rm o st p o int o f the lo ng stra p ha nd le sits a
sm a ll re ta ining ring . A sim ila r ring o n the o rig ina l c o ve r w o uld ha ve a llo w e d the tw o to b e tie d
to g e the r.
Exa m p le s: 3 d a m a g e d
He ig ht: 25 c m
145
G o urd -sha p e d a nd lo b e d , the se ve sse ls w e re
c o nstruc te d fro m the p a rts fo rm e d in p ie c e
m o ld s. Thre e typ e s: (1) p la in, (2) w ith a sing le
b a nd o f d e c o ra tio n ro und the lo w e r sho uld e r,
a nd (3) w ith ve rtic a l flo ra l sp ra ys in re lie f. Its
c urve d ha nd le is intric a te ly m o d e le d into the
sha p e o f a le a p ing se a c re a ture , w ith a
re ta ining ring a t its up p e r sid e (fo r fa ste ning a
string tie fro m c o ve r to ha nd le ) a nd
so m e tim e s a p e rfo ra tio n just b e lo w .
Exa m p le s: 10 d a m a g e d
He ig ht: 20 c m
146
BOTTLES
Exa m p le s: 2
He ig ht: 23 c m (b ro ke n a t ne c k)
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 6.5 c m
147
JAR
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 10 c m
COVERS
This g ro up is sim ila r in size a nd c o nstruc tio n b ut va rie d in d e sig n. The up p e r e xte rio r p o rtio n,
w hic h is slig htly d o m e d , se ts o ve r a ve rtic a l fla ng e tha t w o uld ha ve fit into the m o uth o f the
p a re nt ve sse l. Ea c h ha s a n a tta c he d re ta ining ring to o ne sid e . So m e ha ve flo ra l d e sig ns in
re lie f, w ith a sm a ll tw irle d c la y ha nd le . Ano the r typ e fe a ture s a sc ulp te d m o d e l o f a fo ur-le g g e d
a nim a l, p o ssib ly a ra m .
Exa m p le s: 4
Dia m e te r: 5.5 c m
148
11.5 Celadon and Olive-Glazed Ware
While m o st o f the b o w l sha p e s e xc a va te d fro m the ship w re c k c o uld b e d e sc rib e d a s b a sic a lly
g re e n-g la ze d , this g ro up m a ke s a n o b vio us a tte m p t to im ita te w a re s tra d itio na lly kno w n a s
No rthe rn C e la d o n. Ma ny a rt histo ria ns w o uld p re fe r to d isc a rd the te rm c e la d o n a lto g e the r.
Ho w e ve r, in o rd e r to d isting uish this w a re fro m the m a ny o the r g re e n-g la ze d w a re s in the c a rg o ,
the tra d itio na l te rm ha s b e e n m a inta ine d . So m e p ie c e s in this c a te g o ry a re b e tte r d e sc rib e d a s
o live -g la ze d . All a re re la tive ly he a vily p o tte d a nd m o st a re d e c o ra te d w ith c ursive c a rve d a nd
inc ise d d e sig ns. The g la ze va rie s in sha d e s o f g re e n b ut te nd s to d a rk ra the r tha n lig ht.
BOWLS
Exa m p le s: 3 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 17 c m
De e p w ith a slig htly e ve rte d m o uthrim a nd a c a rve d fo o tring b e ve le d o n its inne r sid e to a
re la tive ly sha llo w b a se . Insid e , a n und e c o ra te d c e nte r is d e line a te d b y a c a rve d ring .
De c o ra te d in c a rve d a nd c o m b e d line s w ith c ursive c lo ud fo rm s o n the inte rio r w a lls, a nd w ith
c a rve d , stylize d lo tus p e ta ls a ro und the e xte rio r. Da rk g re e n o p a q ue g la ze runs une ve nly to the
lo w e r w a lls. Tiny b its o f g rit so m e tim e s m a r the inte rio r.
Exa m p le s: 2 inta c t, 3 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 12.3 c m
149
He a vily p o tte d , w ith a slig htly e ve rte d m o uthrim a nd a c a rve d fo o tring b e ve lle d o n its inne r sid e
to a sha llo w ly-c ut b a se . Inc ise d o n the inte rio r w ith a c ursive , stylize d flo ra l d e sig n inc lud ing
thre e b lo sso m s a c c e nte d w ith w isp s o f c o m b ing , a nd o n the e xte rio r w ith stria tio ns d o w n the
w a lls. The g la ze is thin a t the m o uthrim a nd e nd s une ve nly just a b o ve the fo o t. The b uff-g ra y
c la y is g ra iny.
Exa m p le s: 5 inta c t, 20 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 18 c m
He a vily p o tte d , w ith a n unusua l m o uth tha t c urve s inw a rd the n o ut, a nd a he a vily-c a rve d
fo o tring sho w ing silve r-g ra y g ra iny c la y o n the ung la ze d b a se . De c o ra te d o n the inte rio r w ith a
c a rve d ring a ro und the b o tto m a nd w ith c ursive c lo ud -like d e sig ns o f inc ise d a nd c o m b e d line s,
a nd o n the e xte rio r w ith c urve d stria tio ns. The c la y b o d y is silve r-g ra y a nd g ra iny.
Exa m p le s: 7 inta c t, 20 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 17.5 - 18.5 c m
150
Wid e a nd fla ring , he a vily p o tte d , w ith a sho rt c a rve d fo o tring , the se a re d e c o ra te d o n b o th the
inte rio r a nd e xte rio r w ith c ursive inc ise d a nd c o m b e d d e sig ns p e rha p s im ita ting c lo ud fo rm s o r
stylize d ve g e ta l sc ro lls. The c e nte r inte rio r is d e line a te d w ith a c a rve d ring .
Exa m p le s: 3 inta c t, 30 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 24.5 - 25.5 c m
Exa m p le s: 5 inta c t, 25 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 24 - 25 c m
151
Wid e , sha llo w a nd he a vily-p o tte d , this g ro up is d e c o ra te d o n the inte rio r w ith w isp y c a rve d a nd
c o m b e d sw irls a nd w ith a n im p re sse d C hine se m a rk w ithin a c irc le a t the c e nte r. The m a rk is ji, a
c o m m o nly use d c ha ra c te r m e a ning “ a usp ic io us.” Sim ila r d ishe s fo und e lse w he re o fte n ha ve
tw o c ha ra c te rs, d a ji, a w ish fo r g o o d luc k o r g o o d fo rtune , inste a d o f ji a lo ne (e .g ., So uthe a st
Asia n C e ra m ic So c ie ty, 1979, No . 92, fo r the sing le c ha ra c te r; a nd Dup o iza t, 1995, Fig . 6, fo r
e xa m p le s w ith b o th c ha ra c te rs).
Exa m p le s: 2 inta c t, 5 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 22.5 - 24 c m
C a rve d w ith in inse t b a se , a nd w ith p ro m ine nt rib s a nd tie rs o f d e e p ly inc ise d lo tus p e ta ls o n the
e xte rio r. The inte rio r is p la in e xc e p t fo r a sm a ll flo ra l m o tif a t the e nc irc le d insid e b o tto m .
Exa m p le : 1 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r o f fra g m e nt: 21 c m
DISHES
Exa m p le s: 4 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: la rg e st fra g m e nt 23 c m
152
11.6 Decorated Green-Glazed Ware
DISHES
Exa m p le s: 7 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 9 c m
Wid e a nd fla t, d e c o ra te d o n the inte rio r w ith a c urso ry inc ise d flo ra l d e sig n a c c e nte d w ith
c urio usly d istinc tive zig -za g s o f sho rt c o m b e d line s. The e xte rio r w a lls a re sha rp ly a ng le d to a
sm a ll fla t b a se . The g re e n g la ze p o o ls o n the inte rio r b o tto m a nd a t the sid e s o f the b a se .
Pro b a b ly fro m the Na n’ a n kilns.
Exa m p le s: 4 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 11 c m
153
Sm a ll, w ith g e ntly c urve d w a lls rising to a stra ig ht m o uthrim . The b a se is fla t, ung la ze d a nd ve ry
o c c a sio na lly ha s tra c e s o f a kiln sup p o rt sc a r. De c o ra te d w ithin a n e nc irc le d inte rio r m e d a llio n
w ith a stylize d , c ursive ly inc ise d flo ra l sp ra y. C o ve re d w ith a so m e w ha t runny g la ze tha t usua lly
fire s w itho ut c ra zing to va rio us sha d e s o f g re e n, so m e ve ry g ra yish a nd o the rs m o re b lue . The
c la y b o d y is p a le silve r-g ra y a nd so m e w ha t ro ug h. In the fifte e nth c e ntury d ishe s o f e xa c tly this
sha p e a nd size , e xc e p t fo r a b a se c a rve d into the b o tto m , w o uld a p p e a r a m o ng b lue -a nd -
w hite w a re a s the “ ho le b o tto m ” d ishe s.
154
BOWLS
155
LOBED DISHES AND BOWLS
Dishes
Exa m p le s: 10 inta c t, 10 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 11-12 c m
Exa m p le s: 20 inta c t, 10 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 16.5 - 17.5 c m
156
Bowls
Exa m p le s: 20 inta c t, 20 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 12.5 c m
Exa m p le s: 18 inta c t, 22 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 18 c m
157
BOWLS WITH SIMPLE COMBED DECORATION
With a c a rve d fo o tring a nd p la in e xte rio r; the inte rio r d e c o ra te d w ith c o m b e d c urls o f
d e c o ra tio n w ithin a b a nd b e tw e e n the c a rve d ring e nc irc ling the inte rio r b o tto m a nd a n inc ise d
ring a t the up p e r w a lls; the c la y a nd g la ze sim ila r to the p re vio us c a te g o rie s, w ith c ha tte r m a rks
o fte n e vid e nt o n the lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls a nd p in ho le s in the g la ze .
Exa m p le s: 20 inta c t, 10 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 12- 13 c m
158
La rg e -size d , w ith a slig htly e ve rte d m o uthrim . So m e ha ve a n ung la ze d sta c king ring c ut o nto the
inte rio r, a nd so m e ha ve b its o f g rit c a ug ht o n the surfa c e o f the g la ze .
Exa m p le s: 2 inta c t, 10 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 23 c m
Bo w ls in a sta nd a rd m e d ium size , d e c o ra te d o n the inte rio r w ith c o m b e d c lo ud -like m o tifs. The
m o uthrim is stra ig ht a nd the fo o tring is c a re fully c a rve d . The g la ze is p a le g re e n to g ra y, a nd the
c la y silve r-g ra y a nd slig htly ro ug h.
So m e ha ve a ring o f b ro a d d ia m e te r a t the
inte rio r b o tto m .
Dia m e te r: 17 - 21 c m
159
O the rs d isp la y a sm a ll b utto n-size e nc irc le d b o tto m
a nd slig htly hig he r w a lls. O ne e xa m p le ha s fo ur fish
m o tifs sc a tte re d a m o ng the c lo ud d e sig ns.
Dia m e te r: 17-21 c m
BOWLS
160
Muc h like the p re vio us c a te g o ry e xc e p t w ith a m o re
sm o o thly e ve rte d m o uthrim , a nd w itho ut the ung la ze d
sta c king ring .
Wid e a nd sha llo w , the b o w ls in this g ro up a re so he a vily p o tte d tha t the y p ro d uc e ve ry little
ring ing so und . The y ha ve a n e ve rte d m o uthrim , a c a rve d ring o n the up p e r inte rio r w a lls, a nd
o fte n c ha tte r m a rks o n the lo w e r
e xte rio r w a lls.
161
He a vily p o tte d a nd p la in, w ith a so m e w ha t
c a re le ssly a p p lie d g la ze tha t e nd s une ve nly a t the
lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls. C ha tte r m a rks a re o fte n
e vid e nt o n the e xte rio r. Une ve nly c a rve d fo o tring .
Me d ium-size d .
162
COVERS
Exa m p le s: 1
Dia m e te r: 6 c m
Exa m p le s: 3
Dia m e te r: 7.7 c m
Exa m p le s: 6
Dia m e te r: 7.5 c m
163
With a w id e fla t m o uth fla ng e , a lo tus-b ud -sha p e d
ha nd le , a nd a re ta ining ring to o ne sid e .
Exa m p le s: 3
Dia m e te r: 8 c m
Exa m p le : 1
Dia m e te r: 13 c m
Exa m p le : 1
Dia m e te r: 10.7 c m
C o ve r, p ro b a b ly fro m a c o ve re d b o x,
sturd ily p o tte d fro m silve r-g ra y c la y, w ith a
fla t c o ve r c e nte r a ng le d d o w nw a rd to
m e e t the stra ig ht sid e s.
Exa m p le : 1
Dia m e te r: 5.6 c m
164
11.8 Brown-Glazed Ware
This g ro up o f c e ra m ic s c o nta ins a va rie ty o f sha p e s, a ltho ug h the m a jo rity o f the m a re
c o nta ine rs o f o ne so rt o r a no the r. The y sha re se ve ra l b a sic struc tura l te c hniq ue s a nd c o uld
p e rha p s b e b e st d e sc rib e d a s a kind o f utilita ria n p e a sa nt p o tte ry. Pro b a b ly the y a re m a d e
fro m a m ixture o f c la ys, fo r the b a sic m e d ium g ra y c o lo r o f the ir fire d b o d y is fa intly m o ttle d w ith
b e ig e . Mo st o f the m w e re p ro b a b ly fa shio ne d o n a turnta b le , ra the r tha n o n a true p o tte r’ s
w he e l. Struc tura lly, the y b e g in w ith a so lid d isk o f c la y fro m w hic h the w a lls a re b uilt up w a rd w ith
c o ils o f c la y. If the first c o il w a s la id a to p the c la y d isk, it b e c a m e a so lid fo o t; if the c o il w a s
b e g un fro m a ro und the e xte rio r o f the d isk, a se p a ra tio n b e tw e e n the initia l d isk a nd the w a lls is
visib le o n the b a se . Be c a use a turnta b le w o uld no t ro ta te a s q uic kly a s a w he e l, the c o ils a re
ne ve r c o m p le te ly sm o o the d fla t. The se p ie c e s w e re no t, ho w e ve r, m e a nt to b e p rize d fo r the ir
b e a uty; the y ha ve m o re p ra c tic a l p urp o se s a s c o nta ine rs fo r o the r p ro d uc ts. The b o w l is a n
e xc e p tio n. The g la ze is usua lly thin, b ro w n o r g re e nish b ro w n, a nd it ra re ly c o ve rs the w ho le
e xte rio r b o d y. The inte rio rs o f the c lo se d sha p e s a re o nly o c c a sio na lly g la ze d .
Mo st o f the se p ie c e s p o ssib ly c a m e fro m the kilns a t Q ua nzho u itse lf, the p o rt fro m w hic h
the ship m o st p ro b a b ly sa ile d . Ele ve n kilns, kno w n fo r ha ving p ro d uc e d lo w -fire d utilita ria n w a re ,
w e re site d a t the e a st g a te o f the c ity.
BOWL
Exa m p le s: 4 inta c t, 2 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 11.5 c m
165
BASIN
Exa m p le s: 7 inta c t, 7 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 24.4 - 26 c m
He ig ht: 10 c m
BOTTLE
Exa m p le s: 15 inta c t, 14 d a m a g e d
He ig ht: 24 c m , o ne 30 c m
POURING VESSEL
Exa m p le s: 5 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: o ne 17 c m , o the rs 14 c m
166
JARLETS
Exa m p le s: 2
He ig ht: 6.5 c m
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 3.8 c m
JARS
Exa m p le s: 1
He ig ht: 11.6 c m
167
Ta ll a nd c o nic a l, w ith a na rro w ro und e d
m o uthrim a nd fla t b a se ; g la ze d o nly a t the
up p e r sho uld e r a nd m o uth. The c la y is silve r-
g ra y w ith b e ig e und e rto ne s. The se “ sm a ll-
m o uth” ja rs a re b e lie ve d to ha ve he ld
m e rc ury, a sub sta nc e sa id to ha ve ha d
m e d ic ina l use s.
Exa m p le s (m e d ium ): 4
He ig ht: 18 c m
Exa m p le s: 8
He ig ht: 8.6 - 16 c m
Exa m p le s: 60 inta c t, 20 d a m a g e d
Dia m e te r: 9-16 c m
168
The se ja rs a p p e a r in va rio us size s a nd p ro p o rtio ns b ut a ll o f the m ha ve fo ur a p p lie d stra p ha nd le s
a ro und the sho uld e r, a nd a fla t b a se o r fla t rud im e nta ry fo o t. The y w e re o rig ina lly g la ze d fro m
insid e the m o uth to the lo w e r w a lls, usua lly in g re e nish-
b ro w n g la ze . The c la y is m e d ium g ra y, so m e tim e s
he a vily p o tte d a nd so m e tim e s lig hte r in w e ig ht. Ma ny
e xa m p le s sho w a c irc ula r sta c king sc a r o n the b a se .
The la rg e st size so m e tim e s ha s a sing le inc ise d w a vy
line a ro und its m id se c tio n, a nd a se rie s o f c a rve d ring s
a t the ne c k. O c c a sio na lly the re is a C hine se m a rk
w ithin a ve rtic a l re c ta ng ula r b o rd e r sta m p e d a t
p la c e s a ro und the up p e r sho uld e r (se e fo llo w ing
p a g e ).
169
Gong Zi Hao trademark of Chuan Xing name or trademark Bing Sheng a cyclical date/60
Gong stamped on a storage stamped on a storage jar year cycle stamped on storage
jar jar
170
COVER
Exa m p le s: 2
Dia m e te r: 6-7 c m
EWERS
Exa m p le : 1 d a m a g e d
He ig ht: 15.6 c m
La rg e a nd intric a te ly m o d e le d w ith a n
unid e ntifia b le a nim a l a t the sp o ut, p o ssib ly
w ith a lo ng sno ut a nd the ho rns o f a ra m ,
a nd w ith a w id e sturd y stra p ha nd le a t the
o p p o site sho uld e r. The w id e fla re d ne c k
a nd ring e d e ve rte d m o uthrim w e re m a d e
se p a ra te ly a nd lute d to the m a in b o d y.
C o ve re d in runny b ro w n g la ze .
Exa m p le : 1, a fra g m e nt
He ig ht: 15.5 c m
171
11.9 Indian-Style Earthenware
All the ve sse ls o f this unusua l w a re a re e la b o ra te ly m o d e le d . The ir style sug g e sts a
so uthe rn Tha i o rig in. This is stro ng ly sup p o rte d b y c o m p a ra tive X-ra y flo re sc e nt a na lysis (se e
Se c tio n 9.8). The y w e re p ro b a b ly use d in Hind u-Bud d hist ritua ls, fo r sim ila r sha p e s a re so m e tim e s
se e n in re lig io us sc ulp ture s a nd b a s-re lie fs. So m e o f the m , like the w id e -b o d ie d ke nd i, m a y a lso
ha ve b e e n e m p lo ye d in the b re w ing o f m e d ic ine s a nd m e d ic ina l te a s. Ea c h o f the p ie c e s is
uniq ue in its e xa c t p ro p o rtio ns, a n ind ic a tio n tha t e a c h w a s m a d e ind ivid ua lly. So m e a re
kund ika , a n a nc ie nt Ind ia n sha p e tha t w a s c o p ie d into so m e C hine se w a re s d uring the e a rly
Ta ng d yna sty (A.D. 618-906). The kund ika sha p e is b e lie ve d to p re c e d e the ke nd i, w hic h
p ro b a b ly e vo lve d in So uthe a st Asia , m o st like ly in Ind o ne sia , the d e stina tio n o f this c a rg o . The
o rig ina l surfa c e o f the se ve sse ls a p p e a rs to ha ve b e e n b urnishe d to a b ro w nish-re d , tra c e s o f
w hic h re m a in. No w the y ha ve a m o stly b a re surfa c e a nd a re c o lo re d o ra ng e -b ro w n; re c e nt
b re a ks in sm a lle r e xa m p le s sho w a slig htly ye llo w ish ivo ry-c o lo re d c la y, slig htly p o ro us, w ith a fe e l
so m e thing like fre sh-c a rve d ivo ry. Whe re the c la y is m o re thic k, b re a ks sho w a b la c k c o re in
p ro file . The c la y m a y ha ve o rig ina lly b e e n g ra y. Alto g e the r the re a re a b o ut 360 e xa m p le s o f
va rio us ke nd i a nd kund ika , a ll o f the m w ith so m e d a m a g e .
KUNDIKA
He ig ht: 12-17 c m
172
O ne kund ika ha s a m o re a ng ula r b o d y a nd c ylind ric a l sha p e , w ith tra c e s o f fa intly inc ise d
(p o ssib ly m ystic ) d e sig ns a ro und the lo w e r w a lls.
KENDI
173
Wid e -b o d ie d , w ith a w id e stra ig ht ne c k, a n e ve rte d fla ng e d m o uthrim , a lo ng b ulb o us sp o ut
w ith a fla ng e a t its tip a nd a fla t fo o t. This typ e is und e c o ra te d e xc e p t fo r a sm a ll fla ng e a t the
lo w e r ne c k.
He ig ht: 15 c m
Exa m p le s: 10 d a m a g e d
He ig ht: a ve ra g e 16 c m
174
To ro id sha p e , w ith a sp o ut a t the up p e r sho uld e r o f the
tub ula r ring tha t fo rm s the b o d y, a nd a n a tta c he d fo o t.
Exa m p le s: 13 d a m a g e d
He ig ht: a p p ro xim a te ly 25 c m
Exa m p le : 1 inta c t, 2 d a m a g e d
He ig ht: 12.7 c m
175
HOOKAH
BOTTLE
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht to b ro ke n ne c k: 19.6 c m
176
RICE POT
Exa m p le s: 10
Dia m e te r: 20 c m
COVERS
Exa m p le : 1
Dia m e te r: 12.5 c m
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 13 c m (b ro ke n a t the m o uth
se c tio n)
177
UINIDENTIFIED
Exa m p le : 1
He ig ht: 13 c m
Ta b le o r sta nd , p ro b a b ly m a d e
fro m a he a vy, no w g ritty
e a rthe nw a re c la y (o r p o ssib ly
c a rve d fro m a sto ne suc h a s
sa nd sto ne ). C irc ula r, w ith thre e
so lid le g s (o ne m issing ). C a rve d
o n the und e rsid e w ith a n
unid e ntifia b le a nim a l (p e rha p s a
lio n) in a c e nte r m e d a llio n
e nc irc le d w ith tw o b a nd s o f
sa w to o th d e sig n se p a ra te d b y
a no the r b a nd w ith lo tus p a ne ls.
The c e ntra l p o rtio n o f the up p e r
sid e is p la in a nd fla t, w ith
c a rve d b o rd e rs a ro und its
c irc um fe re nc e .
Exa m p le : 1
Dia m e te r: 31.5 (in
fra g m e nts, w ith o ne
p o rtio n m issing )
178
179
OIL LAMP
Exa m p le s: 1
Dia m e te r: 8 c m
RICE MEASURE
Exa m p le s: 1
He ig ht: 5 cm
180
DISK
Exa m p le : 1
Dia m e te r: 9 c m
181
12.0 CONCLUSION
The na ture o f the C hine se c e ra m ic s c a rg o , a nd ra d io c a rb o n d a ting o f a re sin sa m p le ,
sug g e st tha t the Ja va Se a w re c k sho uld b e d a te d to a p p ro xim a te ly the m id d le o f the 13th
c e ntury. Altho ug h o the r w re c ks o f a p p ro xim a te ly the sa m e a g e a re kno w n in Ind o ne sia n
w a te rs, no d a ta o n the p re c ise lo c a tio n, c o m p o sitio n o f c a rg o , o r na ture o f struc tura l re m a ins
ha s e ve r b e e n p ub lishe d .
The a rra y o f a rtifa c ts, re p re se nting no n-c e ra m ic s tra d e g o o d s, c o nstitute s the first re lia b le
info rm a tio n o n p re -Euro p e a n tra d e in Ind o ne sia . O nly w ith suc h info rm a tio n, a nd m o re like it, is it
p o ssib le to e va lua te the re la tive im p o rta nc e o f m a ritim e tra d e in the e c o no m ie s o f Ind o ne sia
a nd he r tra d ing p a rtne rs d uring this e a rly p e rio d . At p re se nt, sc ho la rs a re una b le to d ra w p re c ise
c o nc lusio ns o n the c o ntrib utio n o f fo re ig n tra d e to the a nc ie nt Ind o ne sia n e c o no m y, in
c o m p a riso n to a g ric ulture a nd c o tta g e ind ustry.
G ive n the c o m p le te a b se nc e o f c o he sive hull struc ture , it is im p o ssib le to e sta b lish the
o rig in o f the ship firm ly. Ho w e ve r, w o o d id e ntific a tio n, inte rna l la yo ut (a s d e te rm ine d fro m the
iro n c o nc re tio n d isp o sitio n), fa ste ning d e ta ils, a nd a nc ho r typ e , p ro vid e suffic ie nt info rm a tio n to
c o nc lud e tha t the ship w a s no t c o nstruc te d in C hina . Whe the r the ship w a s b uilt in Tha ila nd o r
Ind o ne sia re m a ins o p e n to c o nje c ture . The e xiste nc e o f b ulkhe a d s tip s the sc a le s in fa vo r o f
Tha ila nd , w hilst the p re se nc e o f Ja va ne se -typ e b ro nze a rtifa c ts m ig ht ind ic a te a n Ind o ne sia n
o rig in.
The va st m a jo rity o f the ship 's c e ra m ic s c a rg o w a s fro m C hina . Inte re sting ly, no ne o f the
m a ny va rie tie s o f c e ra m ic s se e m s to ha ve c o m e fro m Lo ng q ua n, o ne o f the m o re p ro d uc tive
kilns o f this p e rio d . Ma ny o f the fo rm s (the q ing b a i e w e rs, c o nic a l b o w ls, c o ve re d b o xe s, a nd
va se s), a re w e ll kno w n to stud e nts o f C hine se c e ra m ic s o f this p e rio d . So m e va rie tie s, ho w e ve r,
suc h a s the q ing b a i d ishe s w ith he a vily m o ld e d b o d ie s, a re q uite unusua l. The hig h fre q ue nc y o f
b o xe s w ith insc rip tio ns o n the b a se s a re a no the r p a rtic ula rly inte re sting find , sinc e ve sse ls o f this
typ e a re no t c o m m o n in So uthe a st Asia , a ltho ug h the y ha ve b e e n stud ie d in C hina . The g re e n
p o rc e la in se e m s to b e lo ng to w e ll-kno w n typ e s fro m Fujia n, p rinc ip a lly the To ng a n kiln c o m p le x.
182
The la rg e r sto ra g e ja rs a re a lso in g e ne ra l fro m kno w n typ e s, b ut the hig h fre q ue nc y o f ja rs w ith
sta m p e d c ha ra c te rs o n the sho uld e rs is unusua l. The e la b o ra te e w e rs, b o xe s, a nd b o w ls w ith
w hite flo ra l m o tifs o n a b a c kg ro und o f b ro w n g la ze a re ve ry ra re . In g e ne ra l the ir c la y a nd
d e c o ra tive m o tifs a re sim ila r to tho se a sso c ia te d w ith the C izho u kiln c o m p le x, b ut e xa m p le s in
w hic h b ro w n flo ra l d e c o ra tio ns w e re p la c e d o ve r a w hite b a c kg ro und a re tho ug ht to b e
unkno w n. The re ve rse p ro c e ss, w ith the p o ssib le a d d itio n o f g re e n o ve rg la ze , in c o m p le x
d e c o ra tive c o m p o sitio ns, is a m o st surp rising a nd intrig uing d isc o ve ry w hic h w ill e xc ite the
a tte ntio n o f c e ra m ic c o nno isse urs.
The la rg e num b e rs o f ke nd is fro m so uthe rn Tha ila nd a re the first ind ic a tio n tha t
e a rthe nw a re w a s tra d e d b e tw e e n So uthe a st Asia n c o untrie s, a n ite m c o m p le te ly a b se nt fro m
a ny surviving d o c um e nta ry re c o rd s. The re a re se ve ra l unp re c e d e nte d sha p e s. The to ro id
ke nd is, in p a rtic ula r, w e re p re vio usly o nly kno w n fro m C hine se ve rsio ns m a d e d uring the Ming
p e rio d .
183
184
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PROJECT PERSONNEL
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Musta fa Ismuna nto He ria nto Ra sid i
Suka rd i Amin Da ya t Ya p ih
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