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FORENSIC TEXTILE
SCIENCE
 The Textile Institute Book Series
Incorporated by Royal Charter in 1925, The Textile Institute was established as the
professional body for the textile industry to provide support to businesses, practi-
tioners and academics involved with textiles and to provide routes to professional
qualifications through which Institute Members can demonstrate their professional
competence. The Institute’s aim is to encourage learning, recognise achievement,
reward excellence and disseminate information about the textiles, clothing and
footwear industries and the associated science, design and technology; it has a global
reach with individual and corporate members in over 80 countries.
The Textile Institute Book Series supersedes the former ‘Woodhead Publishing
Series in Textiles’, and represents a collaboration between The Textile Institute
and Elsevier aimed at ensuring that Institute Members and the textile industry
continue to have access to high calibre titles on textile science and technology.
Books published in The Textile Institute Book Series are offered on the Elsevier
web site at: store.elsevier.com and are available to Textile Institute Members at a
substantial discount. Textile Institute books still in print are also available directly
from the Institute’s web site at: www.textileinstitute.org
To place an order, or if you are interested in writing a book for this series, please
contact Matthew Deans, Senior Publisher: m.deans@elsevier.com

Recently Published and Upcoming Titles in The Textile Institute Book

Series:
Handbook of Technical Textiles, Volume 1, 2nd Edition, A. Richard Horrocks and
Subhash C. Anand, 9781782424581
Handbook of Technical Textiles, Volume 2, 2nd Edition, A. Richard Horrocks and
Subhash C. Anand, 9781782424659
Geotextiles, Robert Koerner, 9780081002216
Advances in Braiding Technology, Yordan Kyosev, 9780081009260
Antimicrobial Textiles, Gang Sun, 9780081005767
Active Coatings for Smart Textiles, Jinlian Hu, 9780081002636
Advances in Women’s Intimate Apparel Technology, Winnie Yu, 9781782423690
Smart Textiles and Their Applications, Vladan Koncar, 9780081005743
Advances in Technical Nonwovens, George Kellie, 9780081005750
Activated Carbon Fiber and Textiles, Jonathan Chen, 9780081006603
Performance Testing of Textiles, Lijing Wang, 9780081005705
Colour Design, Janet Best, 9780081012703
Forensic Textile Science, Debra Carr, 9780081018729
Principles of Textile Finishing, Asim Kumar Roy Choudhury, 9780081006467
High-Performance Apparel, John McLoughlin and Tasneem Sabir,
9780081009048
The Textile Institute
Book Series

FORENSIC TEXTILE
SCIENCE

Edited by

DEBRA CARR

An imprint of Elsevier
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
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Notices
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
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ISBN: 978-0-08-101872-9 (print)
ISBN: 978-0-08-101873-6 (online)

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Typeset by SPi Global, India
CONTENTS

Contributors ix

Part One
Introduction to Textiles and Their Role in Forensics 1
1. Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 3
D.J. Carr
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Fibres 4
1.3 Yarns 7
1.4 Fabrics 9
References 13

2. Apparel and Household Textiles and Their Role in Forensics 15

R.R. Van Amber

2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Apparel 15
2.3 Household Textiles 20
2.4 Outdoor 21
2.5 Additional Considerations 23
References 25
Further Reading 26

3. Fabrics as Forensic Evidence 27

K. Harrison and S. Ries
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Examination of the Volume Crime Scene 28
3.3 Examination of the Major Crime Scene 29
3.4 Systematic Examination 30
3.5 Recovery at the Crime Scene 31
3.6 1:1 and Zonal Taping Techniques 33
3.7 Recovery at the Mortuary 34
3.8 Transferred Fibres 35
3.9 The Recovery of Textile Items 37
References 37

v
vi Contents

Part Two
Analysing Textile Damage in a Forensic Context 39
4. Forensic Analysis of Textile Degradation and Natural Damage 41
M.J. Smith and K. Thompson

4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Causes of Degradation—Chemical and Physical 46
4.3 Processing 51
4.4 Laundering 54
4.5 Environmental and Use 55
4.6 Biological Attack 59
4.7 Chemicals 61
4.8 Qualifying and Quantifying Degradation 63
4.9 Conclusions 65
References 66

5. Forensic Analysis of Sharp Weapon Damage to Textile

Products 71
S.E. Kemp
5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 Preimpact Variables 72
5.3 Impact Variables 80
5.4 Postimpact Variables 87
5.5 Examination of Textile Damage 88
5.6 Reconstruction of Textile Damage/Simulation Experiments 92
5.7 Conclusions 93
Acknowledgements 94
References 94

6. Forensic Analysis of Blunt Impact Damage to Textiles 99

F.Y. Daroux
6.1 Introduction 99
6.2 Case Study 103
6.3 Aims of the Research 103
6.4 Method Used 103
6.5 Key Findings 106
6.6 Conclusion 122
References 122
Contents vii

7. Forensic Interpretation of Bloodstains on Fabrics 127

T.C. de Castro
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Definitions and Terminology 128
7.3 Other Fluid-Fabric Research 132
7.4 A Quick Guide to Blood and Its Properties 137
7.5 Brief Look at Bloodstain Classification 138
7.6 Blood-Fabric Research 139
7.7 Conclusion 163
Acknowledgements 163
References 163
Further Reading 167

8. Tearing or Ripping of Fabrics 169

T. Dann and C. Malbon
8.1 Introduction 169
8.2 Factors Affecting Rips and Tears 169
8.3 Examination and Analysis of Rips and Tears in Textile Evidence 170
8.4 Simulation of Ripping and Tearing 174
8.5 Published Studies 177
Definitions 179
References 179

9. Ballistic Damage 181

D.J. Carr and A.J. Mabbott
9.1 Introduction to Firearms and Ammunition 181
9.2 Critical Biological Structures and Medical Implications 184
9.3 Injury Statistics 186
9.4 Simulants for Testing 187
9.5 Damage to Apparel Fabrics 188
9.6 Conclusions 195
References 196

Index 201
This page intentionally left blank
CONTRIBUTORS

D.J. Carr
Cranfield University, Shrivenham, United Kingdom

T. Dann
University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

F.Y. Daroux
University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

T.C. de Castro
Institute of Environmental Science and Research, Christchurch Service Centre, Christchurch, New Zealand

K. Harrison
Cranfield University, Shrivenham, United Kingdom

S.E. Kemp
Empa—Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen, Switzerland

A.J. Mabbott
Cranfield University, Shrivenham, United Kingdom

C. Malbon
Cranfield University, Shrivenham, United Kingdom

S. Ries
Cranfield University, Shrivenham, United Kingdom

M.J. Smith
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom

K. Thompson
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom

R.R. Van Amber

Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia

ix
This page intentionally left blank
 PART ONE

Introduction to
Textiles and Their
Role in Forensics
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER ONE

Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics

D.J. Carr
Cranfield University, Shrivenham, United Kingdom

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Forensic textile science is a relatively young discipline; fibre identifi-
cation is the most established component of this discipline. Within the
European Union a textile product is defined as “… any raw, semiworked,
worked, semimanufactured, manufactured, semimade-up or made-up
product which is exclusively composed of textile fibres, regardless of the
mixing or assembly process employed.” and
• “Products containing at least 80% by weight of textile fibres.
• Furniture, umbrella, and sunshade coverings containing at least 80% by
weight of textile fibres;
• The textile components (provided such textile components constitute at
least 80% by weight of such upper layers or coverings) of:
(a) the upper layer of multilayer floor coverings;
(b) Mattress coverings;
(c) Coverings of camping goods
• Products incorporating textile components and which form an integral
part of the product, where the compositions should be specified” (The
European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 2011).
Textile products of interest to forensic scientists include individual fibres,
yarns, fabrics, apparel, household textiles and furnishings. These products
are hierarchical structures—fibres are used to manufacture yarns, which
are used to construct fabrics, which are in turn used to manufacture products
such as apparel, curtains, sheets, etc. (Fig. 1.1). These products are often
potential evidence in criminal investigations; albeit typically supporting in
nature. Of particular interest is damage caused to apparel during an alleged
incident, fibre identification with respect to trace evidence and blood
staining and/or patterns on fabrics. The physical and mechanical properties
of fabrics can affect such sources of evidence. Therefore potential evidence
in textile products can be affected by poor handling and storage (further

Forensic Textile Science © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. 3

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-101872-9.00001-7 All rights reserved.
4 D.J. Carr

Fig. 1.1 Hierarchical structure of textile products. (Copyright: CDS Learning Services,
Cranfield University 2015).

information on handling and storage is provided in Chapter 3) (e.g. Adolf

and Hearle, 1998; Taupin et al., 1999; Taupin and Cwiklik, 2010). Textile
products should be examined from the macro-level through to the micro-
level (e.g. Pelton and Ukpabi, 1995; Taupin et al., 1999; Boland et al., 2006;
Taupin and Cwiklik, 2010).
Of key importance is the correct and full description of a textile product
using the appropriate discipline’s terminology. Therefore, this Chapter pro-
vides a brief introduction to textile science and terminology. The reader is
directed to publications by The International Organization for Standardiza-
tion (ISO) and Textile Terms and Definitions (Denton and Daniels, 2002) for
textile terminology, to standard textile science textbooks (e.g. Taylor, 1990;
Tortora and Collier, 2000) for further information and to other text books
written for forensic scientists (e.g. Robertson and Grieve, 1999).

1.2 FIBRES
A fibre is defined as “Textile raw material, generally characterised by
flexibility, fineness and high ratio of length to thickness.” (Denton and
Daniels, 2002). In textile science, fibres are classified as being natural or
man-made. Natural fibres are further subdivided into animal (referred to
as protein fibres in older text books, e.g. wool, silk), vegetable (referred
to as cellulose fibres in older text books, e.g. cotton, flax) and mineral
(e.g. asbestos) (British Standards Institution, 2014). Man-made fibres are
subdivided into synthetic-polymer (e.g. polyester, nylon, polypropylene),
Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 5

Table 1.1 Fibre Production Data (Simpson, 2015)

Fibre Type Amount (mn tonnes)
Polyester 49
Cotton 26
Nylon 5
Cellulosic 5
Acrylic 2
Wool 1

natural-polymer (e.g. viscose, acetate) and other (e.g. carbon, glass) (British
Standards Institution, 2013). Generic names for fibres are provided in two
ISO publications (British Standards Institution, 2013, 2014).
Fibre production figures are published each year in Textile Outlook Inter-
national (https://www.textilesintelligence.com/tistoi/); these are useful as
they provide information regarding the most commonly available fibres
(e.g. polyester, cotton; Table 1.1). Textile Outlook International also provides
international information on textile products.
Fibres can be described by their length (i) staple (short and of distinct
length, e.g. cotton, wool) or (ii) filament (sometime referred to as contin-
uous fibres, e.g. silk, polyester, acrylic, nylon). Fibre length can assist with
fibre identification; however it is important to remember that filament fibres
can be cut in to staple lengths, e.g. acrylic filament fibre might be cut to
staple length to be used in knitting yarn. Fibre trade-names, rather than
generic names, are often referred to, e.g. Spandex or LYCRA® instead of
elastane, CORDURA® instead of nylon 6,6 and Kevlar® instead of para-
aramid. EU approved fibre names are included in the appropriate EU
Regulation and ISO publications (The European Parliament and the
Council of the European Union, 2011; British Standards Institution,
2013, 2014). In the United Kingdom the fibre content of textile products
is usually provided on the care label in accordance with the Guidance on
the Textile Products (Labelling and Fibre Composition) Regulations (2012)
(Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2012). If a product is iden-
tified on a care label as containing a fibre by its trade-name, then clearly that
trade-name should be used in any report, otherwise the generic name should
be used (British Standards Institution, 2013, 2014). Note even if a product is
labelled as containing only one fibre type (e.g. 100% cotton), it might
contain up to 2% other fibres (due to impurities) or if the fibres have been
carded before spinning up to 5% (by mass) of the final product (Department
for Business Innovation and Skills, 2012).
6 D.J. Carr

Fibre identification is the subject of many standard textbooks and articles

published within textile science, forensic science and other disciplines such
as conservation science (e.g. Luniak, 1953; The Textile Institute, 1975;
Hearle et al., 1998; Robertson and Grieve, 1999; Carr et al., 2008, 2009;
Houck, 2009). Whilst most forensic scientists would use an optical micro-
scope to assist with fibre identification, low-magnification scanning electron
microscopy (200) is also useful as it provides improved depth of field
(e.g. Fig. 1.2). Fibre identification should always start at the macro-level
by considering the length, crimp (waviness), colour, thickness and

(A)

(B)
Fig. 1.2 Typical low-magnification SEM images of (A) cotton and (B) wool. (A) Twisted
ribbon appearance of cotton fibre. (B) Scale appearance of wool fibre. (Images:
Ms E. Girvan, University of Otago).
Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 7

consistency of a group of fibres. If variation is visible then it is likely that the

fibres are natural in origin; identification of the most common fibre types
(cotton, wool) is then relatively easily achieved using an optical microscope.
In longitudinal view, cotton appears as a flat twisted ribbon and the scales on
wool are usually clearly visible (e.g. Fig. 1.2). Identification of rarer, speci-
ality or luxury fibres is more difficult. If a group of fibres appear consistent
then they are likely to be man-made. Although many texts suggest visible
features (under magnification) can assist in identifying man-made fibres, it
is important to remember that they can be made to any form and thus other
identification methods are required such as the use of chemical analytical
equipment, or a combination of flammability and chemical solubility tests
(e.g. Luniak, 1953; Taylor, 1990; Robertson and Grieve, 1999).
The chemical and molecular structures of fibres affect their physical and
mechanical properties, including their interaction with liquids and this can
be important, for example when considering the appearance of bloodstains
on textile products. More crystalline fibres such as flax are less absorbent than
fibres such as cotton (Carr et al., 2008).

1.3 YARNS
Fibres are usually converted into yarns before they are used in textile
products. In some older texts, yarns are referred to as threads. A yarn is
defined as “A product of substantial length and relatively small cross section
consisting of fibres and/or filaments with or without twist.” (Denton and
Daniels, 2002). In textile science, yarns are classified as being simple, com-
posite (blend), or complex (fancy). Simple yarns contain one fibre type (e.g.
100% cotton), composite yarns contain two or more fibre types (e.g. 65%
polyester/35% cotton) and complex yarns are often decorative in nature
with irregular structures found at regular intervals along the yarn (e.g. slub,
spiral, chenille and loop (boucle)). A spun yarn is produced by twisting staple
fibres together and is hairy in appearance. Spun yarns are manufactured from
natural staple fibres, or from filaments (natural or man-made) that have been
cut to form shorter fibres; thus if examining a hairy yarn it is immediately
possible to state it contains staple fibres; depending on the age of the yarn
it might be possible at that stage to exclude a man-made fibre content. Con-
tinuous filament yarns may be monofilament or multifilament and are
smooth in appearance, but can be textured to induce a waviness or crimp.
Yarns can be described as: single, ply (sometimes referred to as folded
yarns), or cabled (sometimes referred to as cord yarns). Two or more single
8 D.J. Carr

yarns twisted together form a plied yarn, if three single yarns are combined,
then the yarn is a three-ply yarn (Fig. 1.3). The combination of two or more
ply yarns forms a cabled yarn, cables are combined to form ropes and ropes
are combined to form hawsers.
Yarns can be twisted in two directions during the manufacturing process;
these directions are known as ‘S’ and ‘Z’ twist (Fig. 1.4). The direction of
twist for a ply yarn is different compared to a single yarn to ensure that the
yarn is balanced, that is, it is unlikely to snarl or untwist. The level of twist
(number of twists per unit length) affects the properties of the yarn. A more
loosely twisted yarn will have fibres less tightly bound than a tightly twisted
yarn. The fibres can slip out of the loosely bound structure. A more tightly
twisted yarn will usually be stronger, more compact, less absorbent and less
compliant.
Yarns are often described by their linear density “…mass per unit length
of linear textile material.” (Denton and Daniels, 2002). The S.I. units of lin-
ear density are tex (g per 1000 m). The production of a two-ply yarn or
greater produces a resultant yarn that is thicker than might be first assumed

Cabled Fibre

Single

Ply
Fig. 1.3 Yarn structure (single, ply, cabled). (Copyright: CDS Learning Services, Cranfield
University 2015).

S Z

Fig. 1.4 ‘S’ and ‘Z’ direction yarn twist. (Copyright: CDS Learning Services, Cranfield
University 2015).
Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 9

due to a reduction in length caused by the twisting process. The two-ply

yarn might be described as R36 tex/2, ‘R’ indicates a resultant linear density
and ‘/2’ that two single yarns were combined to form a two-ply yarn with a
resultant linear density of 36 tex.
Further information on yarns and ropes can be found in Chapter 2 and in
standard texts (e.g. Lord, 2003; British Standards Institution, 2004;
McKenna et al., 2004).

1.4 FABRICS
Yarns are used to manufacture fabrics; “A manufactured assembly of
fibres and/or yarns that has substantial surface area in relation to its thickness
and sufficient inherent cohesion to give the assembly mechanical strength.
Note: fabrics are most commonly woven or knitted, but the term includes
assemblies produced by braiding, felting, lace making, net-making, non-
woven processes and tufting.” (Denton and Daniels, 2002). From a forensic
perspective, fabrics of interest include woven fabrics such as apparel
(e.g. shirts/blouses, suits, trousers/jeans) and home furnishings (e.g. curtains,
carpets, bedding) as well as knitted fabrics (e.g. underwear, jumpers, T-shirts).
Fabrics are usually classified as woven (interlaced yarns), knitted (interlocking
loops; stitches), or nonwoven (British Standards Institution, 1977, 2011).
Fabrics have a technical face and technical rear; the face has an improved
appearance and is generally the outer surface of the product. Mass per unit area
(g/m2) and thickness of fabrics (mm) can be important tools in matching
fabrics (International Organization for Standardization, 1977, 1996).

1.4.1 Woven Fabrics

The warp direction runs along the length of a woven fabric and the weft
direction runs across the fabric (British Standards Institution, 1977). The sett
of a woven fabric describes the number of yarns per 10 mm, e.g.
48  60 yarns/10 mm (International Organization for Standardization,
1984). Increasing the number of yarns per 10 mm increases the strength
in that direction, mass, abrasion resistance, stability and cost of a fabric.
The edge of the fabric that runs parallel to the warp direction yarns is the
selvedge, it is generally 2.5–5 mm in width, but can be up to 20 mm.
A plain-woven fabric is the simplest weave that can be produced; yarns
are interlaced over and under each other at right angles (Fig. 1.5).
Plain-woven fabrics are reversible (unless a pattern is printed on one side).
Examples of plain-woven fabrics include chiffon, gingham, chambray,
10 D.J. Carr

Fig. 1.5 Plain-woven fabrics. (Copyright: CDS Learning Services, Cranfield University 2015).

Fig. 1.6 Twill woven fabrics. (Copyright: CDS Learning Services, Cranfield University 2015).

cheesecloth, muslin, flannel, canvas, tartan and tweed (British Standards

Institution, 1977). Basket weaves are formed by interlacing groups of yarns,
the most common is the 2  2 basket weave (i.e. two warp yarns interlace
two weft yarns on a repeating pattern).
Twill woven fabrics are characterised by diagonal lines on the surface of
the fabric, for example, gabardine, chino and denim (British Standards
Institution, 1977) (Fig. 1.6). The twill can be Z direction, or S direction.
The simplest twill is a 2  1; each warp yarn passes over two weft yarns
and then under one weft yarn. If there are more warp yarns on the technical
Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 11

face, the fabric is a warp-face twill. If there are more weft yarns on the tech-
nical face, it is a weft-face twill. A 2  2 twill is an example of a balanced
twill. Most twill fabrics are either warp-face or balanced.
In a satin woven fabric, one set of yarns form the majority of the technical
face of the fabric and the other the technical rear (British Standards
Institution, 1977). A satin fabric in which the warp yarns form the technical
face is a warp-faced satin and one in which the weft yarns form the face is a
weft-face satin. A variant is sateen which is a durable cotton weft-face satin
weave, often used for higher quality bed linen.

1.4.2 Knitted Fabrics

Knitted fabrics are constructed by interlocking a series of loops (stitches);
each new loop is drawn through those previously formed (British
Standards Institution, 2003). Loops running vertically are wales, those run-
ning horizontally are courses (British Standards Institution, 2002). There are
two main types of knitted fabric (i) weft knits and (ii) warp knits (British
Standards Institution, 2003). Weft knits are the most common; the yarns
run across the width of the fabric, i.e. each course is manufactured from
the same yarn. Common weft knits are plain jersey, rib and purl. Plain knits
are easily recognised, the technical face is smooth with a clear vertical grain,
whilst the technical rear is characterised by a horizontal grain (Fig. 1.7). Plain
jersey knit fabrics tend to curl and are used to make underwear, hosiery,
T-shirts, gloves and sweaters (Taylor, 1990).

Fig. 1.7 Plain jersey knit fabrics. (Copyright: CDS Learning Services, Cranfield University
2015).
12 D.J. Carr

Fig. 1.8 Typical single rib knit fabric (1  1, English rib). (Copyright: CDS Learning Services,
Cranfield University 2015).

Single rib knits are characterised by ribs that run vertically, the rib is
formed by wales alternating on the technical face and technical rear of
the fabric (British Standards Institution, 2003) (Fig. 1.8). The simplest rib
is the 1  1 (English rib); if two wales of stitches appear on the face and
two on the rear, the fabric is a 2  2 (Swiss rib). Typical uses include socks,
waistbands and cuffs.
Purl knits consist of alternative courses of plain knit stitches and purl knit
stitches (British Standards Institution, 2003). Therefore, each wale contains
both types of stitches. A purl stitch is the reverse of a plain stitch. The sim-
plest purl fabric is the 1  1, which consists of one course of plain stitches
followed by one course of purl stitches. Alternative purl knits include
2  2 and 3  1. Purl fabrics do not curl.
In warp knits, the yarns run vertically and each yarn forms a vertical loop
in one course and then moves diagonally to another wale to make a loop in
the next course. The yarns therefore zigzag from side to side along the fabric.
The technical face is characterised by clear vertical stitches that are slightly
angled side to side. The rear technical face consists of slightly angled hori-
zontal features known as laps.

1.4.3 Nonwoven Fabrics

Nonwoven fabrics contain fibres, filaments or cut yarns that are formed into
a web by a number of methods including mechanical, chemical or physical
(British Standards Institution, 2011). Typical examples include agricultural
Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 13

Fig. 1.9 Typical example of a nonwoven fabric (20). (Image: Dr D.J. Carr).

fabrics, dishcloths, disposable laboratory coats, surgical gowns and road rein-
forcements (Fig. 1.9). The fibre types used in the manufacture of nonwovens
are usually polyethylene, polypropylene, polyester and viscose, although
medical end-use items can be manufactured using cotton. The fibre may
be orientated (i) in the longitudinal direction, (ii) in the transverse direction,
(iii) in the longitudinal and transverse directions, or (iv) randomly. Nonwo-
vens are classified into two major groups (i) disposable (60% of the total
consumption), these fabrics are manufactured for single or limited use
(e.g. surgical gowns), or (ii) durable (e.g. interlinings and agricultural
fabrics) intended for prolonged use.
A number of other fabric structures that are not discussed in this chap-
ter include carpet, felt, lace, coated fabrics/laminates, tufted fabrics and
leather.

REFERENCES
Adolf, F.-P., Hearle, J., 1998. Textile damage in forensic investigations. In: Hearle, J.W.S.,
Lomas, B., Cooke, W.D. (Eds.), Atlas of Fibre Fracture and Damage to Textiles.
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge.
Boland, C.A., McDermott, S.D., Ryan, J., 2006. Clothing damage analysis in alleged sexual
assaults-the need for a systematic approach. Forensic Sci. Int. 167, 110–115.
British Standards Institution, 1977. BS 5523:1977: Textiles—Weaves—Definitions of
General Terms and Basic Weaves. BSI Standards Limited, London.
British Standards Institution, 2002. BS EN ISO 4921:2002: Knitting—Basic Concepts—
Vocabulary. BSI Standards Limited, London.
British Standards Institution, 2003. BS EN ISO 8388:2003: Knittied Fabrics—Types—
Vocabulary. BSI Standards Limited, London.
British Standards Institution, 2004. BS EN ISO 1968:2004: Fibre Ropes and Cordage—
Vocabulary. BSI Standards Limited, London.
British Standards Institution, 2011. BS EN ISO 9092:2011: Textiles—Nonwovens—
Definition. BSI Standards Limited, London.
14 D.J. Carr

British Standards Institution, 2013. BS EN ISO 2076:2013: Textiles—Man-Made Fibres—

Generic Names. BSI Standards Limited, London.
British Standards Institution, 2014. BS EN ISO 6938:2014: Textiles—Natural Fibres—
Generic Names and Definitions. BSI Standards Limited, London.
Carr, D.J., Cruthers, N.M., Smith, C., Myers, T., 2008. Identification of selected vegetable
textile fibres. Rev. Conserv. 9, 75–87.
Carr, D.J., Cruthers, N.M., Girvan, E., Scheele, S., 2009. Approaches to the identification of
plant material used in Māori artefacts. Stud. Conserv. 53, 252–263.
Denton, M.J., Daniels, P.N. (Eds.), 2002. Textile Terms and Definitions. The Textile
Institute, Manchester.
Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2012. Guidance on the Textile Products
(Labelling and Fibre Composition) Regulations 2012. Department for Business,
Innovation and Skills, London.
Hearle, J., Lomas, B., Cooke, W.D., 1998. Atlas of Fibre Fracture and Damage to Textiles.
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge.
Houck, M.M. (Ed.), 2009. Identification of Textile Fibers. Woodhead Publishing Ltd.,
Cambridge.
International Organization for Standardization, 1977. ISO 3801:1977: Textiles—Woven
Fabrics—Determination of Mass per Unit Length and Mass per Unit Area. International
Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
International Organization for Standardization, 1984. ISO 7211-2: Textiles—Woven
Fabrics—Construction—Methods of Analysis—Part 2 Determination of Number of
Threads per Unit Length. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva.
International Organization for Standardization, 1996. ISO 5084:1996: Textiles—
Determination of Thickness of Textiles and Textile Products. International Organiza-
tion for Standardization, Geneva.
Lord, P.R., 2003. Handbook of Yarn Production: Technology, Science and Economics.
Woodhead Publishing Limited, The Textile Institute, Manchester.
Luniak, B., 1953. The Identification of Textile Fibres Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis
of Fibre Blends. Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd., London.
McKenna, H.A., Hearle, J.W.S., O’Hear, N., 2004. Handbook of Fibre Rope Technology.
Woodhead Publishing Limited, The Textile Institute, Cambridge.
Pelton, W., Ukpabi, P., 1995. Using the scanning electron microscope to identify the cause
of fibre damage. Part II: An explanatory study. J. Can. Soc. Forensic Sci. 28, 189–200.
Robertson, J., Grieve, M.C. (Eds.), 1999. Forensic Examination of Fibres. Taylor and
Francis, London.
Simpson, P., 2015. Global trends in fibre prices, production and consumption. Text. Out-
look Int. 175, 67–82.
Taupin, J.M., Cwiklik, C., 2010. Scientific Protocols for Forensic Examination of Clothing.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
Taupin, J.M., Adolf, F.-P., Robertson, J., 1999. Examination of damage to textiles.
In: Robertson, J., Grieve, M. (Eds.), Forensic Examination of Fibres. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, pp. 65–87.
Taylor, M.A., 1990. Technology of Textiles Properties. Forbes Publications Ltd., London.
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 2011. Regulation (EU)
No 1007/2011 on Textile Fibre Names and Related Labelling and Marking of the Fibre
Composition of Textile Products. The European Parliament and the Council of the
European Union, Brussels.
The Textile Institute, 1975. Identification of Textile Materials. The Textile Institute,
Manchester.
Tortora, P.G., Collier, B.J., 2000. Understanding Textiles. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
 CHAPTER TWO

Apparel and Household Textiles

and Their Role in Forensics
R.R. Van Amber
Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fabrics are an integral part of human life and production of these mate-
rials has been an important cultural and economic component throughout
history. For example, Bombyx Mori caterpillars have been farmed like other
domestic animals in China for approximately 4000–5000 years in order to
harvest their cocoons for silk fibres (Rheinberg, 1991). Wool fibres have
been used in fabric production since the domestication of sheep and goats,
and were likely one of the earliest fabrics ever to be produced due to the ease
of felting the fibres together to produce fabrics without first creating yarns
(Wolfe, 2006). Wild plants such as nettle have been used in fabric produc-
tion as early as the Bronze Age, along with cultivated plants such as flax and
hemp (Bergfjord et al., 2012). Fabrics today remain an important commod-
ity as their versatility allows them to permeate daily life. The value of fabrics
in the global economy cannot be overemphasised. For example, imports of
fibres, fabrics and clothing into the EU in 2014 equated US $266, 954 mn
(Anon., 2015).

2.2 APPAREL
Apparel is often the first product composed of fabrics that may spring
to mind. Apparel is defined as “personal outfit, garments, clothing or attire,
including headwear and footwear” (Denton and Daniels, 2002). Humans
clothe themselves for a variety of reasons: thermal neutrality, protection
(e.g. fire fighters, use of helmets, body armour), gender differentiation
(Eicher and Roach, 1992), self-identity (Roach-Higgins and Eicher,
1992), etc. The term ‘dress’ is defined as “an assemblage of body modifi-
cations and supplements which includes not only clothing but also hair,
skin, breath and items that can be held or attached to the body” (Eicher

Forensic Textile Science © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. 15

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-101872-9.00002-9 All rights reserved.
16 R.R. Van Amber

and Roach, 1992). Thus many, but not all items defined as ‘dress’ are com-
posed of textiles.

2.2.1 Women
Women’s clothing presents a unique challenge for forensic investigators
because it can encompass virtually any type of garment composed of any
type or combination of fibres. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, American households spent more, on average, on apparel designed
for women aged 16 and over than any other apparel product or service, or
33%–36% of the ‘apparel, footwear and related services’ category, compared
to roughly 18%–21% spent on men, and 14%–17% on children (United
States Department of Labor, 2012).
Nearly any part of the body may be covered, or not, depending on the
wearer and context. The diverse types of garments and fabrics worn by
women around the world mean that the properties of textiles available to
women are virtually infinite, and may be difficult to quantify/replicate in
a laboratory setting. Fabrics commonly used in women’s clothing will be
those such as plain weaves, twill weaves and single jersey knits. Commonly
encountered fibre types are: cotton, polyester (polyethylene terephalate or
PET), acrylic, rayon (also called viscose), nylon (polyamide), silk, wool,
linen, elastane and blends of any combination of the aforementioned. How-
ever, most common garments are those such as jeans, t-shirts, skirts, dresses,
sweaters (jumpers), jackets, blouses and casual sportswear (e.g. yoga pants).
Trousers, slacks and pants are all names for garments that encompass each leg
individually from waist to ankle. Jeans are a common type of trouser com-
posed of denim, “traditionally a 3/1 warp-faced twill fabric made from yarn-
dyed warp and nondyed weft yarn” (Fig. 2.1) (Denton and Daniels, 2002).
Historically, jeans were set apart from other types of trousers due to their
blue colour, as traditionally jeans were dyed using Indigo. T-shirts are usu-
ally single jersey knitted garments with short sleeves that cover the upper
body, and can be composed of nearly any fibre type, but are commonly cot-
ton, cotton/polyester or cotton/elastane. Sweaters are an upper body gar-
ment characterised by a thick, knitted fabric structure, use of a coarser/
bulkier yarn (higher denier or tex) and heavier gauge knit (e.g. larger sized
needles resulting in fewer knitting machine needles per inch), typically com-
posed of wool, cotton, rayon, acrylic or a blend. Skirts, jackets and trousers
are typically composed of lightweight plain woven or twill fabrics of any
fibre, though they can also be knitted. Dresses (Fig. 2.2) and blouses can
be either woven or knitted, of nearly any fabric structure and fibre type.
Apparel and Household Textiles and Their Role in Forensics 17

Coin pocket Waistband

Zipper
Pockets

Outseam/
Side seam

Inseam

Hem

Fig. 2.1 Technical sketch of denim jeans.

Neckline
Armhole

Dart

Hem

Fig. 2.2 Technical sketch of a basic dress.

Items that are worn by women/transgender women to differentiate gen-

der that may frequently be encountered by forensic investigators may
include undergarments such as underwear, bras, shapewear (e.g. garments
that are intended to change the wearer’s shape such as girdles or other
elastane based undergarments) and hosiery (tights/pantyhose, stockings).
Underwear and knickers are often used as evidence in forensic investigations
18 R.R. Van Amber

Yoke
Collar

Front Pleat
placket

Cuff Sleeve placket

Fig. 2.3 Technical sketch of a shirt.

of alleged sexual assault, and the understanding of tearing behaviour of such

fabrics is only just beginning to be understood (e.g. Carr et al., 2016; Dann
et al., 2012).

2.2.2 Men
Garments worn by men are nearly as varied as those worn by women. Men’s
garments are often composed of the same fabrics as women’s garments, and
the only differentiation may be fabrics with a different mass or thickness, and
garments that are available in men’s sizes. Common garments like jeans,
shorts, t-shirts, polo shirts, dress shirts (Fig. 2.3), socks and underwear are
often composed of cotton or cotton/synthetic blends. Plain weave, twill
weave and single jersey knit fabric structures are all commonly found in
menswear. Although not specific to men, the suit is still a ubiquitous men’s
style, which is traditionally composed of fine worsted wool. However, mod-
ern men’s suits now come in a variety of fibre types such as polyester, cotton,
linen and blends, and fabrics such as seersucker, chambray, etc. Neckties are
still primarily worn by men and composed of polyester or silk satin or twill.
Sports and athletic wear are another strong component of the menswear
market, typically composed of manmade fibres and knit structures (e.g. poly-
ester or polypropylene mesh, pique or interlock).

2.2.3 Children
Children’s garments are much the same as men’s and women’s garments in
the types of garments produced (e.g. jeans, t-shirts, blouses, dresses, shorts
and sportswear) and the diverse fibres and fabric structures used. The main
point of differentiation between children’s and adult clothing are the flam-
mability requirements for children’s sleepwear (e.g. Nightwear (safety)
Another random document with
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 1. Large grained granite; the deep-flesh-coloured feldspar in
greater proportion than the greyish quartz, and the black, small-scaly
mica. “From the Mandara mountains.”
2. The same; with feldspar of dirty-yellowish colour. From the
Mandara range, and two similar varieties from the “hills of Dutchie
Zangia, Soudan.”
3. Similarly coloured variety, but of smaller grain. From the same
places.
4. Large grained variety of the same; the feldspar of a yellowish
colour, and in a state of incipient decomposition, with little black
mica. Mandara.
5. Variety similar to the preceding; in a state of disintegration: the
feldspar decomposing into a reddish earth. From Quarra and
Zurmee, Soudan.
6. Granite, both fine and coarse-grained, almost entirely
composed of flesh-red feldspar, with indeterminable particles of a
black substance, apparently mica. “From the high ridges of Zurma.”
7. The same, small-grained, rather slaty, approaching to gneiss,
composed of greyish-white feldspar and quartz, with predominant
black small-scaly mica. From Nansarena, Soudan.
8. Portion of a boulder, chiefly composed of fine-grained dirty-grey
semicompact feldspar and some quartz; with disseminated particles
of magnetic iron ore (a syenitic rock). “Found near Agutefa.”
9. Greenish-grey mica slate, with little admixed quartz and
feldspar. “It forms the upper part of the ridges between Quarra and
Zurma, Soudan.”
10. Yellowish-grey, soft, and friable mica slate. “From between
Duakee and Sackwa, Soudan.”
11. A hard slaty mass, composed of brilliant silvery small scales of
mica, penetrated by, or mixed with, brown and yellow hydrous oxide
of iron. From the same.
 12. White, massive, and irregularly crystallized fat quartz, stained
by oxide of iron. “From a vein in the rocks of Quarra and Zurmee.”
13. The same, out of the granite of the Mandara mountains.
13. a. Yellowish and bluish-white quartz in large grains, as gravel.
“From the bed of the river Yaou, seven days on the road to
Soudan[126].”
14. Greyish-black close-grained basalt. “From the hills in the
Sebha district.”
15. The same; with rarely disseminated grains of decomposing
olivine. From the same.
16. The same; vesicular (basaltic amygdaloid), cells empty.
Benioleed.
17. The same as the preceding, with disseminated granular
particles, and minute acicular crystals of specular iron, which also
mostly invest the irregularly shaped cells. “Benioleed; used for
grindstones.”
18. The same, of a greyish-brown colour; cells elliptic, and partly
filled with carbonate of lime. “Black mountains near Sockna.”
19. Greenish and yellowish grey, fine-grained crumbling
sandstone. “Found with the gypsum of the hills to the northward of
Om-el-Abeed.”
20. The same, brownish-yellow; “occurring in beds near Om-el-
Abeed.”
21. The same, reddish and yellowish, fine-grained, rather friable.
Wady Kawan.
22. Similar, reddish-brown variety of sandstone, but more friable
than the preceding. Tadrart ridge.
23. The same, of a colour between grass and leek-green, fine-
grained, very crumbling. “Traghen, under a gypsum crust; often in
beds of from ten to twelve feet. It has the appearance of some of the
soft sandstone in the mountain range near Tripoli.”
 24. Yellowish-white friable sandstone, and fine sand, strongly
impregnated with salt. “Under a calcareous crust, Fezzan.”
25. Similar sand of a very fine rounded grain. “From the Wady, in
which is the Trona lake.”
26. Yellowish clayey sandstone, filled with small rounded quartz
grains and minute white particles of small univalve shells,
(Paludina?) “Gaaf.”
27. Fine and close-grained yellowish-white sandstone, of a thin
stratified structure, which is distinctly seen at the disintegrated parts
of the fragment. “Wady Katefa, under the basalt; forming fine
precipitous walls in the middle of the range.”
28. Brownish-red friable sandstone; the rounded grains of various
sizes, loosely united by clay. “Sandstone of the hills of Wady Ghrarbi.
There is a finer and tender species, and also a stratiform one; but my
specimens are lost.”
29. The same, of a similar colour, intermixed with yellowish, less
crumbling, and containing pebbles. “From the hills to the westward of
Hamera, on which the town is built.”
30. Sandstone of yellowish colour and fine-grained, faintly
variegated with purple. Aghadem.
31. The same, fine-grained, white, with linear purplish streaks,
being the edges of horizontal filmy depositions of iron ochre of that
colour. Wady Kawan.
32. A similar variety, exhibiting purplish-yellow and red
variegations, thoroughly impregnated with salt, which is also seen
efflorescent on the surface. “Hills of Wady Ghrarbi.”
33. Similarly coloured sandstone, in laminar fragments, passing,
by decomposition, into soft clay variegated with the same colours.
Wady Kawar.
34. Tabular fragment of very close-grained nearly compact
variegated sandstone; colours, purplish and two shades of yellow, in
irregular stripes. “Sebha district.”
 35. Purplish-brown slaty sandstone, micaceous on the planes of
separation, passing into cream yellow and white clay-stone of the
same structure. “Aluminous slate (sic) in different states, forming a
considerable part of the mountain range, Tadrart, Tuarick country.”
36. A tabular fragment, like the preceding; micaceous on the rifts,
of reddish-brown colour, being thoroughly penetrated by oxide of
iron. Aghadem.
37. Yellowish sandstone, composed of round grains of quartz, with
white clayey cement, which, towards the surface of the rolled piece,
becomes quartzy. From ditto.
38. A similar large-grained variety, of reddish-yellow colour with
brown streaks, in which the cementing clay, become quartzy, is
scarcely distinguishable from the grains. “Forming the eastern
boundary of the hills near Traghen.”
39. A large fragment of the same quartzy sandstone, of yellow
colour, with red streaks and brown nucleus, nearly compact, so as to
exhibit on its conchoidal fractural surfaces the traces only of a
granular structure. “Strewed over the plain between Ghudwa and
Mourzuk.”
40. The same, brownish-red, in the shape of a rolled amorphous
fragment, having acquired a uniform glossy surface like red jasper.
From ditto.
41. Yellowish variety of the same, the granular passing into
compact structure. “Thick exposed beds from Om el Abeed to
Sebha.”
42. Yellowish-grey variety of the same, as perfectly compact
tabular fragments, having their surfaces studded with small
polymorphous bodies imitating the appearance of parts of secondary
fossils. From ditto.
43. The same as the preceding, having its surface marked by
small bivalve shells, converted into the mass of the sandstone. From
ditto.
 44. Sharp-edged fragments, of a variety like No. 39., of a deep
chocolate-brown colour and flat conchoidal fracture. “Between
Sebha and Timinhint; rocks about 250 feet high.”
45. The same, in which the quartz grains are very firmly cemented
by dark-red or brown siliceous iron-stone, sometimes enclosing
larger rounded grains and small pebbles; the whole forming a very
hard compact conglomerate with conchoidal shining fractural
surface. “From between Om el Abeed to Sebha, and near Zuela.”
46. Fragment of a mass of quartzy sandstone and compact brown
ironstone, externally stalactic reed-like, with black glossy surface.
“From the hills of Wady Ghrarby.”
47. Brown ferruginous sandstone, nearly compact, and with
drused cavities, enclosing yellowish nodules of magnesian
limestone. “Forms the upper part of numerous low hills, and the
surface of exposed parts on the road from Hamera to Zuela.”
48. A mass of yellow and brown ferruginous sandstone with
amorphous botryoidal surface, unequally penetrated by siliceous
brown oxide of iron, which produces the appearance of a mixture of
brown ochrey clay-ironstone. “Near Timinhint, forming the summit of
hills.”
49. Wood-hornstone; dark brown, with lighter coloured centre,
being part of a cylindrical stem or branch of a dicotyledonous tree.
“From between Mestoota and Gatrone.”
50. Flint composed of conchoidal distinct concretions, some of
them forming nuclei; the layers of alternating brown and white
colours, irregularly curved. “Quantities strewed over the plain from
Temasta to Bonjem.”
51. Yellowish-grey flint passing into hornstone, in irregularly
angular pieces, with brown glossy corroded surface. “La Saila; hills
of silex and opal.”
52. White hornstone; a boulder with corroded glossy surface.
“Strewed in large quantities between Wady el Beny and Wilkna, and
on the summit of gypsum hills.”
 53. Yellowish-white substance intermediate between hornstone
and calcedony, in angular pieces, with cream-coloured cacholong on
the surface. “On the way from Gatrone to Tegerhy.”
54. Brownish-red carnelian; a fragment, with irregularly botryoidal
yellowish decomposed surface. From ditto.
55. Several fragments of variously shaped rough sand tubes;
internal surface highly glazed. “From the sands near Dibla.”
56. Lithomarge, reddish-brown, here and there variegated with
bluish-green and greyish, in fragments with rather tuberculated
surface. “Aghadem, beds in the sandstone.”
57. The same, but penetrated by iron ochre, and much harder;
with small imbedded pyriform concretions. From ditto.
58. Brownish-red and yellowish-grey variegated slaty clay, very
soft and unctuous to the touch. From ditto.
59. Small-foliated amorphous gypsum, confusedly crystallized,
with adhering red marl. “From the curiously formed gypsum hills of
Bonjem to Hormut and Takui, with large quantities of opal on the
top.”
60. Some specimens of white, granular, and foliated gypsum; one
of the varieties composed of wedge-shaped laminæ. Bonjem.
61. Large-foliated white selenite. “Close to the Tchad, Kanem.”
62. Compact limestone, of bluish-grey colour, divisible into tabular
fragments. “Benioleed, under the basalt.”
63. Light cream-coloured nearly compact limestone, in tabular
fragments; fracture even, fractural surface slightly glimmering.
Benioleed.
64. Fragment of a similar variety of limestone, with conchoidal
fracture. “Benioleed, lowest observable stratum except one.”
65. Compact limestone, of a reddish and cream yellow colour,
variegated with pale brown, of very close texture, and small-
conchoidal fracture. “Hills to the north of Benioleed.”
 66. Fragment of a greenish-grey tabular magnesian limestone,
splendent on the fractural surfaces, the lustre produced by a curved-
lamellar, though (in one direction) apparently compact structure. “On
the ridges between Meshroo and Tegerhy.”
67. Yellowish-red, close-grained, nearly compact limestone, here
and there with minute scales; external exposed surface uneven,
glossy. “Temedetan, forming thick strata.”
68. Rolled fragment, of a reddish-yellow variety of magnesian
limestone, with glossy surface, and of earthy fracture, including
some dark-coloured grains, (oxide of manganese?) “Found in the
deserts, sometimes finely dendritic.”
69. Light cream-coloured hard (magnesian) limestone, with earthy
uneven fracture; the exposed surface shining, partly corroded, partly
smooth. “Hills of Gaaf.”
70. A similar variety. “From the Assoud, Wady el Malagi.”
71. A rolled fragment of yellowish-grey compact limestone
(magnesian), of even and dull fracture; the surface shining, wrinkled
by decomposition. “To the north and south of the Wells of Mafrass.”
72. The same variety as the preceding, in the shape of a large
conical lump, with uneven and corroded glossy surface, enclosing
rounded pieces of the same limestone. From ditto.
73. A similar variety of magnesian limestone, forming a botryoidal
group of more or less globular concretions, from upwards of half an
inch to half a line in diameter, and intimately grown together with
each other. “Meshroo and El Wahr.”
74. Yellowish limestone, of curved-lamellar structure. “Forming
veins in the basaltic rocks in Agutefa.”
75. Brownish-yellow limestone, in stalagmitical irregular layers.
“On the desert, between Mushroo and El Wahr.”
76. Another fragment, apparently part of a large stalagmitic
nodule, in layers on a yellow granular mass of carbonate of lime.
From ditto.
 77. Greyish-brown and hair-brown fibrous limestone, in tabular
pieces; the fibres perpendicular, or in an oblique direction to the
horizontal planes, straight or slightly curved. In some specimens, the
hair-brown layer is sard-onyx and onyx-like, succeeded by a red and
a white stratum, the former generally in the form of a crust, with
superficial small acute rhombohedrons of carbonate of lime; in
others, the hair-brown layer is traversed by white veins. “Boundaries
of Fezzan and Tuarick country.”
78. Sulphate of barytes; a group of bluish and brownish prismatic
crystals, (var. rétrécie of Haüy), covered by red marle.
79. Common salt, in white, opaque, granular aggregations,
externally stained by ferruginous clay. “Road between Hamara and
Zuela.”
80. A saline incrustation, of yellowish-white colour, partly solid, in
thin tables, partly in powder, composed of carbonate, muriate, and
sulphate of soda. “Near Germa.”
81. Carbonate of soda (trona), thick-fibrous foliated, in crusts of
the thickness of one-fourth to one-third of an inch, indistinctly
crystallized on the upper surface. “From the trona lakes in Wady
Trona.”
82. The same, studded on the upper surface with small limpid
cubical crystals of muriate of soda. From ditto.
83. Carbonate of soda, of yellowish and greenish-grey colour, in
masses with diverging radiated fracture. Kanem?
84. A rolled piece of nearly compact brown ironstone. “Upper
strata from Aghadem to the southward of El Wahr.”
85. Compact brown ironstone, of dark brown colour; an irregularly
tubercular nodule, with surface, particularly that of the old fractural
planes, glossy, the recent fracture exhibiting a dull earthy surface.
“From plains to the southward of Bonjem.”
86. Compact brown ironstone, of deep chesnut-brown colour, in
rounded oblong pieces of from one-half to upwards of an inch in
diameter, the whole glossy as if varnished; fracture even, earthy.
From ditto?
87. Fragment of compact brown ironstone, mixed with much
quartzy matter. Wady Kawar and Aghadem.
88. Massive and granular brown ironstone, mixed with much
yellow iron ochre and sand. “In loose masses or crusts, on the top of
the ridges between Sockatoo and Kashna, and on the low hills
around Sockatoo.”
89. Fragments of clayey brown ironstone with ochrey nodules.
“Wady Shiati hills.”
90. A mass, mixed, of brown ironstone and red and yellow iron
ochre. “From the soil of Wady Sandalion, Tuarick country.”
91. Cubic fragments of common galena, (sulphuret of lead).
Kanem, Soudan.
92. Pure tin, cast in moulds, in the form of thick wire. Brought from
Soudan.
I conclude this long letter with mentioning a specimen of Roman
cement, taken from the ruins of Ghirza, which, in parts where the
admixture of small stony fragments is not observable, has very much
the appearance of, and might easily be mistaken for, a granular-
crystalline variety of tertiary limestone. It has unquestionably
undergone a transformation: a circumstance which may, in some
measure, serve to justify the remark of Lepère—“C’est le temps seul
et non l’art qui manque à la pétrification absolue de nos mortiers et
cimens; nos neveux diront de nos constructions ce que nous disons
de celles des anciens.”
I have the honour to be, my dear Sir,
Yours very faithfully,
Charles Konig.
To Major Denham, &c.

FOOTNOTES:
 [126]Three very interesting bivalve shells, distinct, it appears,
from the other species of the genera to which they respectively
belong, have been discovered in the above-mentioned river by
Major Denham. The first, a species of Ætheria, I distinguish as

Ætheria Denhami: testa irregulariter rotundato-oblonga, ad

cardinem gibbosa, utriusque valvæ callo cardinali basim versus
oblique truncato.
Hab. in Africæ interioris fluvio Gammaroo.

The form of the cardinal callosity to which the semi-internal

ligament is attached affords a distinction sufficiently characteristic
of the species: its oblique truncating plane, which extends
towards the rather indistinct umbo, is, in the closed state of the
shell, in partial contact with that of the corresponding and similarly
formed callus of the other valve. The general form of the shell is
oblong or rounded, but appears to be subject to considerable
variation: one of the specimens before me exhibits the exterior of
Lamarck’s A. transversa, which latter is no doubt a casual variety
only of the other species described and figured by that naturalist.
These shells are externally furnished with a blackish-brown
epidermis; beneath this a white film is deposited, on the removal
of which a beautiful pearly naker appears, similar to that of the
internal surface of the valves. The blistered appearance of the
interior of both the valves is constant in all specimens, and may,
as intimately connected with the structure of the shell, be
considered of sufficient importance to be admitted into the
distinctive character of the genus.
Lamarck, imagining that these shells live at the bottom of the
sea, named the genus, as he says, after one of the daughters of
Oceanus. Though the Ætheriæ are now well known to be fluviatile
shells, the emendators of zoological nomenclature may still be
exonerated from framing a new name for this genus, since the old
one is derivable from the original locality of its species; a part of
central Africa having, according to Pliny, been anciently known by
the appellation of Ætheria.
The second shell, a new species of Iridina, may be thus
characterized:
 Iridina Oudnæi: testa transversa ovato-lanceolata
tumidiuscula, cardine stricto sub-edentulo, basis margine sinuato.
Hab. cum priore.

This species is very distinct from E. elongata in form and in the

hinge line being without crenulation; and from E. nilotica, which it
resembles in the latter of those characters, it differs by its form,
inferior thickness, and iridescence. The length of the specimen
before me is 4⅔, its greatest breadth at the umbo nearly two
inches. Placed on the basal edge, which is concave, the anterior
side presents a considerable slope from the umbo to the exterior
margin, which gives the valves a tapering or ovate-lanceolate
form. The external epidermis, of a greenish-brown colour, exhibits
slightly undulating striæ of growth. The interior surface is slightly
uneven-undulated, white, with delicate opalescent colours, green
and faint pink; the former chiefly disposed in spots. The muscular
impressions are more slightly marked than in the other species.
For the third shell, which I considered as a new species of
Anodon, I propose the name of

Anodon Clappertoni: testa transversim oblonga, antice in

extremo cardine acute excisa.
Hab. cum antecedentibus.

The notch at the anterior extremity of the hinge being always

acute, never obtusangular or rounded, I have confined myself to it
in the distinctive character of this species, which differs in several
other respects from Anodon purpureus and rugosus of
Swainson, to both of which it is, however, nearly related. The size
of the shell, in the several specimens before me, varies from 1½
by ¾ of an inch to 3 inches by nearly 1½. Its form is transverse-
oval, with a slight slope at the anterior end. The hinge margin is
straight. Epidermis olive-green, appearing of a reddish-brown
colour, owing to the pink colour of the surface underneath, which
latter in one specimen passes into bluish-green at the umbones.
Muscular impressions three; one of them, at the anterior end,
oval, and continued in a faint tapering form towards the hollow of
the umbo; of the two other impressions, which are both stronger
marked, the one nearest to the edge of the valve is oval, with a
small rounded sinus at the inner border, and close to it a smaller
irregularly oval mark with notched margin: the two principal marks
are connected by the edge of the impression of the mantle, the
smaller mark being placed within the line. The tinge of the internal
surface is pink, imperfectly painted over as it were with white. The
several specimens, in different stages of growth, exhibit all these
characters; there is, however, among them a single valve of
rather larger dimensions and more rounded than the rest, with a
fine bronze-coloured internal surface like that of Iridina nilotica.
Whether this is to be considered as a distinct species, or only as
a variety indicative of the full grown state of the shell, I must leave
to the decision of conchologists more experienced in
discriminating the ambiguous species of this genus.
 No. XXIV.

Thermometrical Journal kept at Kouka in Bornou.

Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
March 1823.
15 E.N.E. 70 98 103
Sunday, 16 S.S.E. 75 95 102
17 S.S.E. 78 99 104
18 E.N.E. 77 104
19 S.E. 98
20 E.N.E. 78 95 101
21 N.E. 82 100 105
22 E.N.E. 80 97 100
Sunday, 23 N.E. 78 90 94
24 N.E. 79 94 97
25 E.N.E. 79 97 101
26 E.N.E. 79 100 103
27 E.N.E. 79 101 103
28 E.N.E. 82 97 98
29 E.N.E. 80 97 100
Sunday, 30 N.E. 80 94 97
31 E.N.E. 80 94 96
April.
1 N.E. 77 98 101
2 N.E. 80 95 100
3 S.E. 80 99 101
7 N.E. 80 99 102
8 N.E. 80 99 103
9 E.N.E. 78 98 102
10 E.N.E. 77 97 99
11 N.E. 72 100 100
12 N.E. 78 104 107
 Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
Sunday, 13 N.E. 84 100 105
14 E.N.E. 82 100 105
15 N.E. 87 103 105
16 E.N.E. 86 95 105
17 E.N.E. 87 99 106
18 E.N.E. 86 103 109
19 N.E. 88 102 106
Sunday, 20 E.N.E. 87 102 107
21 E.N.E. 85 100 100
22 E.N.E. 86 102 103
23 E.N.E. 85 102 103
24 N.E. 83 101 103
25 E.N.E. 85 103 102
26 N.E. 85 103 103
Sunday, 27 N.E. 86 102 102
28 N.E. 83 101 103
29 E.N.E. 81 103 103
30 E.N.E. 82 103 103
May.
1 E.N.E. 85 106 106
2 N.E. 85 103 105
3 N.E. 83 105 98
Sunday, 4 E.N.E. 81 99 99
5 E.N.E. 82 95 96
6 E.N.E. 81 102 102
7 N. 86 104 103
8 N.E. 71 99 96
9 N.E. 81 99 96
10 N.E. 85 95 94
Sunday, 11 N.E. 86 101 95
12 Calm. 81 99 95
13 W.S.W. 75 98 98
14 W.S.W. 75 95 98
15 W.S.W. 74 97 97
16 W.S.W. 72 92 95
17 S.W. 74 97 98
 Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
Sunday, 18 W.S.W. 74 96 99
19 W.S.W. 73 96 99
20 W.S.W. 76 95 99
21 W.S.W. 74 102 100
22 W.S.W. 73 100 100
23 W.S.W. 84 104 101
24 S.W. 76 96 96
Sunday, 25 S.W. 73 96 96
26 S.W. 81 98 100
27 S.W. 76 99 100
28 S.W. 80 98 99
29 W.S.W. 81 97 102
30 W.S.W. 82 100 102
31 W.S.W. 80 100 102
June.
Sunday, 1 W.S.W. 76 97 97
2 W.S.W. 80 97 96
3 W.S.W. 81 99 99
4 W.S.W. 81 99 100
5 W.S.W. 80 99 100
6 S.W. 80 98 98
7 S.W. 75 95 100
Sunday, 8 S.W. 78 98 98
9 S.W. 79 95 97
10 S.W. 78 89 90
11 W.S.W. 75 89 93
12 W.S.W. 79 87 95
13 W.S.W. 80 95 95
14 W.S.W. 81 97 97
Sunday, 15 W.S.W. 82 99 97
16 W.S.W. 81 97 96
17 W.S.W. 81 99 101
18 W.S.W. 80 97 99
19 W.S.W. 79 89 93
20 W.S.W. 78 92 93
21 W.S.W. 77 92 95
 Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
Sunday, 22 W.S.W. 78 98 99
23 S.W. 81 95 87
24 S.W. 76 95 87
25 S.W. 80 97 96
26 S.W. 81 94 95
27 S.W. 87 96 98
28 S.W. 81 97 92
Sunday, 29 S.W. 82 96 97
30 S.W.
July. 1 S.W. 82 97 99
2 S.W. 81 92 92
3 S.W. 82 93 94
4 S.W. 74 85 84
5 S.W. 78 89 94
Sunday, 6 S.W. 78 89 96
7 S.W. 78 89 91
8 S.W. 78 90 92
9 W.S.W. 81 87 92
10 W.S.W. 77 92 95
11 W.S.W. 75 85 97
12 S.W. 75 85 88
Sunday, 13 S.W. 71 79 82
14 S.W. 72 82 89
15 S.W. 75 83 90
16 S.W. 76 87 90
17 S.W. 72 84 93
18 S.W. 76 83 89
19 S.W. 75 86 90
Sunday, 20 S.W. 74 87 89
21 S.W. 72 83 86
22 S.W. 73 84 87
23 S.W. 73 86 89
24 S.W. 74 84 90
25 S.W. 73 83 87
26 S.W. 71 84 86
Sunday, 27 S.W. 80 86 89
 Fah. Thermometer.
Date. Winds.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
28 S.W. 76 86 90
29 S.W. 73 84 87
30 S.W. 76 85 95
31 W. 76 85 92

Fah. Thermometer.
Date. State of Weather.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
1823.
Aug. 1 Rain all night. 75 82 86
2 73 78 79
3 Sunday. Rain in
evening. 74 80 82
4 78 82 83
5 76 82 84
6 Rain much. 73 77 78
7 74 78 81
8 Rain. 76 80 81
9 75 81 82
10 Sunday. Rain, loud
thunder. 74 77 80
11 76 81 83
12 Rain and thunder all
night. 79 83 85
13 75 80 81
14 76 80 85
15 Rain, thunder, vivid
lightning. 77 84 87
16 76 82 85
17 Sunday. 78 83 85
18 77 84 86
19 Rain and thunder during
the night. 79 85 86
20 Rainy day. 78 84 85
21 75 82 83
22 Much rain. 74 79 83
23 Morning cloudy. 74 80 84
 Fah. Thermometer.
Date. State of Weather.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
24 Sunday. Drizzling rain. 76 83 85
25 Night violent. 75 77 79
26 Night. 75 78 79
27 All night. 74 78 79
28 Day and night, showers. 73 77 79
29 Rain. 74 78 80
30 75 80 82
31 Sunday. Rain, much
thunder. 74 78 80
Sep. 1 74 79 81
2 76 84 86
3 79 85 89
4 80 85 88
5 Morning. Rain and
thunder. 80 80 81
6 78 83 84
7 Sunday. 78 85 86
8 Rain. 79 80 81
9 78 83 85
10 Night, hurricane, east. 80 86 88
11 South. 78 85 87
12 80 86 88
13 79 85 87
14 Sunday. 78 86 89
15 80 86 89
16 81 87 89
17 Cloudy afternoon. 81 88 89
18 80 85 87
19 Hurricane, east and a
half south. Strong 3
p.m. 80 87 85
20 80 84 87
21 Sunday. 78 85 87
22 79 87 89
23 78 86 88
24 80 88 90
25 82 89 92
 Fah. Thermometer.
Date. State of Weather.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
26 Violent storm, noon wind
N. hail and rain. 80 89 90
27 76 86 89
28 Sunday. 80 86 88
29 81 87 91
30 80 86 91
Oct. 1 Rain and wind in night. 80 87 91
2 78 84 85
3 80 85 88
4 Wind, thunder. 81 87 90
5 Sunday, rain and wind. 80 86 88
6 79 87 89
7 80 88 90
8 80 89 93
9 79 89 92
10 Breeze N.W. 78 89 91
11 77 90 92
12 Sunday, 79 92 94
13 78 92 94
14 79 91 93
15 77 92 93
16 83 92 94
17 81 92 94
18 80 90 93
19 Sunday, 81 92 94
20 79 92 94
21 80 92 94
22 81 93 95
23 75 90 92
24 76 85 88
25 77 87 90
26 Sunday, 77 88 91
27 78 90 92
28 78 90 91
29 79 91 93
30 78 88 90
 Fah. Thermometer.
Date. State of Weather.
6 a.m. Noon. 3 p.m.
31 79 89 92
Nov. 1 78 87 90
2 Sunday, 76 89 91
3 75 88 89
4 76 88 90
5 77 87 89
6 77 88 90
7 76 87 90
8 75 86 88
9 Sunday, 76 88 90
10 77 86 89
11 79 87 88
12 76 88 90
13 74 87 89
14 74 86 88
15 73 87 89
16 Sunday, 74 88 89
17 74 83 86
18 75 85 87
19 75 86 88
20 75 85 87
21 75 86 88
22 69 78 81
23 Sunday, 71 79 81
24 69 77 79
25 68 78 80
26 67 79 81
27 66 78 80
28 65 77 79
29 66 77 79
30 Sunday, 67 79 80
Dec. 1 66 79 81
2 67 78 80
3 66 79 81
4 65 78 80
5 67 80 82