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Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 649
Govind R. Kadambi
Preetham B. Kumar
Vasile Palade Editors
Emerging Trends in
Photonics, Signal
Processing and
Communication
Engineering
Proceedings of ICPSPCT 2018
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
Volume 649
Series Editors
Leopoldo Angrisani, Department of Electrical and Information Technologies Engineering, University of Napoli
Federico II, Naples, Italy
Marco Arteaga, Departament de Control y Robótica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Coyoacán,
Mexico
Bijaya Ketan Panigrahi, Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India
Samarjit Chakraborty, Fakultät für Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik, TU München, Munich, Germany
Jiming Chen, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Shanben Chen, Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
Tan Kay Chen, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore,
Singapore, Singapore
Rüdiger Dillmann, Humanoids and Intelligent Systems Laboratory, Karlsruhe Institute for Technology,
Karlsruhe, Germany
Haibin Duan, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing, China
Gianluigi Ferrari, Università di Parma, Parma, Italy
Manuel Ferre, Centre for Automation and Robotics CAR (UPM-CSIC), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,
Madrid, Spain
Sandra Hirche, Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Science, Technische Universität
München, Munich, Germany
Faryar Jabbari, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA,
USA
Limin Jia, State Key Laboratory of Rail Traffic Control and Safety, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
Alaa Khamis, German University in Egypt El Tagamoa El Khames, New Cairo City, Egypt
Torsten Kroeger, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Qilian Liang, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
Ferran Martín, Departament d’Enginyeria Electrònica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra,
Barcelona, Spain
Tan Cher Ming, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Germano Veiga, Campus da FEUP, INESC Porto, Porto, Portugal
Haitao Wu, Academy of Opto-electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Junjie James Zhang, Charlotte, NC, USA
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Govind R. Kadambi Preetham B. Kumar
• •
Vasile Palade
Editors
Emerging Trends
in Photonics, Signal
Processing
and Communication
Engineering
Proceedings of ICPSPCT 2018
123
Editors
Govind R. Kadambi Preetham B. Kumar
Research Division Department of Electrical
M. S. Ramaiah University and Electronic Engineering
of Applied Sciences California State University, Sacramento
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Sacramento, CA, USA
Vasile Palade
Faculty of Engineering and Computing
Coventry University
Coventry, UK
ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-15-3476-8 ISBN 978-981-15-3477-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3477-5
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Preface
Welcome to Springer Book Volume Emerging Trends in Photonics, Signal

Processing and Communication Engineering from selected papers from the inau-
gural International Conference on Photonics, Communication and Signal Processing
Technologies (ICPSPCT). ICPSPCT was held from July 18 to 20 2018 in Ramaiah
University of Applied Sciences (RUAS), Bengaluru, India. ICPSPCT was jointly
organized by Centre for Signal Processing and Communication System Research
(CSPCSR) and Photonics Research Centre (PRC) of RUAS, Bengaluru, India. It is
imperative that the resulting success of technological advancements in communi-
cation technologies which has revolutionized the outlook of the standard of living of
modern era is also attributed to interleaved contemporary evolutionary progress in
Signal Processing. In the emerging Opto‐Electronics Technology, Photonics has
established itself as a prominent research domain to reckon with through multiple
conceptual breakthroughs. Therefore it is but obvious that ICPSPCT served as a
platform for students, research scholars, academicians, industry professionals and
researchers to publish their innovative research concepts as well as contributory
research findings. This conference encouraged submission of research papers
highlighting analytical formulation, solution, simulation, algorithm development,
experimental research and experimental investigations in the broad domains of
Photonics, Signal Processing and Communication Technologies. This conference
envisaged and also encouraged publication of research papers from allied fields of
science and engineering depicting multidisciplinary research and industry-academia
synergy. The theme of the ICPSPCT included Signal Processing, Image Processing,
Communication, Microwave (Antenna/Measurements), Photonics, VLSI Circuits
and Systems, Communication Networks, System Design and System Engineering.
The program of this three-day conference included a pre-conference Invited
Expert Lecture series followed by the paper presentation. In the forenoon of Invited
Expert Lecture Series, Prof. Urbasi Sinha of Raman Research Institute, Bengaluru
delivered a lecture on “Quantum Information Processing” followed by a session on
“Wireless Communication Technologies: Challenges, Future Trends, and their
Relevance to India” by Prof. K. Giridhar, IIT, Madras. Prof. Bharadwaj Amrutur,
Department of ECE, RBCCPS, IISc, delivered a talk on “Internet of Things”. In the
v
vi Preface
afternoon session, Dr. Anil Kumar of TCS Innovation Labs, Bengaluru discussed
about the “Sparse Sensing” followed by a talk of Prof. R. Hariharan, RUAS, on “Deep
Learning Algorithms”. In the inaugural address of the conference, Dr. M. Nageswara
Rao, Director, Satellite Infrastructure Programme Office, ISRO HQ, Bengaluru,
highlighted the role of Photonics in Satellite Technology. Dr. Dipanjan Pan,
University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign, USA, delivered the keynote address
dwelling upon the “Molecular Medicine from Advanced Imaging to Therapy”. The
first invited talk by Dr. M. Girish Chandra covered the “Graph Signal Processing”. It
was followed by the talk of Dr. Varun Raghunathan, Department ECE, IISc,
Bengaluru, on “Photonics”. Dr. Jay Gubbi of TCS Innovations Lab, Bangalore,
delivered a session on “Robotic Vision”. An invited session on “Wireless Systems”
by Prof. Jyotsna Bapat, IIIT, Bengaluru, was also a highlight of the conference. The
last invited talk was by Dr. M. R. Ananthasayanam, Professor (Retd.), Department of
Aerospace Engineering, IISc, Bengaluru, on “Kalman Filters”. Out of the 118 papers
received, 45 papers were selected for presentation after going through the specified
review procedure.
The ICPSPCT 2018 witnessed a presentation of 33 papers by the authors. When
the nature of presented papers is viewed with the perspective of a more specific
topic, 3 presented papers were under the purview of MIMO covering
MIMO-OFDM, IDMA-MIMO-OFDM and antenna design for MIMO. The con-
ference had 5 papers aligned with the broad field of Biomedical Applications and
Devices comprising the specific topics of Hand Held Device for Early Detection of
Oral Cancer, Bite force Measurement, Time Series Analysis based Body
Monitoring and Reporting System and Assessment of re-mineralization potential of
Cranberry extract and novel varnish through Optical methods and Laser
Fluorescence. Photonics and Optics attracted 7 papers with special emphasis to
Photon Counter for Silicon Carbide Ultraviolet Photometer, Detection of CO2
through Optical Micro-Ring Resonator, Optical Orbital Angular Momentum sorter,
P-cycle Based Survivable Multicast RSA in Elastic Optical Networks, Protective
Shield in Phototherapy through Photonic based crystal and Refractive Index of
Deposited Sebum by using Total Internal Reflection. There was a paper on meta-
material for high performance of microstrip antenna. The broad domain of VLSI
attracted 4 papers dealing with 32 nm CMOS SRAM cells, An approach for
3-logical input optical look up table and optical memory, Model for Tunnel Field
Effect Transistor involving two dimensional potential and Low Power Robust 9T
Static RAM using FINFETs. Four papers under IoT and Network Security dealt
with IoT based Walking Stick, IoT based Rodent Monitoring and Avoidance
System in Large Scale Grain Storages, Security System and its interconnection with
lighting and quality correlation approach for efficient Web Object Caching. Under
the purview of the communication engineering, there were 6 papers with a focus on
Neural Network for universal digital demodulator, Singer Identification using
Time-series Auto-regressive Moving Average, Routing Protocol Performance for
V2X Communication, Speech Corpus Development for Voice Controlled MAV,
ZADOFF CHU Spreading Sequence for 5G Wireless Communications and Li-Fi
Technology for Future of Smart Vehicle Communication. The paper on Half tone
Preface vii
Visual Cryptography for Color Images using Error Diffusion and Direct Binary
Search constituted the lone paper under Digital Image Processing. Under
Automotive Electronics, the two presented papers had their focus on Automotive
Crash Detection using Multi Sensor Data Fusion and Monitoring system for Fuel
Efficiency. The editors would like to thank everyone at Springer for their assistance
in producing this volume.
Bengaluru, India Govind R. Kadambi

Sacramento, USA Preetham B. Kumar
Coventry, UK Vasile Palade
Contents
Design and Development of a Bite Force Measuring Device . . . . . . . . . . 1

P. D. Seema, V. Suchitra, Shweta S. Hooli, H. K. Pavithra,
Aditi S. Nagulpelli, Adel Khizar Hashmi, L. S. Praveen,
and Preetham Shankapal
Future of Smart Vehicle Communication
by Using Li-Fi Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Raunak Agrawal and N. Thangadurai
Detection of Fingerprint Pattern and Refractive Index of Deposited
Sebum by Using Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Tania Das
Zadoff Chu Spreading Sequence for 5G Wireless Communications . . . . 25
Vanita B. Kaba and Rajendra R. Patil
An MIMO–OFDM System Implementation Using Visible Light
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
R. Sindhuja, Arathi R. Shankar, and Subhashini Gopinath
Photonic Crystal Based Protective Shield for Medical Treatment
with Phototherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
S. Amuthavalli, Manisha Chakraborti (Manisha Chattopadhyay),
and Tapanendu Kundu
Simulation Study and Performance Comparison of Various SRAM
Cells in 32 nm CMOS Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
R. Krishna and Punithavathi Duraiswamy
Planar Waveguide Bragg Grating Pressure Sensor—Design
and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Madhuri R. Kulkarni, B. R. Manoj Kumar, Mayur Mohan Malghan,
G. Mohamedarif, and Rajini V. Honnungar
ix
x Contents
Two-Dimensional Potential-Based Model for Tunnel Field-Effect

Transistor (TFET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Netravathi Kulkarni and P. Vimala
Efficient Web Object Caching Through Query
Correlation Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
T. S. Bhagavath Singh and S. Chitra
Speech Corpus Development for Voice-Controlled MAV . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
D. K. Rahul, S. Veena, H. Lokesha, and P. Lakshmi
Single-Ended Low Power Robust 9T Static Random Access Memory
Using FinFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Pavankumar R. Vijapur and B. V. Uma
Halftone Visual Cryptography for Color Images Using Error
Diffusion and Direct Binary Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Sandhya Anne Thomas and Saylee Gharge
Designing of p-Cycle Based Survivable Multicast RSA in Elastic
Optical Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Susmita Das, Joy Halder, and Uma Bhattacharya
Design and Development of Metamaterial Based High Performance
Microstrip Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
N. Subramanyam Mahesh and D. Varun
IoT-Based Walking Stick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
S. Nagarajan and Sanket Dessai
Design and Implementation of Universal Digital Demodulator
Using Neural Network Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
J. Hariprasad, Ugra Mohan Roy, and Hariharan Ramasangu
Design Approach Toward the Development of Three Logical Input
Optical Look-up Table (OLUT) and Optical Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Durgaprasad Bhat, Ugra Mohan Roy, and Abdul Imran Rasheed
Automotive Crash Detection Using Multi-sensor Data Fusion . . . . . . . . 149
M. S. Supriya and N. D. Gangadhar
Optical Micro-ring Resonator for Detection
of Carbon Dioxide Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Karanam Pallavi Koushik and Sathish Malathi
Design and Development of Fuel Efficiency Monitoring System . . . . . . . 163
S. Raval Parth and D. Sagar
Design and Development of Prognosis Based Body Monitoring
and Reporting System Using Time Series Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Pari Patel, D. Sagar, and Nithin Rao
Contents xi
Analysis of Routing Protocol Performance

for V2X Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
R. Priya, R. Nithin Rao, and K. R. Narasimha Murthy
Assessment of Remineralisation Potential of Cranberry Extract
and Grape Seed Extract Dentifrice on Primary Teeth Using Laser
Fluorescence Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
C. Pushpalatha, N. Sneha, R. Deveswaran, and Latha Anandakrishna
Assessment of Remineralization Potential of Novel Varnish on Early
Enamel Lesions Using Different Optical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
C. Pushpalatha, Swaroop Hegde, R. Deveswaran,
and Latha Anandakrishna
Development and Validation of an Innovative Hand-Held Device
for Early Detection of Oral Cancer and Oral Potentially Malignant
Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Shwetha Venkataramana and Preetham Shankapal
Singer Identification Using Time-Series Auto-Regressive
Moving Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Ananya Bonjyotsna and Manabendra Bhuyan
Design and Development of Photon Counter for Silicon Carbide
Ultraviolet Photometer Used in Space Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Praveen Kumar Mogre, S. P. Karanth, M. A. Sumesh, Vijay, Dilip Yadav,
and K. Sreelakshmi
Design of an Optical Orbital Angular Momentum Sorter . . . . . . . . . . . 227
E. S. Shivaleela, Shreya Jaiswal, and Shweta Katti
Design and Implementation of IoT Based Rodent Monitoring
and Avoidance System in Agricultural Storage Bins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Rohini M. Kariduraganavar and S. G. Shivaprasad Yadav
Implementation of Security System and Its Interconnection
with Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
K. M. Akshay, Rahul Hebbar, R. Harshavardan, Roshan,
and P. S. Manjunath
About the Editors
Govind R. Kadambi is a Professor and Pro-Vice

Chancellor in M.S. Ramaiah University of Applied
Sciences. He has over 40 years of experience in both
industry and academia, and specializes in numerical
analysis and simulation, adaptive techniques in com-
munication and signal processing, and antenna
research, including analysis, measurement, design and
applications. He has authored 1 book chapter and over
100 research papers, and holds 41 patents in various
countries.
Preetham B. Kumar is a Professor in the Department

of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, California
State University, Sacramento (USA). His research
focuses on antennas, RF testing, EMI study, hyperther-
mia treatment of cancer. He has authored 6 book
chapters 14 technical reports and 59 peer-reviewed
articles in reputed journals and conferences.
xiii
xiv About the Editors
Vasile Palade is a Reader in Pervasive Computing in

the Department of Computing, Faculty of Engineering
and Computing, Coventry University, UK. His research
interests include machine learning/computational intel-
ligence, encompassing hybrid intelligent systems, neural
networks, fuzzy and neuro-fuzzy systems, nature
inspired algorithms (genetic algorithms, particle swarm
optimization), ensembles of classifiers, class imbalance
learning. He has authored 4 authored books, 3 edited
books and 5 conference proceedings, 7 book chapters and
110+ papers in journals and conference proceedings.
Design and Development of a Bite Force
Measuring Device
P. D. Seema, V. Suchitra, Shweta S. Hooli, H. K. Pavithra, Aditi S. Nagulpelli,

Adel Khizar Hashmi, L. S. Praveen, and Preetham Shankapal
Abstract Oral condition is a general health concern that has an effect on the quality
of life. The common dental issues are bruxism and misalignment of teeth among oth-
ers. The use of faulty prosthesis and dental implants also creates a problem leading to
discomfort and complications. In order to diagnose these, bite force measuring (BFM)
device is used to measure the bite force exerted by the teeth/jaws. This information is
considered to be a significant parameter as it helps comprehend biomechanics of the
prosthetic devices and in classifying the severity of bruxism. But, the existing devices
are expensive and not available easily. In order to overcome this, a cost-optimized
BFM system has been designed and developed to measure as well as display the bite
force measurements graphically and numerically. The BFM device is indigenously
designed using sensors placed on an impression tray and is interfaced to the MyRIO
microcontroller and programmed in LabVIEW. The graphical coding ensures data
acquisition, voltage to force conversion and displays the force results in the front
panel. In addition to the software display, the code also controls the ON–OFF of
LEDs placed on an external denture model. The LEDs indicate the positions where
high bite force is exerted. The limitation of this project is that the sensors yield force
values from 0 to 10 N but human bite force is ~700 N. Hence, a sensing system could
be designed in order to measure greater force. On the bright side, the fabricated BFM
device is compact, economic and can assist dentists in understanding and diagnosing
dental problems.
Keywords Bite force measuring device · LabVIEW · MyRIO · Flat force sensors
P. D. Seema (B) · V. Suchitra · S. S. Hooli · H. K. Pavithra · A. S. Nagulpelli · A. K. Hashmi ·

L. S. Praveen · P. Shankapal
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Electronics and Communication, M S Ramaiah University
of Applied Science, Bengaluru, India
e-mail: seema.biomedical@gmail.com
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

G. R. Kadambi et al. (eds.), Emerging Trends in Photonics, Signal Processing
and Communication Engineering, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 649,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3477-5_1
2 P. D. Seema et al.
1 Introduction
Dental health in humans is linked to the quality of life which in turn impacts the
day-to-day activities and overall contentment in life. Dental issues often go unno-
ticed as they do not report the problem to the dentists and in most cases even if
they do, poor diagnostic procedures are carried out. The most common dental com-
plications include bruxism which is 8–31% prevalent in the general population [1],
misalignment of teeth and inability to bite and move the masticatory muscles. The
aforementioned dental problems are accompanied by severe headache and excruci-
ating facial pain. The lack of usage of appropriate diagnostic tools and practices by
the dentists for the said problems lead to wrong diagnosis eventually giving rise to
furthermore complications. The prevalence of dental issues is significantly high and
needs proper diagnosis and the right treatment.
One of the common parameters taken into consideration for the dental diagnostic
purpose is the bite force measurements. Bite force is defined as the force exerted by
the lower mandible against the upper mandible (or vice versa) during a voluntary
dental occlusion in dentulous and edentulous people. The device used to measure
this force is known as gnathodynamometer or occlusometer or simply bite force
measuring (BFM) device [2]. The unit used for the bite force measurement is Newton
(N). The device particularly works well in computing the bite force exerted by the
incisor and molar teeth since the maximum bite force is exerted by them. Knowing
the magnitude of the bite force is beneficial in comprehending the functional state
of the dental system, in diagnosing the problematic tooth/teeth and classifying the
stages of bruxism.
The fact that the existing BFM devices are not easily available and are super
expensive along with other shortcomings mentioned further has been a motivating
factor in order to design and develop a cost-optimized BFM device. One of the BFM
devices that are currently being used is the TekScan which costs a whopping amount
of 10–15 lakhs INR for the device alone and an additional cost for the tactile sensors
which costs roughly around 700–1000 INR while the other BFM devices also cost
around the same range [3]. The expenditure incurred in buying such BFM devices
is huge; thereby the demand for the same is less. Moreover, the tactile sensors used
in this device do not work standalone, they work only when fitted in that particular
device. These BFM devices are not readily available in countries like India but
are extensively used in foreign countries like USA, UK and so on. Another BFM
device—the miniature silicon bite force recorder employs a single sensor intended
to record the bite force of a single tooth at a time [4]. This process seems to be very
cumbersome and time-consuming and the material of the sensor is damage-prone.
Also, in order to counter the problem of faulty diagnosis, there is a need for a better
diagnosing tool. The BFM device that is designed and developed serves the right
purpose to counter the aforementioned problems.
The developed project of BFM device aids in diagnosing various orofacial and
dental issues. It also helps in comprehending the biomechanics of the masticatory
muscles involved in dental occlusion. The device is useful in measuring the bite
Design and Development of a Bite Force Measuring Device 3
force of edentulous patients before and after having a denture set and also for esti-
mating post-surgical evolution. The information on bite force measurements aid in
understanding the characteristics of occlusal pathologies such as bruxism. Since the
device is cost-optimized, there will be no mammoth expenses in buying the same and
thereby used by many dentists to diagnose the patients accurately. To top it all off,
proper diagnosis of dental problems will be done and also helps in the comparison
of alternative treatments to be given, thereby significantly improving the overall oral
health of the population.
2 Methodology
In order to design the BFM device, the FSR 400 series flat force sensors are mounted
on plastic full arch dental impression tray and neatly soldered, which is connected
to the potential divider circuit on PCB board. The sensors are compact in size and
the sensing region is around 7.62 mm in diameter. It is therefore apt and viable for
usage in the dental application for bite force measurement and 10 units of FSR 400
series flat force sensors were positioned on the tray juxtaposing the teeth positions
from the impression taken using dough shown in Fig. 1b and a, respectively. These
sensors can measure force range of 0–10 N. Ten units of sensors are incorporated
since the MyRIO controller can accommodate only 10 analog I/O channels.
The connections from the PCB board are given to the MyRIO microcontroller
interfaced with LabVIEW software. The output is processed and captured in the
same. The LabVIEW program receives the data from the MyRIO microcontroller
and processes it to project the force values on the user display. The other display is the
LED-affixed denture model, which indicates by the glow of LED if the force value
is exceeding the given threshold. The other part of the program verifies each sensors
value and compares it to the set maximum safe value. The sensors are virtually (in
program) given to the digital pins, acting as output from the MyRIO. The digital
Fig. 1 a Teeth impressions. b Sensors positioned accordingly

Fig. 2 Hardware system interfacing
pins of MyRIO are connected to the LEDs through resistors. The digital pins of the
corresponding sensors go high which is measuring the force above the set value.
Fig. 2 shows the complete hardware system interfacing.
The software performs four important functionalities, namely, data acquisition,
processing, control and display. The step-by-step algorithm is elucidated as follows:
Step 1: The sensors are connected to the MyRIO microcontroller and interfaced
with LabVIEW. Through block diagram coding, these signals are received as analog
inputs. These are stored in the form of an array.
Step 2: The analog voltage values stored in the array are retrieved using a loop
and converted to the corresponding force value in Newton.
Step 3: Control action is performed by monitoring each of the acquired force
values. The array containing force values is accessed one-by-one in a For-loop. Each
element is compared with the assumed threshold value of 7 N. If the force sensed
by the sensor is greater than 7 N, then the digital output pin to which the LED is
connected is made high. If the value is less than 7 N, then digital output remains low.
Simultaneously, a software LED indicator is also used to show high and low values.
Step 4: The converted force values can now be displaced as a bar graph. Also,
these force values are numerically displayed along with the teeth positions.
3 Results and Discussion
The BFM was tested by housing it in a zip lock pouch and inserting it in the mouth
to be bitten. The sensors placed on top of the tray will come in contact with the teeth
and measure the force exerted when it is voluntarily bit. The testing of the device was
done by connecting it to the MyRIO microcontroller and LabVIEW as elucidated in
Fig. 3 Front panel display of LabVIEW
Sect. 2. As the device is bit, the resistance of the sensors will change. The change
in resistance is obtained as a corresponding voltage by using the potential divider
circuit. The varying voltage signal is acquired by the MyRIO which acts as the data
acquisition unit. The LabVIEW code is executed and the front panel or the control
panel begins to display the force exerted at various teeth locations. This is seen as
green-colored bar graphs on the panel. The accurate force values are also displayed
on the super-imposed teeth image just above the graph, both shown in Fig. 3. The
force values are compared to the threshold and if exceeded, the green led indicator
turns ON and the LED drilled to the denture set will also turn ON.
It can be seen that the force exerted by the teeth is visualized in the bar graph. This
enables the dentists to better correlate the force value with the tooth position. The
nomenclature of the tooth position is according to the dental standards and sensor
placement and is already discussed in the earlier sections. Thus the tailored display
is intended to facilitate quicker diagnosis and comprehension.
In addition, the numeric value of force is also displayed above the graph. The
value, in Newton, will vary between 0 and 10 and displayed as numeric displays.
Since the bar graph does not give the exact value, the numeric displays are used. It
gives a more precise value of the exerted force as a floating point numeric. Wherever
the force is greater than 7 N, the LED indicator is turned on. Similarly, the LEDs
connected to the denture set will also glow.
By looking at the glowing LEDs and the force values on the display panel, the
dentists will be able to understand the jaw activities and the associated occlusal
mechanics. Also, the oral camera can be used to monitor the faulty tooth. It provides
a vivid picture of the tooth in real time. This analysis and force measurement can be
done simultaneously for accurate diagnosis.
Depending on the force of the voluntary human bite, the magnitude and position of
the force sensed by the force sensors will vary. This is carefully acquired, processed
and captured in LabVIEW. An additional denture set model with LEDs drilled at the
tooth positions will also indicate the spots of high and dangerous force values.
Thus a cost-effective bite force measurement device is designed, fabricated and
interfaced with the microcontroller. It is then tested by actually placing it in the
mouth and visualizing the obtained force values, using graphical and using numeric
displays as well as a denture model with LEDs.
4 Conclusion
The developed BFM device is an effective cost-optimized tool to measure human

bite force. However, with a few further improvisations, the device can produce more
accurate results. This prototype incorporated only 10 force sensors owing to the
availability of analog I/O channels. Although they are strategically placed to measure
the major pressure teeth, however by placing more sensors, the force value at every
tooth location can be measured. By using more closely packed sensors, the BFM
device can be used on all patients with varying teeth alignment and jaw structure.
More the number of sensors, greater the number of force values acquired. Currently,
10 force values are seen, but on using more sensors, the force at other teeth like
wisdom teeth, incisors and so on can also be determined.
Since this is a prototype, signals were individually communicated using wires.
However, in real time, signals can either be transmitted using a single twisted pair
cable with appropriate protocols, or they can be transmitted wirelessly using Blue-
tooth or over Wi-Fi. These methods will still ensure cost optimization but with
superior device handling comfort and portability. The limitation of the designed and
developed BFM is that the output range varies only from 0 to 10 N. A better sensing
method can be developed in order to withstand greater force, and sensors that give
output in the range of ~700 N, which is the generic range of human biting force, can
be employed.
With the above improvisations, the BFM device can provide ultimate force mea-
surement in a patient-friendly manner. The device can become more accurate and
portable and measurements may be taken more comfortably. Thus, this device can
certainly aid dentists to reduce the instance of various dental and implant failures.
This results in healthier and happier oral conditions across masses.
Acknowledgments Heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Latha Anandakrishna Professor, Head and Associate
Dean—MSRUAS Faculty of Dental Sciences, who was involved in improving our work through
her financial aid, feedbacks and suggestions.
References
1. Manfredini D, Winocur E, Guarda Nardini L, Paesani D, Lobbezoo F (2013) Epidemiology of

bruxism in adults: a systematic review of the literature. J Orofac Pain 27(2):99–110
2. Koc D, Dogan A, Bek B (2010) Bite force and influential factors on bite force measurements: a
literature review. Eur J Dent 4(2):223–232
3. Tekscan (n.d) Pressure mapping, Force measurement and tactile sensors. https://www.tekscan.
com/
4. Singh S, Utreja AK, Sandhu N, Dhaliwal YS (2011) An Innovative miniature bite force recorder.
Int J Clin Pediatr Dent 4(2):113–118. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10005-1093
Future of Smart Vehicle Communication
by Using Li-Fi Technology
Raunak Agrawal and N. Thangadurai
Abstract Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be used much more than lighting. Stud-
ies show that LEDs, which have been used just for machine-to-human interface, that
is, either showing status of LED in printed circuit boards (PCBs) or illumination
purposes, can also be used for communication between one hop and another at sig-
nificantly low cost. LED has become a familiar technology for a variety of lighting
applications, such as automotive, because of their superior efficiency and quality
than halogen lamps. The process of transmission of data through light is termed as
light fidelity (Li-Fi). Unlike wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi), which uses radio frequency,
Li-Fi is a fifth-generation (5G) visible light communication (VLC) system which
provides better capacity, efficiency, availability and security than Wi-Fi. By sending
the data through light spectrum which comprises arrays of LED as an optical wire-
less medium act as signal propagation. In fact, the usage of LED eliminates the need
of complex wireless networks and protocols. Exploiting minimal effort of lightning
components and LEDs, there are a few windows of chances to utilize this medium,
from open web source to get access, vehicle correspondence through road lights,
which goes about as a free access point to self-sufficient cars that can impart through
their headlights. This paper proposes the idea for vehicle-to-vehicle communication
using light, which stimulates the way to pass data about driving conditions and driver
behavior between automobiles. This enhances safe driving and makes road use more
efficient.
Keywords Visible light communication · Light-emitting diodes · Sensors ·

Vehicle-to-vehicle communication
R. Agrawal · N. Thangadurai (B)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, School of Engineering and
Technology, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bangalore 562112, Karnataka, India
e-mail: mrgoldjain2015@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3477-5_2
10 R. Agrawal and N. Thangadurai
1 Introduction
Wi-Fi is not used in aircrafts, healthcare, and underwater communications due to

electromagnetic waves that cause interference between the devices operating at same
frequency and disrupt the communication between radio stations. Inter-vehicle com-
munication is used to communicate between two vehicles and to analyze the pattern
of signals so that smart and secure transportation system is achieved. The vehicles
could form a mobile ad hoc network among several vehicles that have communi-
cation devices [1]. Each vehicle is equipped with a communication device within a
decentralized network and can act not only as a communication node but also as a
wireless router. The ad hoc network is a temporary network that is created by the
absence of any centralized or pre-established infrastructure. This transforms each
taking an interest vehicle into a remote wireless switch or hub, permitting vehicle,
around 100–300 m of each other to associate and, thus, make a bunch of network
system with a scenic. When the signals range is far from the network range then
current vehicle drops out of the flag range and different vehicles can participate,
interfacing vehicles to each other with the goal that a versatile web connection is
made. The advantages of using light signals over other approaches are that they don’t
need the complex management and processing of signals from hundreds or thousands
of cars in the area, rather in the vicinity of the front and rear vehicle. This makes the
communication suitable for real-time control function of vehicle [2]. This innovation
attempts to create electronic security advancements, for example, vehicle-to-vehicle
separate control, helped stopping, path changing, side and back cautions, and comfort
advances, for example, all-around-perception, head-up show, and driver state check-
ing to maintain a strategic distance from impacts. Photovoltaic cells be a replacement
for windows of the cars, the system can be made to run independent with the power
being supplied with the available solar energy. Based on the LEDs ON and OFF be
responsible for the distinctive series of 0s and it is conceivable to encode information
in the light by changing the rate at which the LEDs glimmer. At the point when LED
is on, it transmits 1s and generally 0s. The LED power is regulated so quickly that
human eyes can’t see, so the yield seems steady and subsequently offering lasting
network. These quick exchanging can be accomplished by PWM method to transmit
computerized information stream containing strings. To get this, we are customiz-
ing the microcontroller to shift the obligation cycle of the pulse width modulation
(PWM) technique which has the assignment of directing the current in the LED.
The one-sided ebb and flow is nourished to LED driver unit. The energy of LED
is changed by the waveform of information flag. At the collector side photodiode
sensor creates a present relative to the momentary power already obtained. From this,
data can be filtered that can be used to control application systems like motor, lamp
and relay, provide internet connectivity and so on [3]. The system can be employed
using existing vehicle electronic device management such as controller area network
(CAN) bus control signals because of phase-shifting nature of LED. It is important
to manufacture the LED with proper analysis of power, control, data transmission
and detection signals for efficient performance of devices. Coordinate observable
Future of Smart Vehicle Communication by Using Li-Fi Technology 11
pathway is not essential for Li-Fi to transmit a flag signal, since light reflected off
the dividers can likewise accomplish an estimated speed of 70 Mbps.
2 Literature Review
The term Li-Fi was coined by professor Dr. Harald Hass at TED global talk in 2011,
where he surprised audience by streaming high-quality video from a standard LED
lamp. His observation alluded to this light signal as D-light that can be utilized to
create information on data rates higher than 10 Mbps, which is significantly faster than
our normal averaged broadband connections. Muntazir Mohd Tali et al. in their paper
elaborate about the light communication, image processing, symbol recognition and
wireless communication using Zigbee [4]. Saito et al. describe the road-to-vehicle
communication and implemented using LED transmitter and camera receiver, which
employs a special complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor
[5]. Vaishali et al. propose to use space–time division multiple access (STDMA) for
real-time data traffic between vehicles, which was investigated using highway road
simulation scenario with promising results [6]. Thangadurai et al. discuss about the
general working and construction of Li-Fi along with the comparisons of Wi-Fi and
Li-Fi and applications of Li-Fi [7, 8]. Jia-yuan et al. in their paper make use of certain
algorithm and show two scenarios using NPN switching circuit and ASCII conversion
[9, 10]. Several research works have been carried out on working mechanism of Li-Fi
on how it provides better bandwidth, efficiency and better availability and security and
on how it has immense possibilities comparing with other wireless communication
mediums; but only a few researches have been carried out on practical implementation
of Li-Fi. Research has been done on how Li-Fi can be used in illumination and data
transmission between devices and also for transportation. The reviewed papers depict
about the existing trends and how light fidelity can significantly make a global impact
toward better innovation. There are many existing applications where it can be used,
such as home internet, aviation, underwater communication, medical centers, but the
research is still going on about the technology. Similarly, some papers highlight the
use of LED in traffic lights. The fundamental idea about Li-Fi comprises an overhead
light fitted with an LED and flag handling innovation which streams information
implanted in its beam at very high to the photograph indicator. A collector dongle
at that point changes over from amplitude to electrical signals with little changes,
which is then changed over once more into an information stream and transmitted to
a PC or a cell phone.
3 Working Principle
An LED light fitted with signal processing technology is used to stream data at ultra-
high speeds to the photo detector. In every vehicle the LED lights act as transmitter
and beneficiary in both rear and front sides of the vehicle. The LEDs are situated in
Fig. 1 General working principle
both the side front and back-lights of the car which also contain the photo detector
to locate and get the light signal.
The transmitter and receiver, as shown in Fig. 1, are the two major parts in the
Li-Fi system. By using the LED array signals output in the form of 0 and 1s, when
the bulb flashes the transmitter part modulates the input signal with the required time
period. The output will be presented when the beneficiary part finds these flashes
using a photodiode and increases the flag. Consequently, all that required is a few
LEDs and a controller that is used to code information into those LEDs. Each of the
one needs to do is to fluctuate the defer rate at which the LEDs glimmer contingent on
the information need to encode. Assist improvements can be made in this technique
for parallel information transmission, or using blends of red, green and blue LEDs to
modify the light’s recurrence with every recurrence encoding an alternate information
channel.
4 Proposed System
The existing system makes use of light detection and ranging (Lidar) and computer
vision technique to detect the information about millions of small points surrounding
the vehicle every second. Li-Fi is used because it is a fast and secured version of Wi-
Fi and it is more cost-effective and sustains life-term goal. It uses VLC channel that
has spectrum 10,000 times the entire RF spectrum. The major advantages of Li-Fi
over the existing system are better bandwidth, working in areas that are susceptible to
electromagnetic interference and offering higher transmission speeds. The vehicles
used are self-driven and the headlights which already exist can be modified a little
and can be used for communication. These schemes use less power and operate
in low cost. The system implementation consists of two vehicles in line of sight.
The implementation, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, provides a scenario where car1 is
functioned as transmitter and car2 as receiver.
Fig. 2 Transmitting circuit in vehicle
Fig. 3 Receiving unit in vehicle
The speed sensor senses the data to the controller, which will compare between
current and previous speed of transmitting car and if it is decreased, it has a keen
senses that when brake applied in car the data will be transmitted to LED driver, which
also produces constant current to protect LED. The data along with unique vehicle
id will be transmitted wirelessly to photodiode through light in the form of current
so that another vehicle can identify the source. From another vehicle, the speed
information can be received by photodiode to perform necessary action accordingly,
like decrease its speed to avoid collision. So also, trigger circuit will detect the
adjustment in path of vehicle and illuminate the transmitting circuit, regardless of
whether the car is turning left or right. The distance between two vehicles can be
calculated from ultrasonic sensor, which is used to sense the time interval to send
the signal and receive the echo for the signal. The distance between the vehicles can
be apparently calculated as:
Distance = Speed of sound × time taken/2; Speed of sound in air is 344 m/s.
The modulation technique used is on–off keying (OOK). The voltage is varying
from 0 to 5 V which represents the information from the data source. Other sensors
like infrared (IR), pressure, temperature, gyroscope, altimeter can also be integrated
accordingly. A camera can also be integrated in front vehicle as shown in Fig. 4,
which can capture traffic signals and symbols so that the required information can be
transferred to other following vehicles using Li-Fi. Autonomous vehicles can also
make use of GPS, radar and sensors to accurately measure vehicle’s orientation and
rotation of its wheels to recognize the exact location.
Because of line of sight (LOS) feature of Li-Fi, transmission of data from one
vehicle to another takes place easily. A huge communication network has been formed
Fig. 4 Real-time scenario of Li-Fi between two vehicles
when each and every single vehicle will transmit information from one to another
through LOS. When former vehicle wants to make a turn, it will glow its indicator and
the car behind it will capture image with camera using image processing techniques.
When any symbol is recognized, the vehicle doing so will send the message to the
other vehicles alerting them. This will assure help in maintaining road ethics and will
provide safety of the drivers giving warning to them. Similarly, other sensors such as
alcohol, eye-blink sensors can be added for piloted vehicles to sense the particular
entity and take suitable action. At the same time, if accident happens, relay is turned
off, so that ignition of the vehicle is deactivated.
Transmitter:
X (t) = Pt {1 + m 0 d(t)} (1)
X(t) = Pt {1 + m0 Σ[ak p(t − kT )} (2)
where LED power transmitted averages is represented as Pt, m0 = optical modulation

index (OMI) of LED, X(t) = OOK signal.
Receiver:
Background noise is one of the major noise which is received along with the signal
that affects it in the channel. Received light signal is given as:
Pr (t) = hX(t) + n(t) (3)
where OOK signal = X(t); DC gain of channel is represented by h; and additive

white Gaussian noise (AWGN) = n(t).
The converted electrical form signal from optical signal is
I(t) = R{hX(t) + n(t)} (4)
The ratio of the desired output signal power to the supplied input noise power is
known as signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and is represented as
SNR = S ÷ N (5)
where desired signal power = S; total AWGN = N.
S = R2 P2r (6)
where light signal received power is Pr and photo detector responsively is R

Equation (7) gives the calculated total noise as
σtotal
2
= σshot
2
+ σthermal
2
(7)
σshot
2
= 2qγ Pr B + 2q Ibg I2 B (8)

σthermal
2
= (8π kTk ÷ G) ηAr I2 B2 + 16π 2 kTk ÷ gm η2 A2r l3 B3 (9)
where 1.602 × 10−19 C is constant electronics charge q; bandwidth of the system B,

Boltzmann’s constant k, absolute temperature Tk , voltage gain G, h = fixed capac-
itance of PD per unit area, = field effect transistor (FET) channel noise factor,
gm = FET trans-conductance, area of the PD is Ar , noise bandwidth factor I2 for
background noise and I3 = 0.0868.
5 Limitation and Future Scope
The signal can be blocked because of fog or there may be too much light ‘noise’
in summer, making camera difficult to pick up the signals. One of the issues the
researchers are facing is to make system perform effectively in all lighting and
weather conditions. As the LED is an opto-electronic device, other instruments also
need to be deployed to measure and manage these effects. Some exceptions could
be managed in software used for the control functions being fed by the signals.
The system could be further enhanced for autonomous vehicles. VLC seems like a
pragmatic and relatively straightforward technology to adopt across the automotive
market, allowing some of the benefits to be introduced at an early stage as it is in fact
complimentary to these approaches. It seems there is a great opportunity to improve
road safety, vehicle efficiency and traffic management by simply extending the capa-
bilities and features that already exist on many current vehicle designs, while other
vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V)-enabled driver aids will come later as more complicated
systems are developed. More refined procedures could significantly build VLC infor-
mation rates. Concentrating on parallel information transmission utilizing varieties
of LEDs like arrays or blend of LEDs to change light’s frequency, Li-Fi will make
our lives innovative urge in the near future. Li-Fi technology is more costly at initial
stages that can be minimized to some extent, and then this concept can be widely
used for auto-piloted vehicles.
6 Conclusion
We have presented characteristics and capacities of V2V applications which mainly

focused on Li-Fi transmitter and recipient. In rush hour gridlock signals, Li-Fi can
be utilized to communicate with the LED lights of the cars, and mischance accidents
can be diminished. Li-Fi is perfect for high thickness scope in a restricted area. It
is trusted that the innovation can yield a speed which exceeds 10 Gigabits for each
second (Gbps). It is the quickest and least expensive remote correspondence which
is reasonable for long separation correspondence. Li-Fi will make all lives more
innovation-driven sooner rather than the later. Eco-friendly transmission is feasible
through light fidelity.
References
1. Charahte DV, Wagh PR, Avhad PV, Mankar SV, Mankar NS (2016) Design of vehicle to vehicle
data transmission application using Li-Fi technology. IOSR J Comput Eng 26–29
2. Mali SU, Shinde SS (2017) Vehicle to Vehicle Communication. Int J Sci Res 6(3)
3. Ng SC, Zhang W, Zhang Y, Yang Y (2011) Analysis of access and connectivity probablities in
vehicular relay network. IEEE J Sel Areas Commun 29(3):140–150
4. Tali MM, Patil A, Chavan S, Jadhav S (2017) Inter-vehicle communication using Li-Fi
technology. Int J Adv Res Comput Commun Eng 6(3)
5. Saito T, Haruyama S, Nakagawa M (2014) A new tracking method using image sensor and photo
diode for visible light road-to-vehicle communication. In: Proceedings of the 10th international
conference on advanced communication technology 1, pp 673–678
6. Khairnar VD, Kotecha K (2013) Performance of vehicle-to-vehicle communication using IEEE
802.11p in vehicular Ad-Hoc network environment. Int J Netw Secur Its Appl 5(2)
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Comput Technol Appl 5(1):150–154
8. Thangadurai N, Dhanasekaran R, Karthika RD (2013) Dynamic traffic energy efficient topology
based routing protocol for wireless ad hoc sensor networks. Int Rev Comput Softw 8(5):1141–
1148
9. Jia-yuan W, Nian-yu Z, Dong W, Kentaro I, Zensei I, Yoshinori N (2012) Experimental study
on visible light communication based on led. J China Univ Posts Telecommun 19(2):197–200
10. Kumar N, Terra D, Lourenco N, Alves LN, Aguiar RL (2011) Visible light communication for
intelligent transportation in road safety applications. In: Proceedings of the 7th international
wireless communication mobile computing conference, pp 1513–1518
Detection of Fingerprint Pattern
and Refractive Index of Deposited Sebum
by Using Total Internal Reflection
Tania Das
Abstract The conventional and well-established technique of fingerprint recording

is to record the intensity distribution of the fingerprint through total internal reflection
(TIR). The present work proposes a polarization-based non-interferometric technique
based on total internal reflection for a quantitative assessment of the refractive index
of the sebum associated with the fingerprint as well as its unique pattern. Although
the conventional technique of TIR is employed, two polarization-shifted intensity
data frames are recorded and combined to arrive at the desired result. It is expected
that this additional information may yield a new dimension to forensic science.
Keywords Total internal reflection · Phase difference · Fingerprint · Refractive

index
1 Introduction
Analysis of fingerprints has been extensively used for the past few decades in different
fields, especially in crime investigation. Fingerprints are also used in biometrics for
identity verification [1, 2]. Although different types of patterns and ridges are seen
on a fingerprint, it is the presence of minutiae, which are abrupt changes in the ridges
that are vitally important to fingerprint detection [3, 4]. Minutiae detection is solely
based on the quality of the fingerprint image [5]. Analysis of fingerprints is essentially
a pattern recognition system based on acquiring data from an individual. A set of
features are extracted from the acquired data [6, 7]. This paper proposes a simple
polarization-based setup for high-resolution detection of not only the fingerprint
patterns and its analysis but also a quantitative evaluation of the refractive index
associated with the sebum, through a simple two-frame algorithm. The sebum that
oozes out from the pores is a mixture of water, potassium, urea, lactate, amino acids
and bicarbonate, and an over-abundance of one of these constituents is reflected in
T. Das (B)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Heritage Institute of Technology,
Chowbaga, Kolkata 700107, India
e-mail: taniadas.physics@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3477-5_3
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
RELATIONS WITH MASTER BAKERS.
In the middle of 1896, the Master Bakers’ Association held a
meeting to consider the price of bread. Out of 48 firms represented,
44 voted against making any reduction in price at the moment, while
four were in favour of a reduction. After the meeting those four firms
met and agreed to reduce the price. They got other three firms to join
with them; with the result that on the morning of 15th June an
advertisement appeared in the Glasgow papers which stated that
these seven bakers had reduced the price of their bread. The
committee of the Baking Society met that evening, and they decided
that while the price of flour did not warrant the reduction, yet, in
order that the Federation might maintain its position it was their
unanimous finding that the price should be reduced by one
halfpenny on the four-pound loaf. At the same meeting it was agreed
that, as the sale of “common” bread was very small, the Federation
should cease baking it altogether, and produce only the one quality of
bread in future—“fine.” This decision was adhered to for six months,
at the end of which period it was agreed to begin the baking of
“common” bread again. At a later period this connection with the
Master Bakers’ Association was called in question at a quarterly
meeting, and gave rise to a lengthy discussion. Mr Glasse of the
Wholesale board was the chief critic, and moved that the Federation
be not represented at these meetings in future. Several of the
delegates, in supporting this motion, pointed out that some of the
master bakers present at these meetings of the association were men
who had signed an agreement to do their best to put down Co-
operation, and one delegate described the association as a syndicate,
the members of which wished for big profits and cared for no one but
themselves. It was pointed out by the chairman that this was not a
properly-constituted association, but an informal gathering of people
engaged in the same business. The Federation had been invited to
send a representative, and had got some useful information there,
but were not committed in any way. Finally, on being put to the vote,
the motion of Mr Glasse was defeated in favour of an amendment
that the committee act as they had been doing. The question was one
which cropped up periodically at meetings of the Federation, but
always with the same result of leaving the Federation unfettered to
do the best they could in the interest of the concern they were
appointed to manage.
SOME NOTEWORTHY ALTERATIONS.
For several years the rates of interest which had been paid for
loans had been 4½ per cent. for money deposited on twelve months’
notice of withdrawal and 4 per cent. on money at call, but the rate of
interest in the money market had shown a decided downward
tendency for some time, and towards the end of 1896 the directors
recommended that the rates to be paid by the Federation should be
reduced to 3½ per cent. and 3 per cent., a recommendation which
was adopted by the general meeting. At the same meeting a reform
which certain members of the committee and certain delegates had
advocated for some years—the raising of the value of the share from
10/ to 15/—was at last agreed to. This had the effect of adding 50 per
cent. to the capital of the Society. At the same time the influx of new
societies into the Federation and of new members into the societies
continued at a rapid rate, so that from this source also the capital of
the Society was being increased so rapidly that it was practically
keeping pace with the big capital expenditure necessitated by the
rapid growth of the Society’s business.
In June 1897 Mr Robert Fraser, who had been foreman baker for a
number of years, left the service of the Federation to take up another
situation, and the committee took advantage of the fact to make
some important rearrangements in the management of the bakery.
This was done by dividing the productive work into three sections:
bread, biscuits, and pastry. Mr Murdoch Richard, who had been
assistant to Mr Fraser for several years, was given full charge of the
bread department; Mr John Gilmour was made manager of the
machine-made biscuit and oatcake sections; and Mr William
Seivewright was placed in charge of the pastry and hand-made
biscuit section.
In September of the same year Mr Allan Gray, who had been one
of the auditors of the Society for the long period of seventeen years,
retired owing to pressure of other business, and was awarded the
hearty thanks of the delegates for the long and faithful service he had
given. Mr William H. Jack, of St George Society, was elected his
successor. At the general meeting held on 4th December 1897, it was
decided that the Federation join the International Co-operative
Alliance. Earlier in the same year they had taken up 500 shares in
the Scottish Co-operative Laundry Association Ltd., and, owing to
their large purvey and tearoom department, were likely to be one of
the largest customers of that concern. Indeed, so great was their
laundry bill that at one time the directors gave serious consideration
to the question of starting a laundry department of their own, for the
girls in the packing and oatcake flats were supplied with overalls
which required laundering every week. The Federation also adopted
the policy of providing the girls who served in the tearooms with
dresses. In the spring of 1898 the Society became members of the
Scottish Co-operator Federation. Owing to the large proportion of
employees, particularly in the stable department, who were going off
ill, a medical man was engaged to call at the factory regularly and
supervise the health of the employees. This year the Society started
the manufacture of plum puddings, and were making strenuous
efforts to develop the pie trade. An expert piemaker was engaged, the
societies were circularised, and a small van and a fast pony were
purchased so as to ensure quick delivery. At the quarterly meeting
held in March 1898, the chairman stated that, owing to the number
of societies which were starting bakeries of their own and were
withdrawing their loan capital from the Federation for this purpose,
the committee had decided not to proceed further with the stores
which they had proposed to erect in the new premises. The work had
been stopped meantime, but it could be proceeded with at any time
desired. He also asked for permission to reopen the private loan fund
again, the interest to be paid being 3½ per cent. at twelve months’
notice and 3 per cent. at call, and this permission was granted. He
explained that they were not altogether in want of money, but
desired to have a little more liquid capital than they had in hand at
the moment. After one or two questions had been asked, the
permission desired was granted.
THE FARMING ASSOCIATION.
When the Scottish Co-operative Farming Association was formed
the Baking Society took a keen interest in it, and for such products as
were of use to it was always a good customer. At a later date in the
history of the association an overdraft of £200 was granted.
Unfortunately, from causes which were fairly obvious, the
Association, after some years of fair success, fell on evil days, and
during the period with which this chapter deals the committee
approached the Baking Society to take one of the farms rented by the
Association. The board of the Baking Society viewed the idea with
favour, believing that a farm would be a useful auxiliary to their
distributive department, while it would be to the advantage of the
movement if the Farming Association could be preserved from
collapse; and when the question was brought before the general
meeting of the Society the majority of the delegates were also in
favour of the scheme, and gave full power to the committee to
proceed. Thus armed with full powers the members of the committee
were wise enough to take expert advice before committing
themselves definitely, and delegated two practical farmers to
examine the farm and report. The reports presented by these
gentlemen were unanimous, and were to the effect that the farm was
very badly drained and in poor condition; the rent was too high, and
it could not be made to pay either as a cropping or as a dairy farm. As
a result of this report, and in view of the fact that inside two months
the Farming Association went into liquidation, it was decided to have
nothing more to do with the proposal.
The Society had still some further trouble to face in connection
with the Association however. A large quantity of hay had been
bought and paid for, to be delivered as required, but when the
liquidators came to examine the stock on the farm they claimed this
hay as part of the assets of the Association, and a considerable
amount of negotiation took place before the matter was settled. The
final result was that, by the failure of the Association, the Federation
lost £346, 14s. 7d.
ACCIDENTS.
Probably it was owing to the much greater number of vehicles now
owned by the Federation, and the much larger number of persons
employed, that the accidents recorded in the period with which we
are dealing exceeded in number all those which have been recorded
hitherto. Fortunately, many of them were not of a serious nature, but
during the four years three fatal accidents took place. In one case a
man was knocked down by a van belonging to the Society and killed,
but the police report was to the effect that no blame attached to the
driver of the van. Out of sympathy with the widow thus suddenly
deprived of her breadwinner, however, the committee gave her a
grant of £40. In another case a bricklayer lost his life, again without
blame attaching to the Society, and in this case a grant of £20 was
made to the widow; while the third case was that of a plumber
employed by the Society, who died as the result of an accident at the
bakery. In this case also a grant of £30 was made.
THE OATCAKE DEPARTMENT.
During the period under review an extraordinary development of
the business of the oatcake department took place, and an aggregate
addition of thirty-eight hot-plates for the use of this department
alone was installed between March 1894 and July 1897. The
committee did their best to push the trade, sending circulars and
samples of the cakes to societies in the North of England, with results
which were beneficial to the trade of the department. Later, a
traveller was employed on salary and commission to push the
Federation’s goods amongst English societies. Another branch of the
Society’s trade which was making rapid strides every year was that of
New Year cakes. In 1896 18,870 five-pound cakes sold at the cake
show, and in the following year the number rose to 25,000.
ADVERTISING AND ENTERTAINING.
The directors early recognised the value of a social meeting as a
means of advertising the Society and its goods, and in December
1894 a large number of the ladies of the movement were invited to
inspect the premises of the Society and were afterwards entertained
to tea. From that time it became a practice of the Federation to
entertain branches of the women’s guild, conference associations,
etc., while they were generous in grants of bread to persons who were
suffering from the effects of unemployment, whether caused by
dullness in trade or strikes. During the winters of 1892–3 and 1893–
4 large quantities of bread were distributed to those in want from the
former cause, while during the continuance of the miners’ strike and
the engineers’ strike further quantities were distributed and, in
addition, a grant of £100 was made to the strike fund of the
engineers. In 1895 an incident took place which at one time seemed
likely to lead to friction between the two big Scottish federations. The
Wholesale Society brought before its members a proposal to start a
biscuit factory in Leith, with the result that the committee of the
Baking Society sent out a circular to all the societies in the larger
federation, protesting against the proposal as one which would set up
competition between the two federations, and pointing out that it
was in a position to meet all the needs of the societies in biscuits.
Fortunately, the proposal went no further, and thus what would have
been a bone of contention between the societies disappeared.
The Society also took advantage of every opportunity to bring the
goods manufactured under the notice not only of Co-operators but of
the general public. Beginning with the Congress exhibition in 1890, it
continued to exhibit on every available opportunity. The Co-
operative festivals which began to be organised provided suitable
opportunities and, in order that the goods might be displayed as
effectively as possible, a new showcase was procured from the
Wholesale Society’s cabinetmaking department, at a cost of £200. In
1895 it was decided to issue a “Year Book” instead of the usual
calendar. This “Year Book,” which was compiled by Mr Lochrie, of
the Scottish Co-operator, contained 231 pages, including
advertisements and a street map of Glasgow, in which was shown the
premises of the Wholesale Society and the Baking Society, as well as
the tearooms of the latter Society. The principal feature of the book
was a concise little history of the Baking Society to the date of its
issue. In the following year Mr James Campsie, M.A., was
commissioned to write a co-operative book for children, with the title
“Glimpses of Co-operative Land,” of which over 20,000 copies were
issued. At the opening of the extension of the bakery in 1897, in
addition to the souvenir brooches which were issued to the lady
delegates, similar brooches were presented to the lady employees of
the Society, a kindly and thoughtful act which doubtless had its effect
in cementing the good relationship existing between them and the
directors. Amongst other visitors who were shown over the premises
of the Society from time to time special mention is made in the
minutes of a visit which was paid by the senior pupils from four
Glasgow schools, accompanied by their teachers, who were escorted
through the various departments and afterwards entertained to tea.
DONATIONS.
In the early days of the Society the directors were very careful of
the money of which they were the trustees, although, even then, after
the first few quarters had passed, donations, amounting at first only
to £5 a quarter, but gradually increasing in amount as the Society
increased in wealth, were given to various public philanthropic
institutions, of which the infirmaries were the principal recipients.
Now these donations had increased to £175 a year, while, in addition,
during the period under review £50 had been granted to the Co-
operative Festival Fund; three donations, amounting in the aggregate
to £550, had been given to the building fund of the Co-operative
Convalescent Homes Association; £50 was given to the Perth
Congress Reception Fund; £100 to the Engineers’ Strike Fund; £25
to the Cowdenbeath Society Fund; £100 in commemoration of
Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee to the Royal Infirmary; two sums
of £15 and £25 to the Municipal Election Fund of the Defence
Committee; and £100 to the Indian Famine Fund; while £500 were
guaranteed to the 1901 Glasgow Industrial Exhibition.
A WORKS DEPARTMENT.
With the beginning of the period the Federation’s works
department may be said to have been fairly launched. The first
extension of the biscuit factory had been carried out under the
Society’s own auspices, and the foreman who had charge of that work
was retained in the employment of the Society for repair work when
the biscuit factory was finished. Then a blacksmith’s shop, which was
a part of the buildings purchased by the Society in South York Street,
was taken over by the Society, and a blacksmith was engaged; to be
followed shortly afterwards by a plumber and a painter. The first job
of any size to be tackled by the Society’s own building department,
however, was the extension at the corner of Govan Street and South
York Street. This job set the building department on its feet, for the
total cost when finished was £29,000. From that time practically all
the building work of the Society has been done by its own building
department. At about the same time as the building department
commenced a van building section also began work, and the first van
was turned out complete in the middle of April 1896. So great was
the demand for new vans, however, that for a time it could hardly be
met. To some extent the boycott accounted for this, for the terrorism
exercised by the traders’ organisation extended to the van building
firms as well as to others, and eventually all the work of this
department was done either by the Federation’s own department or
by that of the Wholesale Society.
A FOUR YEARS’ RECORD.
Before closing this chapter it may be well if we take a look at what
had been accomplished during the four years with which it deals. At
the close of the twenty-fifth year the Society was baking 1,254 sacks
per week, while the turnover for the 117th quarter was 32,987 sacks,
or 2,537 sacks per week; so that, in four years and a quarter, the
trade had more than doubled. The output of the biscuit factory had
been doubled; the output of the oatcake department had been
increased manyfold, and notwithstanding the fact that several
societies which were taking all their bread from the Federation at the
beginning of the period had started baking for themselves before its
end, the output in the bread baking department had come within a
few sacks per week of doubling. An addition to the bakery had been
erected at a cost of £29,000; new stables and workshops were in
course of erection and nearing completion; the purveying
department and tearooms had been greatly extended; a branch had
been opened in Leith, for which extended accommodation had
already to be secured, and a footing for the productions of the Society
had been found South of the Border. The Federation had stood the
test of the most virulent attacks which all the malice of enemies
could devise, and, like the whole movement, had emerged stronger
than before; while last, but by no means least, an educational fund
had been started and an educational committee established. These
four years show a record of growth and expansion which was
phenomenal, and completely dwarfed all that had been done before.
It lay with the period which followed to show that, rapid though it
was, there was nothing which was mushroomlike in this growth.
CHAPTER XII.
CONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT.
PROPAGANDA IN IRELAND—MR M‘CULLOCH READS A

PAPER—SEEKING TRADE IN ENGLAND—C.W.S.
OBJECTIONS—THE SOCIETY AND ITS EMPLOYEES—A
GENERAL MANAGER—THE TEAROOMS—THE DELIVERY
QUESTION—GLASGOW EXHIBITION—IRISH VISITORS—
EXTENSIONS—A PROVIDENT FUND DISCUSSED—STABLE
INSPECTOR RESIGNS: POSITION ABOLISHED—
IMPROVING FINANCIAL POSITION.
The development, which had been so marked a feature of the

Society’s business ever since the removal from St James Street to
M‘Neil Street, continued during the next four years, if not with such
markedly rapid progress as during those which have just been
reviewed, at least at a rate which must have proved eminently
satisfactory to directors and shareholders alike. One of the results of
the slight slackening down of the rate of growth was that the
directors had more time to devote to the thorough reorganisation of
the business and to bringing all the knowledge and experience which
they had gained to bear on its extension. They were not unmindful of
the need for extension and reorganisation at the bakery itself, and
this work received a good deal of attention during the period, but
they also kept in view the desirability of bringing in new trade from
every quarter where it could be procured, and so we find strenuous
efforts being made to develop connections in England and Ireland, as
well as to widen the scope of their operations in Scotland.
PROPAGANDA IN IRELAND.
The first attempt to do business with Irish societies was made in
the summer of 1898, when Mr Petrie, traveller, and Mr Hamilton,
director, visited a number of societies in the North, with the object of
inducing them to do business with the Baking Society. This visit
proved to be an eminently satisfactory one. Several good orders were
secured, and at the Irish Conference, which had been attended by Mr
Hamilton, it had been agreed that the president of the Baking Society
should be invited to read a paper on “Federated Baking Societies” to
a later conference. This conference took place on the 27th of August,
when, in addition to Mr M‘Culloch, Mr Deans of the Scottish Section
was present, and, at the request of the delegates, gave a report of the
position of the boycott in Scotland. In the course of his report, Mr
Deans pointed out that Mr Robert Walker, the organising secretary
of the Traders’ Defence Association, had already turned his attention
to Ireland, and had held in Belfast a preliminary meeting with the
merchants of that city. He had received an invitation to address a
larger meeting at an early date, but Mr Deans expressed his
confidence that, if an attempt was made to introduce the boycott
there, the Co-operators of the North of Ireland would know how to
deal with the situation.
The address of Mr M‘Culloch was published in full in the local
Wheatsheaf of the Lisburn Society, and from that report it appears
that he began his address by quoting from Ben Jones: “If Co-
operation is to be as rich in benefits to working people as its
advocates have always expected it to be, it must be successfully and
universally applied to the production and manufacture of all the
commodities that are used or consumed by the human race.” With
this as his text he proceeded to develop his theme by pointing out
that bread was the safest and best commodity with which to begin
production, for it was the most important of all commodities. In
times of dull trade they could do without everything which might be
considered a luxury, but they could not do without bread. “The
question which was before the conference that day,” he proceeded
—“Is it possible or is it desirable to have a Federated or United
Bakery?”—depended so much on local circumstances that he was
sure they would not expect him to give a definite answer, and what
he proposed to do was to tell them what had been done in Scotland.
After describing the progress of the U.C.B.S. from its inception, he
examined the position in the North of Ireland. There, there were five
societies—Belfast, Lisburn, Portadown, Cullybackey, and
Londonderry—with an approximate membership of 919 and a trade
of £5,930 a quarter. Of these societies Londonderry was 101 miles
distant, and it might be better at present not to consider that society,
but, if they took the other four, they found an approximate trade in
bread and smalls of £720 a quarter. This represented a trade of 20
sacks per week to start with. Their distributive expenses, if they
decided to start, would be greater because some of their trade would
be 7, 25, and 32 miles away; but on the other hand the possibilities of
Belfast itself were so great that he thought they need have no
difficulty in answering in the affirmative the question which they
were considering, and saying that a Federated Bakery was both
possible and desirable. Continuing, he said that if they decided to
begin he would advise them to lease a small bakery with two ovens or
more. They would thus require so much the less capital, and would
gain time to acquire experience and confidence in themselves, and to
inspire their members with the necessary confidence to invest their
capital. If, on the other hand, they could not get a bakehouse, or
preferred to build, he had prepared a plan for a bakehouse with two
ovens, a barm cellar, flour store, stable, and van shed, which would
cost approximately £600.
After some more practical hints had been given by Mr M‘Culloch,
the paper was thoroughly discussed, and the conference committee
recommended that the paper should be read and discussed at a
general meeting of each of the societies. This paper is of very
considerable interest in a history of the United Co-operative Baking
Society, for it may be claimed for it that it was the foundation of that
bond of unity between the Co-operators of the North of Ireland and
the U.C.B.S., of which the magnificent building at Ravenhill Avenue
is the outward and visible token.
Meantime Londonderry Society had become a member of the
Baking Society a week or two before this conference was held, and
was followed a little later by Lisburn Society. Belfast Society did not
join up until the end of 1900, and was followed by Armagh in June
1901.
SEEKING TRADE IN ENGLAND.
The work in England proceeded on somewhat different lines.
There the Society worked on the plan of appointing travellers on
commission. These activities of the Society, however, were not
viewed with favour by the C.W.S. directors, and in May 1899 a
meeting of representatives of the two boards took place, at which the
situation was discussed. The English Society complained of the
action of the Baking Society in putting travellers on the road, and
stated that from the report of the quarterly meeting which had
appeared in the Co-operative News they had learned that it was the
intention of the Baking Society to alter their rules so as to permit of
the admission of English societies to the Federation. They contended
that hitherto there had been a clear line of demarcation, and they
regretted that the Baking Federation now saw fit to overstep this. In
reply the representatives of the U.C.B.S. stated that they were not
going into England for the purpose of competing with the C.W.S., but
with the object of getting the Scottish trade there which was going
past the movement at present, and they stated that if the C.W.S. had
consented to become agents for the Baking Society when the last
interview took place the present difficulty would not have arisen. The
Baking Society representatives were pressed to withdraw their
traveller, and, although they would not consent to do this, they
promised that before any English society was admitted a member of
the Baking Federation, the Wholesale Society would be acquainted
with the fact.
Again in September of the same year a request that the Baking
Society’s travellers should be withdrawn from England was received
from the Wholesale Society, but this the directors refused to do.
Instead of withdrawing, two additional representatives were
appointed in the following year, and, some time later, Mr Forshaw,
the Society’s traveller in the East of Scotland, was sent on a visit to
Newcastle-on-Tyne and Gateshead, which resulted in good orders
being received and shortly afterwards in Newcastle-on-Tyne Society
joining the Federation. At the quarterly meeting, which was held on
2nd September 1899, the rules of the Federation were altered to
permit societies which were not customers for loaf bread to become
members on taking out not less than fifty shares in the Federation,
and at the same meeting it was agreed to raise the value of the shares
from 15/ to 20/ each. The date of the quarterly meetings was altered
from the first Saturday to the third Saturday of the month, and the
basis of membership was altered so that, instead of a second delegate
being allotted for £160 of purchases, the purchases of the largest
society, divided by fifty, formed the basis of representation. It was
also agreed that in future the balance-sheet be issued half-yearly
instead of quarterly.
THE SOCIETY AND ITS EMPLOYEES.
Hitherto the relations of the Society with its employees had been
cordial, but with the growth of the Operative Bakers’ Trade Union
restrictions began to be applied which sometimes worked a little
unfairly against the Society, particularly in its competition with firms
in which the bakers were not well organised. The directors always
came to an amicable arrangement with the Union, however. A rather
remarkable decision by the Union is referred to in the minute of 19th
August 1898, which states that “A deputation from the Bakers’ Union
had waited on us anent our foreman having suspended thirty men
for two half-days. This had been done owing to our stock
accumulating, and this was explained to the deputation, who stated
that the Union preferred the dismissal of men and jobbers taken on
when required.” The minute proceeds, “Although this was much
against the wish of the committee, they had no alternative but to
dismiss eight men from the smallbread department.” The question
was raised at the next quarterly meeting, and the chairman
somewhat amplified the statement contained in the minute by
stating that the difficulty had been with the biscuit bakers. At that
season of the year, the trade in hand-made biscuits went down owing
to the holiday season, and as it was not desirable that these biscuits
should be kept too long in stock the foreman had suspended the men
for two afternoons. The usual procedure was to do the pastry in the
mornings and the biscuits in the afternoons, and the foreman
thought it better to suspend the men than to do without the services
of any of them. The Union pointed out that their great difficulty was
to prevent this practice creeping in all over the city, as it might
become a serious thing for the men. The sub-committee had a
meeting with the men, and a vote was taken on whether they
preferred to be suspended or that some of their number should be
dismissed, when, by a very large majority, they voted in favour of
suspension. The following week, however, they held another meeting
under the auspices of their Union, at which they reversed their
former decision, and intimated that they were now unanimously in
favour of dismissal, so that the committee had no alternative but to
agree and engage “jobbers,” although this meant increasing this class
of worker.
At this time there was also some friction amongst the workers in
the oatcake factory. When the oatcake factory was started, the
women engaged mixed their own meal, but, later, with the object of
introducing machinery into this section of the factory, a man was put
in to do the mixing, as an experiment. The man was mixing for
twenty-four women, who had only to do their own cutting and firing.
The chairman explained that, as the result of a week’s experiment,
the foreman had fixed the number of parcels to be baked by these
women at nineteen, which was the average of the numbers produced
by all these women. All the women said the mixing of the dough was
the heaviest part of the work, and the result was that those who were
getting their dough mixed for them were finished before those who
had to do their own mixing, and, in addition, with the new
arrangement, the dough was more evenly mixed. The subject was not
pursued further at that meeting, but from what took place at the
following meeting, it seemed that it had been much canvassed in the
interval, especially in Kinning Park Society. According to the
chairman,
[2]“There had been some discontent after the last general meeting, and they
were just getting over it when certain statements were made in Kinning Park
Society which again caused discontent amongst the girls. Previous to this
question being raised, the girls were doing all that was asked of them without
complaint. The system was an experiment, and would have been past that
stage now had the question not been raised. It was the intention of the
committee to consider the girls’ wages in event of the trial being successful,
but even that had been prevented now. As a result of the discussion, the work
was not being done. The Society was not getting one third of the work which
was being got by other bakers in this department. It had been stated also that
the department was in an insanitary condition, and the gentleman who made
the statement confessed that he had done so simply from report. It had been
said that the girls were being slowly poisoned. The books of the Society,
however, showed that that was not so, but that the average sickness here was
not half of other departments where extreme heat had not to be contended
with.”
2. Co-operative News, 10th December 1898.
After some discussion and an expression of opinion that the
chairman had vindicated the position of the board, the subject was
again dropped. At a later period it was stated that the arrangement

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Wi-Fi is not used in aircrafts, healthcare, and underwater communications due to

Fig. 1 General working principle

Fig. 2 Transmitting circuit in vehicle

Fig. 3 Receiving unit in vehicle

Fig. 4 Real-time scenario of Li-Fi between two vehicles

X (t) = Pt {1 + m 0 d(t)} (1)

X(t) = Pt {1 + m0 Σ[ak p(t − kT )} (2)

where LED power transmitted averages is represented as Pt, m0 = optical modulation

Pr (t) = hX(t) + n(t) (3)

where OOK signal = X(t); DC gain of channel is represented by h; and additive

I(t) = R{hX(t) + n(t)} (4)

where desired signal power = S; total AWGN = N.

where light signal received power is Pr and photo detector responsively is R

where 1.602 × 10−19 C is constant electronics charge q; bandwidth of the system B,

5 Limitation and Future Scope

We have presented characteristics and capacities of V2V applications which mainly

Abstract The conventional and well-established technique of fingerprint recording

Keywords Total internal reflection · Phase difference · Fingerprint · Refractive

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 17

PROPAGANDA IN IRELAND—MR M‘CULLOCH READS A

The development, which had been so marked a feature of the

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