EFFECTS OF KIDNAPPING ON SOCIO-ECOCOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN GUMA

LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF BENUE STATE

BY

PRINCE DAVID YILBEL

0619225012579

BEING A PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE

STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLNEBT OF THE REQUIRMENT FOR THE
AWARD OF MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.SC) DEGREE IN SOCIOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
NASARAWA STATE UNIVERSITY KEFFI

SUPERVISOR:
ASSOC. PROF. UDO. OSISIOGU

JULY, 2023

1
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Nigeria is a state under consistent internal security threat from various ethno-religious

conflict, headers farmer, political insurgency and kidnapping for ransomed. At a more

general level the threat has social, economic, political and environmental dimensions. Each

of these dimensions greatly affects the nation’s stability and wellbeing. Threats to national

security can be said to range from the menace of separatist demands, militancy, terrorism,

kidnapping, armed robbery and a host of other ills and vices which have negatively affected

the security situation of the society.

Few years ago while on my way to Benue state during yuletide season I came across on the

spot violent crime scene where travelers where intercepted and carted away into the forest.

Kidnapping has overtime become endemic in the Nigerian society including Benue state.

Nigeria’s burgeoning kidnapping industry “you can turn a country into police state but

kidnapping will continue to flourish if you do not address the economic and create jobs.

This micro economic reality stirs all of us in the face” (Dakuku 2022). It is fast becoming a

lucrative alternative to armed robbery and other related vices. Presently, the rate of

kidnapping in Nigeria in spite of the effort of police and other security agencies has been

quite worrisome and poses a great challenge to the national security of the country (Egwemi,

2010). It has stalled business activities in some areas as well created fear in the minds of

Nigerians. On the other hand, the perpetrators, who are mostly youths, are lost to such

criminal activities instead of being gainfully employed as productive citizens for Nigeria’s

development. The kidnapping of some students (Chibok girls) in Borno state was regarded

as the height of the insensitivity of kidnappers. This has prompted the government of

2
Nigeria to initiate strategies to check kidnapping in the country. The various states in

Nigeria is initiating steps at establishing stringent laws to dissuade would-be kidnappers.

There is however the need for government to initiate more strategies to curb the menace of

kidnapping which threatens the national security of Nigeria.

Security forces have rescued 14 of at least 20 students abducted from a university in

northwestern Nigeria and are searching for the remaining captives (Al Jazeera, 26 Sep

2023), school authorities say. Gunmen attacked the school in Zamfara state’s Bungudu

district last week and fled with the students and some workers in the first mass school

abduction in Nigeria since President Bola Tinubu took office in May , 2023.

The 14 students from the Federal University Gusau were rescued with two other people, a

statement from the university said on Monday without providing details about when they

were freed or the nature of the rescue operation.

“The sad and unfortunate incident has indeed thrown the University community into serious

tension and apprehension,” the statement said, adding that security forces were “doing their

best” to rescue the remaining students. It also said steps were being taken to boost security

around the university.

Such abductions from schools are common in northwestern and central Nigeria, where

armed groups often take people hostage in exchange for huge ransoms that analyst said help

them to buy guns and sustain their operations.

Nigeria’s military has been fighting armed groups like Boko Haram in the northeast, which

has left it thinly stretched to tackle the kidnapping gangs, known locally as bandits.

3
The bandits are believed to be mostly ethnic Fulanis, but pastoralists and mercenaries from

the region as well as neighbouring Chad and Niger are also involved.

An estimated 12,000 people died and hundreds of thousands more displaced across the

northwestern states of Sokoto, Kebbi, Zamfara, Katsina and Kaduna from 2011 to 2022 due

to the crisis, according to the Centre for Democracy and Development, an Abuja-based

policy and advocacy think tank. The safety of persons in Nigeria and their properties can no

longer be absolutely guaranteed. Kidnapping is a criminal offence punishable by the law in

Nigeria, section 273 of the penal code further provides whoever kidnaps or adopts a person

shall be punished with imprisonment for a term of which may extend to ten (10) years.

An armed gang abducted students from an Islamic school in the north-central Nigerian state

of Niger on Sunday (Voanews, May 30, 2021), police and state government officials said.

Armed groups carrying out kidnapping for ransom are blamed for a series of raids on

schools and universities in northern Nigeria in recent months, abducting more than 700

students for ransom since December.

A spokesman for Niger's state police said in a statement that gunmen on motorcycles

attacked the town of Tegina, in the Rafi local government area of the state, around 3 p.m.

(1400 GMT) Sunday. He said the attackers were "shooting indiscriminately and abducted a

yet to be ascertained number of children at Salihu Tanko Islamic school." The school's

owner, Abubakar Tegina, told Reuters in a phone interview that he witnessed the attack.

"I personally saw between 20 and 25 motorcycles with heavily armed people. They entered

the school and went away with about 150 or more of the students," said Tegina, who lives

about 150 meters from the school. Tegina said there are around 300 pupils between the ages

4
of 7 and 15. He said pupils live at home and only attend classes at the site. Most students

kidnapped in recent months have been taken from boarding schools.

One person was shot dead during the attack and a second person was seriously injured, the

state governor's spokeswoman said. She said 11 of the children taken were released by the

gunmen because they were "too small and couldn't walk." A group of bus passengers were

also abducted, she said. Sunday's attack in Niger state took place the day after the release of

the remaining 14 students of a group abducted last month from a university in neighboring

Kaduna state.

Nigerian police avow that as an institution, it has arrested over a thousand kidnapping and

armed robbery suspects in 2017. (Akinloye, 2017) Kidnapping as a security discourse is not

new in Nigeria and its prevalence alongside the strain on security it brings needs to be

investigated thoroughly (Ngwama 2014; Ebohon and Ifeadi, 2012). To an extent, these

assertions hold weight. However, it must be noted that the effectiveness of security in the

state is a causal effect of the political order. Politicians are not exempt from the ills they

have created through kidnapping. The ineffectiveness of Nigerian security leading to the

prevalence of crimes such as kidnapping has multi-causal connotations; among these causal

variables, corruption is salient in the reasons and explanation of ineffective security. (Oarhe,

and Aghedo 2010)

There are many types of kidnapping and reasons behind them, such as being politically or

financially motivated – the latter can be referred to as ‘express kidnapping’ – or incidences

where animals or brides are taken. Any of these kidnappings can also take place virtually, in

that scam artists convince a victim to believe a kidnapping has already happened over the

phone, (Threatrate 2017). However, as previously mentioned, ransom kidnapping and ritual

5
kidnapping will be central to this article; and for this study ritual kidnapping can be

understood as kidnapping of human beings for the practice of ritual sacrifice with the belief

that the sacrifices provide or generate money for the perpetrators.

According to Abdulkabir (2017) kidnapping rates have ‘geometrically increased’, in that

between 2014 – 2017, it was reported that over 2000 people including young Chibok girls,

government officials, politicians and kings were subjected to kidnap. Briggs indicates that

kidnapping is now a big business motivated by profit rather than principle (Briggs 2001).

This is likened to the challenges of the Nigerian security agencies; because when money is

used as a motivation for kidnapping the principle behind the process accounts for little or

nothing for those instrumental to the act. In order for security agencies in Nigeria to be

efficient, there is a need to overhaul the security agencies and institutions, as previously

mentioned; not in the sense of repackaging and ‘cosmetic painting’ of a troubled system, but

a total overhaul with international standards trainings for staffs, implementation and priority

given to all forms of crime in Nigeria. The imbalances of security focus should be addressed

because the disjuncture can pose massive threats to national security.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The study seeks to examine one of the problems of security in Guma LGA. Kidnapping took

a dramatic dimension in Nigeria recently with its spread to other areas of the country which

some part of Guma LGA where not exempted. Despite measure put in place by both

Federal/State and Local Government to address this issue of security challenges but the

issues keep on persisting continually a dramatic dimension in Nigeria recently with its

spread to other areas of the country which some part of Guma LGA where not exempted.

This has therefore posed a serious challenge to Nigeria’s national security. Kidnapping in

Nigeria goes beyond the conventional typology of kidnapping in terms of global trends.

6
 Ritual kidnapping is an unconventional type of kidnapping is yet to be fully recognized, but

it is persistent within the country. It could be argued that most of the kidnapping in Nigeria

stems from the nexus of corruption and unemployment among the youths. This idea is

shared by Dambazau, (2014), who inclined with his opinion that lack of decent leadership

accompanied with meager governance heavily feature when attempting to outline the

problem.

Though Nigeria is ethnically and religiously divided, the approach for kidnapping defies

ethnocentric methods. It has no ethnic ties; the success of kidnapping in Nigeria is based on

information and methods employed. Nevertheless, most kidnapping cases are ethnically

situated. The rise of kidnapping in Nigeria from 2005 and its impact on the nation has been

quite enormous as it affects the socio-economic development of Nigerians with a reference

to Guma LGA. This study is going to be a quest for finding solutions to the menace of

kidnapping in Guma LGA and seeks to answer the following questions.

1.3 Research Questions

The research question that the study seeks to answers is;

i. What is the nature of kidnapping in Guma Local Government Area of Benue state?

ii. What factors are responsible for kidnapping in Guma Local Government Area of
Benue state?
iii. What are the effects of kidnapping on the socio-economic development in Guma Local
Government Area of Benue state?
iv. How do security agencies manage incident of kidnapping in Guma local government
Area of Benue state
v. What are the challenges confronting security agencies in dealing with kidnapping on
of economic development in Guma Local Government of Benue state?
vi. How can kidnapping be prevented in Guma local government Area of Benue state.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

7
 The general objectives of this study is to assess kidnapping and security challenges on

economic development in Guma Local Government Area of Benue State; while the

specific objectives are as follows;

i. To find out the root course of kidnapping and problems facing Infrastructural,

Educational, Healthcare development in Guma Local Government Area of Benue

State.

ii. To preview how kidnapping affects employment, inequality, poverty and social

inclusion in Guma Local Government Area of Benue State.

iii. To identify the challenges confronting security agencies in dealing with kidnapping in

Guma Local Government Area Benue State.

1.5 Significance of the study

This study is significant in the sense that the research work represents a worthy and timely

contribution to knowledge, information and developments in curtailing kidnapping as

against the notion of communal clash between farmers /herders in Guma Local Government

of Benue state-. The study focuses on the role played by the kidnappers along Guma LGA

history, causes, socio-economic implications and suggests remedy. It also looks into the role

of security agencies, policy makers, stakeholders and the enabling laws in tackling the

violent activities, particularly the spate of killings, kidnappings, hostage taking,. It suggests

a range of measures in respective authorities, stakeholders (religious, community and

political) and security agencies on how best they can adopt better ways to address the

wanton destruction of life and properties which is due to grievances and repression by the

government towards poverty and unemployment. The unchecked activities of kidnappers in

Guma Local Government of Benue state has taken a great toll on the state where investors in

various sectors of the economy are divesting by leaving the state and new ones are not

8
coming because of the level of insecurity, that is fast eroding Nigeria’s investment potential,

integrity and reputation among the committee of nations.

The study have academic significance in the sense that majority of existing literatures have

often addressed the role played by security agencies. The study will also attempt to

interrogate how the federal government contributed positively towards tackling kidnapping

in Guma Local Government. Beside most of the literature around the subject are mostly in

journal and articles, which are believe to look at a particular issue per time, indicating that

they are incomprehensive as far as holistic study is concern. On the whole, most of the

literature studies on the subject matter have not been wide as this previous year of coverage

and issues that are addressed.

However, the study is also significant for both the policy makers and academia on policy,

the study will be significant as it provides a comprehensive insight by way of analysis on

kidnapping and security challenges.

This study significantly assesses and articulates the theoretical and empirical existing body

of knowledge in the field and it will also be a reference material in the hands of academia

and other governmental and nongovernmental bodies.

The study is also significant as recommendations that would be made benefits immensely

from the study hence it is going to expose other superior strategies and mechanism in

dealing with kidnapping and security challenges.

9
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents a review of relevant literature. To achieve the objectives of the study,

this chapter in structured under the following sub-headings: conceptual review, empirical

review and theoretical framework

2.1 Conceptual Review

We seek to set the boundaries of our research by defining the key terms that help one to

understand the concepts we built upon in the context of this dissertation. This segment

covers basic concepts that are relevant to the study. The concepts review includes

kidnapping, security, economic development, causes of kidnapping in Nigeria, types of

kidnapping, impact of kidnapping on Nigeria economic development, the role of security

agencies in tackling kidnapping activities in Nigeria, theoretical framework, relevant of

theory to the study and criticism of theory to the study

Kidnapping is a crime that involves taking or restraining an individual without authority or

the persons permission.

In general kidnapping is defined as removing or confining an individual against their will

without the legal authority to do so. The act of kidnapping can be done by physical means,

coercion, or fraud. Many states have their own definition. But one key element exists

throughout the united states; for the act to be considered a kidnapping, the victim must be

taken illegally.

In criminal law, kidnapping is the unlawful confinement of a person against their will, often

including transportation/aspiration. The aspiration and abduction element is typically but not

necessarily conducted by means of force or fear: the perpetrator may use a weapon to force

10
the victim into a vehicle, but it is still kidnapping if the victim is enticed to enter the vehicle

willingly (e.g. in the belief that it is a taxicab)

Kidnapping may be done to demand for ransom in exchange for releasing the victim, or for

other illegal purposes. Kidnapping can be accompanied by bodily injury which elevates the

crime to aggravated kidnapping. Kidnapping of a child is known as child abduction, which

is sometimes a separate legal category.Unemployment, underfunded security forces and

access to guns have combined to produce record numbers of abductions Ayo and his wife

left their friends’ house in Akure early. They had received a warning that bandits had

attacked somewhere along the two-hour stretch of rural highway home, and they wanted to

get there before dark. Just over an hour into the drive through southwestern Nigeria, they

crossed a police checkpoint where officers and vigilantes milled around the site of the

earlier attack. They drove a few minutes further along the road before two cars ahead of

them began to slow down. Around 15 young men emerged from the bush, spaced around 10

feet apart in a long line down the highway, shooting pump-action rifles into the air and

screaming at the motorists. Ayo pulled his car on to the shoulder of the road but kept his

engine idling and his windows up. As the bandits approached the dozen or so cars behind

him, he whispered to his wife. “Are you ready?” he says, motioning for her to duck. He

slouched too, and slammed his foot on the accelerator to get past the one unarmed bandit in

front of him. “I was not just scared, I was in serious shock — I thought about my three kids,

who were supposed to travel with us . . . it was a horrific day,” says Ayo, 39, who asked not

to be identified further for fear of reprisal. “You never saw this in the south-west before .

[but] over time bandits have seen that this is a good business, that this is a good .

On that Sunday in mid-January, Ayo and his wife narrowly escaped joining the thousands of

Nigerians who are kidnapped each year from highways and villages across Africa’s most

populous country by gangs of armed men known colloquially as bandits. The other

11
motorists were not so lucky — Ayo heard later that some of them were abducted. A

combination of explosive population growth, rampant unemployment, underfunded and

incapable security forces, and easy access to small arms has made banditry a booming

industry in a struggling economy, and Nigeria’s most serious security threat. “Sadly the

kidnapping industry is thriving across Nigeria,” says Aisha Yesufu, a social justice activist

from the north of the country. “We are in a situation in Nigeria where people who ordinarily

would enter normal society, would work, they do not have any hope for anything. Instead

they go and kidnap people to make money.” The economic picture in Nigeria is dire.

Population growth was outstripping that of gross domestic product even before the

pandemic sent Africa’s biggest crude oil producer into recession. Food inflation has hit a

15-year high, while unemployment is rampant — over half of Nigerians are under- or

unemployed; for young Nigerians, the bulk of the 200m population, the figure is two-thirds.

Ransom payments that can range from a few hundred US dollars for ordinary citizens to

reportedly six figures for high-profile victims are an attractive incentive to organised crime

syndicates and young men lacking opportunities.

To get loved ones back, family members generally pay the ransoms in cash though

sometimes bandits ask for some of the payment in the form of phone credit. “Once word

goes out that you can kidnap people and get ransom, why wouldn’t you go and do it?” asks

Amaka Anku, African director for Eurasia Group. Massive ransom payments made to

Islamist militants Boko Haram for the return of some of the 276 Chibok schoolgirls

kidnapped in 2014 helped set the stage, she adds. Beyond the lack of economic opportunity,

she says, “the proximate cause of this is this mixture of perverse incentives [it pays well]

and a complete incapacity to police”

12
Deadly Business

The constant pattern of violence, and the way it has impinged on the average Nigerian’s

everyday life — from travelling to visit relatives to moving goods across even short

stretches of highway — has severely damaged President Muhammadu Buhari’s national

security credentials and revealed a woefully underfunded and mismanaged Nigerian military

and police force. The banditry crisis is also exposing raw ethnic tensions which are never far

from the surface in Nigeria. The bandits are largely thought to be made up of members of

the Fulani ethnic group, who are mostly nomadic herdsmen, and also Hausa farmers.

Communal clashes between the two groups have sparked violence for years. That has

caused some, particularly in the mostly Christian south, to accuse Buhari, himself a Fulani,

of going soft on banditry. Unlike previous abduction crises, the wave of kidnappings

sweeping Nigeria is not isolated to the Niger Delta — as it was 15 years ago, when oil

workers were routinely snatched — or the north-east, where Boko Haram made

international headlines in Chibok seven years ago. Two large school abductions have

occurred in just the past few months — more than 300 boys from a facility in Buhari’s home

state Katsina in December and roughly the same number of girls from a secondary school in

neighbouring Zamfara in February. Both groups of children were returned and the

government insists that it did not pay a ransom. But the bodies of three of the 23 students

abducted from Greenfield University in Guma LGA last week were found shot dead,

according to a statement by local authorities on Friday.

Smaller mass kidnappings — a busload or a household of people — now routinely occur in

every corner of the country. The number of people abducted last year — estimated at nearly

1,100 — is more than double the amount kidnapped at Boko Haram’s height in 2014,

according to data compiled by security analyst Jose Luengo-Cabrera. The figures, culled

from the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project, are the closest to official data

13
available, and “should be taken as indicative” but are “likely to suffer from serious under-

reporting” compared with the true total number of abductions, he says. Nearly as many

people — 2,690 in 2020 — are now being killed in the north-west of the country, the heart

of the bandit crisis, as in Boko Haram’s stronghold Borno state, where 3,044 civilians were

killed. The violence has displaced hundreds of thousands of people in the north-west.

There has long been speculation that some bandits in the north-west are working with Boko

Haram. Whatever the crossover, the bandits are achieving one of the Islamist group’s

signature causes — the eradication of western education in the north of the country. Since

criminals began targeting schools, northern governors have shut down hundreds of

institutions that not only provided education to a neglected population but also acted as

important buffers against child marriage. That’s changing now, says Yusuf Anka, a security

analyst in Zamfara, a northern state at the heart of the crisis. Three of his nieces were among

279 schoolgirls kidnapped from Jangebe village in February. They have since been released.

“Somebody said that only over his dead body would his child [now] go to school,” says

Anka. “300 children were taken into the forest [parents say they] are not stupid enough to

send them back there.

Treat Criminals as Criminals’

Buhari — a former military head of state who won the presidency in 2015 promising to

secure the country from Boko Haram — has taken a hard line in recent months, at least

rhetorically. The 78-year-old has said his government will not negotiate with the bandits, It

has meant pushing back against some of his political allies in northern states who have tried

to offer bandit groups amnesty and redress — including vehicles, money and pledges to

build clinics and schools for their communities — if they lay down their arms. Zamfara is

one such state. Anka, the security analyst, says the impulse to negotiate is a good one,

because many of the perpetrators have been abandoned by the state. “Dialogue is very
14
important [but] in Zamfara we see a dialogue that puts perpetrators above victims,” he says,

which creates more incentives for bandits and sows resentment.

The president, like some of his political allies, has vowed to “treat criminals as criminals”.

His office has released series of statements in which he warns the bandits to cease or to

prepare for the wrath of the security forces.

He issued one such warning in mid-March, after dozens of students were abducted from a

forestry college next to a military academy in Kaduna. “The country will not allow the

destruction of the school system,” he said. A few days later, another group of bandits

stormed a primary school, again in Kaduna, and made off with three teachers. In March, the

president ordered security agents to “shoot any person or persons seen carrying AK-47s in

any forest in the country” and banned all mining activities in Zamfara, where the illegal

hunt for gold is fuelling the crisis. Zamfara governor Bello Matawalle announced that 6,000

troops would be deployed to root out bandit camps in the sprawling, largely ungoverned

Rugu Forest. He also banned more than one person riding on a motorcycle, the bandits’

vehicle of choice.

But many observers pointed out that it is also the main means of transportation for many

Nigerians, and previous bans have failed. Aliyu, a 31-year-old unemployed worker from the

agrarian Niger state, which has been severely hit by the wave of banditry, says he has been

told since he was a child about the urgent need to tackle youth unemployment. “They’d say,

if you don’t arrest unemployment and idleness among the youth, you are sitting on a time-

bomb — as far as I’m concerned, that time-bomb is upon us now,” he says. “Old men don’t

carry guns and stand on the roadside and kill or kidnap people it’s young people who do

these things, what’s at stake here is the security of the country.”

15
2.1.1The Concept of Kidnapping

an act or instance or the crime of seizing, confining, inveigling, abducting, or carrying away

a person by force or fraud often with a demand for ransom or in furtherance of another

crime. So many definitions have been given to kidnapping due to peoples' diverse views and

opinions.

In criminal law, kidnapping is the unlawful abduction, asportation and confinement of a

person against their will. Kidnapping is typically but not necessarily accomplished by use of

force or fear; i.e., it also usually involves menace/assault or/and battery; but it is still

kidnapping without those additional elements, or if a person is enticed to enter the vehicle or

dwelling willingly. In another definition, Fage and Alabi (2017) presented kidnapping as

the “forceful or fraudulent abduction of an individual or a group of individuals for

reasons ranging from economic, political and religious to (struggle for) self-determination”.

In agreement with the two definitions above, kidnapping is usually motivated by financial

gains or political benefits. Thus, opportunists or regular Criminals as well as political

opponents can resort to kidnapping in order to illegally obtain economic benefits or have

their demands granted. In many cases, kidnapping is a business involving a demand for

ransom, which may vary considerably depending on the victim’s personal status.

Likewise, Uzorma and Nwanegbo-Ben (2014) defined kidnapping as the “act of seizing and

detaining or carrying away a person by unlawful force or by fraud, and often with a demand

for ransom”. For an act to be deemed kidnapping, it must involve coercive movement

of a victim from one place to another. The detention or seizure of that person be it a child or

an adult is for a period of time, depending on the willingness of the relatives to

respond positively to the negotiations. In most cases, the victims' eyes are blindfolded so

that they cannot see or locate the place of detention. Many are detained in places far away

from their families. In their forceful movement, a lot of gunshots may be released into the

16
air to create fear and tension, especially in the victim who would be dragged without

his consent.

Consequently, resistance, struggling and refusal to obey and follow the kidnappers have led

to the untimely death of some victims. The perpetrators are often tempted to shoot

sporadically for safety in order to accomplish the mission, not minding who gets affected.

From the foregoing, there is no best way of defining kidnapping. However, in a nutshell,

kidnapping refers to the abduction and captivity of a person, typically to obtain a ransom.

Sometimes, kidnappers hold their captives longer in order to demand more ransom from

the victims' relatives or friends. Some families go as far as borrowing money from outsiders

or selling their properties in order to save the lives of their beloved ones. The danger of

not responding immediately could lead to the untimely death of the victim. Many have died

during the time of torture, especially those with health challenges. Inyang and Abraham

(2013) added that it is allegedly regarded as a restriction of someone’s liberty, which

violates the provision of freedom of movement as stipulated in the constitution of the

Federal Republic of Nigeria, where every other law takes its root.

Kidnapping as a Worldwide Experience

Kidnapping is a global phenomenon; every part of the world has its share of this menace.

America, Mexico and other parts of the world are doing as much as they can to ensure that

kidnappers are captured and dealt with, and that kidnapping is completely eradicated.

The rates of kidnapping in Europe, North America and South America are attracting

worldwide attention. The practice of kidnapping has become quite lucrative for some and

there are criminal groups that have made it their business model. Mexico has its experience

especially with its history of drug-related violence and police corruption; kidnapping is an

old story.

17
According to the U.S. Department of State, Mexico suffered an estimated 105,685

kidnapping British Journal of Education, Learning and Development Psychology cases in

2012 and in 2013, the number increased tremendously to 131,946, the highest number ever

recorded (Schuller 1985).

Similar case of kidnapping remains a challenge to the United States. The disappearance of

children in the country is not unheard of either, and such is a problem that the police and

other agencies are working relentlessly to address. According to the National Centre for

Missing & Exploited Children, roughly 800,000 children are reported missing annually in

the country (Freeman, 2006).

In most cases, kidnapping seems to make very little or no sense. One example is an incident

that happened in the United Kingdom in which a woman kidnapped her own

daughter.

According to the Sun, “Karen Mathew was jailed for eight years for her part in faking the

kidnap of her own daughter in 2008. There are so many cases of kidnapping involving

mothers, fathers, children and other close relations. The question that many asked was, why

would a mother kidnap her own daughter? What could have possibly inspired her to do

such an abominable act. The answer remains that she intentionally committed the crime for

the money involved. In the above case, she purposely did it so that she could claim the

$50,000 pounds reward offered by the government for finding Sharion. She planned to share

the money with her accomplice, Michael Donovan by name, who was a relative (Freeman,

2006).

According to the Offender Management Caseload Statistics, the UK recorded about

57 convicted kidnapping cases between 2007 and 2008. Also, in some countries, kidnapping

has affected mainly those who occupy government positions. The son of the former

president of Slovakia was once kidnapped. In August of 1995, Michal Kovar Jr., whose

18
father was the president of newly independent Slovakia, was stopped in his car by armed

men who handcuffed him, forced him to drink two bottles of whisky, and then drove him to

an unknown destination (The Economist, 2017). It is sometimes said that corruption can

lead to kidnapping. Somalia, which is one of the most corrupt countries in the world,

unfortunately has her fair share of experience with this problem. According to a BBC news

report, a German nurse with the international committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has

been kidnapped in Somalia’s capital Mogadishu, the aid group says.

2.1.2 Concept of Development

At the outset, it should be mentioned, that the concept of development is used here in a wide

sense so as to include, not merely the definition or explanation, but also the theory,

experience and problems. We hope you will be able to have a broad understanding of the

concept of development. To understand the interaction between the media and society, it is

very essential for you to be familiar with the various aspects and concept of development.

Therefore, this unit will introduce you to the concept of development in its simple and

commonly understood form. It will also discuss, in detail, the concept of development as it

has evolved over the years.

We shall discuss several theories of development to comprehend fully their policy

implication and the underlining direction of development visualized in these theories. We

have grouped the alternative theories or concepts of development into two world-views,

viz., the "unilinear" and "non unilinear''. "Unilinear' means going from one point or stage to

another point or stage in one linear direction, whew "non-unilinear", does not follow the

"unilinear" approach, and is generally multi-directional or moving from one stage to various

stages.

19
Mass Media and Development in this unit, we shall compare the development experience of

the developed capitalist countries with the contemporary strategies and performance to

highlight the historical relevance of the development process. This comparison will help us

to appreciate some of the in-built contradictions, like growth vs. justice, rural vs, urban or

organised vs. unorganized activities, which we come across in the underdeveloped

countries, in general, and in our country, in particular Development is a broad concept that

entails social, economic, political and human development. Human development constitutes

the foundation on which the first three concepts are based. According to Burkey (1993:38),

economic and political development must translate into social development.

Dudley Seers: “The questions to ask about a country’s development are three: What has

been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been

happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high levels, then beyond

doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned.” (Seers, 1977, p. 3)

These three things are considered the central challenges that nations battle with and try to

combat or at least try to minimize. To Seers, all these 3 must be at low levels before we can

declare that society as a developed one. This invariably means that a rise in any one of these

central challenges disqualifies that society from being called developed.

Walter Rodney’s Concept of Development

It is in his best celebrated book “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa” that Walter Rodney

pours his heart out on the meaning of “development”. In the book, Rodney asserts that

development in human society is a many sided process. And that what development implies

at level of individual differs from what it implies at level of social groups. According to

him, development at level of individual implies increased skill and capacity, greater

freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-being. While

development at the level of social groups, implies an increasing capacity to regulate both

20
internal and external relationships. He adds that development in the past has always meant

the increase in the ability to guard the independence of the social group and indeed to

infringe upon the freedom of others - something that often came about irrespective of the

will of the persons within the societies involved. The tools with which men work and the

manner, in which they organize their labour, Rodney argues, are important indices of social

development.

Consequently, Rodney tells us that the term ‘development’ is often used in an exclusive

economic sense. In this sense, he says that a society develops economically as its members

increase jointly their capacity for dealing with the environment. This capacity for dealing

with the environment is dependent on the extent to which they understand the laws of nature

(science), on the extent to which they put that understanding into practice by devising tools

(technology), and on the manner in which work is organised. He equally observes that there

has been constant economic development within human society since the origins of man,

because man has multiplied enormously his capacity to win a living from nature. Rodney

goes on to argue that

The magnitude of man’s achievement is best understood by reflecting on the

early history of human society and noting firstly, the progress from crude
stone tools to the use of metals; secondly, the changeover from hunting and
gathering wild fruit to the domestication of animals and the growing of food
crops; and thirdly, the improvement in the character of work from being an
individualistic activity towards an activity which assumes a social character
through the participation of many.

Similarly, he notes that every continent has independently participated in the early epochs of

the extension of man’s control over his environment – which means in effect that every

continent can point to a period of economic development. Africa, being the original home of

man, was obviously a major participant in the processes in which human groups displayed

an ever increasing capacity to extract a living from the natural environment. Indeed, in the

early period, Africa was the focus of the physical development of man as such, as distinct

21
from other living beings. It is on this basis Rodney argued that development was universal

because the conditions leading to each economic expansion were universal. Everywhere,

man was faced with the task of survival by meeting fundamental material needs; and better

tools were a consequence of the interplay between human beings and nature as part of the

struggle for survival. However, Rodney did not fail to point out that “while all societies

have experienced development; it is equally true that the rate of development differed from

continent to continent and within each continent different parts increased their command

over nature at different rates”.

Rodney rounds off his explanation on development by saying that the way and manner in

which the bourgeoisie scholars talk about development is deceptive. This is because the

bourgeoisie scholars, according to him, concentrate attention narrowly on “economic

development”. This explains why average bourgeoisie scholars often define development as

simply a matter of the combination of given factors of production: namely land, population,

capital, technology, specialization and large-scale production. The deception in the

bourgeoisie’s definition of development, according to Rodney, is in the omission of some

fundamental issues which are not supposed to be found wanting. For instance,

No mention is made of the exploitation of the majority which underlay all

development prior to Socialism. No mention is made of the social relations of
production or of classes. No mention is made of the way that the factors and
relations of production combine to form a distinctive system or mode of
production, varying from one historical epoch to another. No mention is
made of imperialism as a logical phase of capitalism.

As such, Rodney insists that development cannot be seen purely as an economic affair, but

rather as an overall social process which is dependent upon the outcome of man’s efforts to

deal with his natural environment.

22
2.1.3 Concept of Socio-Economic Development

In order to understand this concept, let us begin by defining development. Generally,

development is defined as a state in which things are improving. But it is defined in

different ways in various contexts, social, political, biological, science and technology,

language and literature. In the socio-economic context, development means the

improvement of people’s lifestyles through improved education, incomes, skills

development and employment. It is the process of economic and social transformation based

on cultural and environmental factors.

Socio-economic development, therefore, is the process of social and economic development

in a society. It is measured with indicators, such as gross domestic product (GDP), life

expectancy, literacy, and levels of employment. For a better understanding of socio-

economic development, we may understand the meaning of social and economic

development separately. Social development is a process that results in the transformation of

social institutions in a manner that improves the capacity of the society to fulfill its

aspirations. It implies a qualitative change in the way the society shapes itself and carries

out its activities, such as through more progressive attitudes and behavior by the population,

the adoption of more effective processes, or more advanced technology. As you see in the

illustration below, there is a close relation between environments, ways of living, and

technology. Economic development is the development of the economic wealth of countries

or regions for the well-being of their inhabitants. Economic growth is often assumed to

indicate the level of economic development. The term “economic growth” refers to the

increase (or growth) of specific measures such as real national income, gross domestic

product, or per capita income. The term economic development, on the other hand, implies

much more. It is the process by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social

wellbeing of its people.

23
Socio-economic development, thus, is a process of improvement in a variety of ways. It has

to influence all aspects of human life in a country. But do you think the concept of socio-

economic development takes care of all aspects of development? Its major indicator, the

GDP is a specific measure of economic welfare that does not take into account important

aspects such as leisure time, environmental quality, freedom, social justice, or gender

equality. Another indicator, the per capita income also does not indicate the level of income

equality among people. These indicators do not ensure that the benefits of development

have been equally distributed and have reached particularly to the disadvantaged groups of

society. This is why a new concept of human development is being used. It is focused on the

overall quality of life that people enjoy in a country, the opportunities they have and the

freedoms they enjoy.

On the first category of study, those researches study development related issues in India,

Mongolia, Bolivia, Indonesia, and Sub-Sahara Africa. Anjuman Ali-Bogaert (1997) and

Bidney (2009) explored the concepts of development based on their field study in India and

Mongolia respectively. Anjuman Ali-Bogaert (1997) wrote about the concept of alternative

to development based on one major dam project in India (Narmada Valley Project [NVP])

and it was opposed by the local communities affected by the project, led by a community

group called Narmada BachaoAndolan. The author proposed that the whole of ideas of the

discourse of development should be questioned if they just relied on the dominant Western

discourses of development be they in the right or left, such as the modernization theory,

classical and neo-classical economic theories, dependency theory and to the Marxist

theories. Similar with Anjuman Ali-Bogaert (1997), Bidney (2009), using the case of

Mongolia, showed that the concept of development should not just rely on dominant

development theories. Here, he also discussed about globalization. Bidney (2009) did the

24
study using the experience of four people with different background and explored their

understanding of development. Based on this study, he argued that how the notion of

development created a mixed response between those who were in favor and those who

were not. It was found out that based on their own different experience each one has her/his

own conception of development. In view of the above, he saw the need to see the meaning

of development from a deeper perspective, which was through the lens of an individual

experiencing on his/her own. Thus, the author criticized the approaches of two dominant

development theories i.e. modernization & dependency theories as not that really relevant

with the realities in the developing countries. The author argued that “there is no one way to

study development, just as there is no one definition of what it is.” In the same tone with

Bidney (2009), Anjuman Ali-Bogaert (1997) argued that the right of the community should

be respected in a way on what was good for them. He contended that development based on

the Western understanding adopted by the elites in the developing countries should not just

be imposed on people. Using the case of NVP, the author showed that actually people

and/or local communities know what is good for them. Their opinion should be taken into

consideration when the government of developing countries wanted to do ‘development

projects’ affecting the local communities. They could not just adopt the mentality of the

‘white man burden’ and underestimated the capacity of the local communities in choosing

the life they preferred. Therefore, he challenged all Western-based dominant discourses of

development and argued that they were not necessarily compatible with the local cultures &

religions. Local communities might have their own vision on what constitutes a good

society, a society that they wanted to live in. The author basically was deconstructing the

whole notion of development, and even raised again the basic question of what was

development. Using the case of NVP, the author showed that the local community basically

was vibrant and knowledgeable on how to lead their lives. He saw that they did not need to

25
be taught on standards not on their own. Imposing outside standards on them was actually

belittling them and saw them as inferior being. So, the author concluded that any studies on

the people of developing countries should respect that “societies and groups have the right

to live in their own ways and that these ways are valuable. In these ways are reasons for

hope — that people can forge their own modernity, their own responses to day-to-day

changes and challenges.” The main point that we could draw from the above two studies

was that development is a unique process for each and every country, and thus; Western-

based development concepts should not be imposed on non-Western developing countries.

Other studies done by Borda-Rodriguez (2008) and Lysaght (2008) asserted that the

imposition of Western-based dominant development discourses was in fact had taken places

through many different forms in developing countries. Using the case of Bolivia, Borda-

Rodriguez (2008) researched on the processes of the knowledge production and

dissemination for development in the work of consultants and advisors. He found that how

dominant development discourses framed the knowledge engagement and the perception of

consultants and advisors in the field of development assistance.

Journal of Management Policy and Practice Vol. 22(4) 2021 It also found that actually

consultants, advisors, and beneficiaries/clients reflect, learn, and hence produces rich

knowledge individually but they could not openly share with their organizational

hierarchies because it could challenge the development discourse that has been

framed. In discussing that the author saw that there are three inter-connected senses of

development that shaped the field of development assistance. These are: (i) A vision

of what constitutes a desirable society; (ii) A historical process of social change in

which societies are transformed over long periods. This sense is largely associated

with the development of capitalism over time; (iii) Deliberate efforts aimed at

improvement on the part of various agencies. Within the above context, the author

26
raised the issue about the prevailing conception of what constitute with the term

“improvement.” Here, the vision, according to the author, might be a Western society

and its associated lifestyle. Thus, the efforts done in making improvement would

inevitably follow the historical process of capitalist development. Thus, the author

contended that the main multilateral (World Bank, International Monetary Fund) and

bilateral (donor country aid agencies such as the UK Department for International

Development – DFID) development agencies would assume that “capitalist

development is the only game in town, and only by embracing it will there be

progress in poor countries.” In similar fashion, Lysaght (2008) examined the advice

given by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) during and after the Asian crisis

(1997-98) and its impact on corruption and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). In his

research, the author saw that IMF’s advice was strongly influenced by the key tenet of

neoliberalism on the primacy of the so-called free market. The author saw that how

during that period neoliberal doctrine had become the main intellectual underpinning

of the IMF as well as the World Bank in prescribing development policies for

developing countries. In this thesis, Lysaght (2008) unraveled the failure of IMF in

implementing its neoliberal project in Indonesia. IMF according to the author failed to

achieve the very objectives that it wanted to achieve, that it wanted to dismantle the

power of oligarchy, eradicate corruption, and attract the foreign direct investment

back to Indonesia. It all did not happen between the period of 1998-2005. The author

saw that neoliberal theories on deregulation, privatization, and market dominance

clung unnecessarily and imposed on developing countries by the IMF were

inadequate and damaging to developing countries. On the story of Sub-Sahara Africa,

Walton (2017) explored the concepts of wellbeing and sustainable development in

rural Sub-Sahara Africa. This was in response to what Walton found a persistent

27
 failure of free market capitalism development paradigm in the history of development

discourses & approaches in Sub-Saharan Africa. This research was basically in line

with the researches of Borda-Rodriguez (2008) and Lysaght (2008) on how the

application of capitalist development discourses resulted in failure in developing

countries. He argued that “the growth-oriented capitalist economic model that has

shaped the operative understanding of wellbeing and perpetuated the invented reality

of underdevelopment also guides large-scale sustainable development efforts that

persistently fail to significantly improve wellbeing among rural communities.” He

contended that understanding discourses and approaches were important because they

influenced development policies, practices, goals, and outcomes, and they also

directly impact community wellbeing. In his research, Walton saw that one major

challenge facing the improvement of wellbeing among marginalized rural

communities in Sub-Sahara Africa was the application of an inappropriate paradigm

on development. Walton argued that ecological economics may provide a paradigm

for sustainable development that is culturally, ecologically, and economically more

appropriate – and more effective – for both assessing and improving wellbeing. In the

above, we have seen researches discussing about conventional development concepts

and their implication on the countries studied. Now, some studies purely discussed

intellectual origins of the development and/or the concept of development from

conventional perspective will be reviewed.

2.1.3 The Causes of Kidnapping in Nigeria

Dode (2010), Ugwuoke (2011), have elaborate on the causes of kidnapping In Nigeria,

such as abject poverty, corruption and fraud, political influence, joblessness, terrorism,

28
lack of capital punishment by the government, the changing value system and quick-

money syndrome.

1. Poverty:-The poverty situation in Nigerian is another reason that triggered people to

partake in the kidnapping. They view it as a means of exit from the track of poverty for

riches. These is because when an individual is kidnapped, a huge ransom is being

demanded, and until that ransom is delivered to the kidnappers, the kidnappee will

never be released to his people. When the kidnappers secured the ransom, they

suddenly turn rich compared to their former miserable poverty state (Umez, 2000).The

Journal of Social Sciences Research 515

2. Corruption and Fraud:-Corruption and fraud are two associated factors that

contribute enormously to economically motivated kidnapping in contemporary Nigeria.

The Nigerian leader's corrupt influences must have ignited vices such as kidnapping in

the country. According to Transparency international, transparency perception index

(2019), Nigeria is globally transitioning from 26 since 2015 to 2019 on the persistent

corruption rank countries. Evidently, as reasoned by (Adibe 2012) that the agitation of

Niger Delta and other Nigerian youths generally might not have led to kidnapping if

our national resources were shared wisely. As the business of kidnap booms in Nigeria,

it team-up with a corrupt police force, bankers, etc.

3. Political Influence:-There is no gainsaying in the fact that lots of politicians in

Nigerian are hungry for power and are indeed resolute to kill in order to acquire power

by all means. The incidence escalations of political assassinations in the country is

transparent that most politicians turn evil, by kidnapping fellow Nigerians for ritual

purposes and political assassinations to attain their goals. It is surprising and in fact

unfortunate to observe that as election approach “children’s and individuals with

abnormalities such as imbeciles and psychologically-ill people are the targeted subject

29
for rituals, Parents and relatives are strictly warned about the whereabouts of

individuals and to take precautions because of the ritual kidnappers who are often

agents of politicians, these type of kidnapping usually occurred in Nigeria as a

preparation for a political campaign for election (Dodo, 2010).

4 Joblessness:-As the wise-adage goes, “An idle mind is the devil's workshop.” In

Nigeria, many unemployed youths are poverty afflicted and usually find comfort in

heinous crimes such as kidnapping because they are unemployed and poor in the sense

that school drop-out and graduates roam around the streets, both unemployed for years

(Ugwuoke, 2011).

5. Terrorism:-Some jobless and hungry youths in Nigeria have taken it upon

themselves that terrorism is the solution to their numerous problems, as exemplified

through the Nigerian government's long period exploitation of the Niger Delta people,

which reflect on other agonized youths to use kidnapping as an alternate remedy to their

problem.

6. Lack of Capital Punishment by the Government:-Most traditional legal systems

in African used capital punishment as the last option for capital crimes; the lack of

strict penalty on kidnappers is why the menace is deteriorating in Nigeria. Kidnappers

see this unlawful business as rich fortune and therefore find it difficult to quit as an

effective deterrent the National Assembly should, as a matter of urgency, legislate an

enable law that would impose capital punishment for kidnapping in Nigeria.

7. The Changing Value System in Nigeria:-According to Umez (2000), the governing

value system in contemporary Nigeria is one that endorses and glorifies illegal and

corrupt means as necessary and sufficient means to earn, it now re-shapes most

Nigerians moral integrity, including the youths, is a whole reverse of the traditional

system, which was basically predicated on good morals and hard work. Odey (2000)

30
 has stated that; a society that is keen on condemning its youths for being dishonest and

lazy, and for instituting a menace to the rest of the people such as kidnapping, armed

robbery and materialism should equally be keen on providing better economic, social,

and moral alternatives that will dissolve immoralities to be less attractive and thus drain

their current drift to criminal life.‟

8. Quick-Money Syndrome:-One of the causes of kidnapping in Nigeria is the rich-

quick syndrome,” Most Nigerians are not willing to strive. At the same time, survival

of the fittest is the norm in contemporary Nigeria. Thus, you cannot harvest what you

did not plant. Most Nigerian youths are people with big dreams; through richquick

syndrome without working, they decide to achieve those dreams upon kidnapping for

ransom.

2.1.4 Types of Kidnapping in Nigeria

Some of the types of kidnapping in Nigeria State could be summarized under the

following sub-headings.

1. Kidnapping from Bushes:- This is the type of kidnapping where the victims

are normally abducted along the road leading to either a village or town and kept in

the bush. This is the most used method as the bush provides a safe haven for the

kidnappers who also perfect their mission in the bush. The victims could be any

body depending on the target of the kidnappers.

2. Kidnapping in the Sea:- This happens when the victims are kidnapped in the

sea while traveling in the Nigerian waterways. The victims were mostly taken to the

bush for ransom. An example of this kind of kidnapping was one that took place at

the Bonny Sea on the 14th of April 2009 at about 7:30pm involving a staff of NLNG.

31
 There were cases were the kidnappers board the boat of travelers in order to perfect

their heinous crime.

3. Kidnapping from the Church:-Sometimes, the kidnappers resort to the

kidnapping of Church members especially the wealthy ones for the purpose of

ransom. The kidnappers either pretend to be worshippers or hang around the Church

premises to perpetrate their plan. In most cases, the victims are mostly children and

women of wealthy Church members or the clergy perceived to be very rich

(Guardian 02/06/2008).

4. Kidnapping from Houses: This is the most widely used method of kidnapping

of victims from their houses or offices and taken to unknown destinations.

2.1.5 Impact of Kidnapping on Nigeria Economic Development

Kidnapping activities has been for quite some time in Nigeria with adverse inspects

on socio economy, political and national cohesion.

Kyrian(2009) posited that the logos state government publicized that it spent over

three billion naira on ransom , also Sir Mike Okiro a former inspector general of

police publicized that between 2006 and 2009, the amount of ransom paid iis over 15

billions, which could have been used for meaningful development(kyrian, 2009).

Dode (2003) stated that in 2006, when the perpetrators kidnapped six foreigners on

the premises of shell petroleum corporation, the company was forced to evacuate its

employer, and it cripples its production, thus coursed Nigeria an economic decay

and deterred the foreign investment.

Inyang and Ubong (2013) pointed out that in many cases, it is often the breadwinners

of families that are usually targeted. The implication is always felt particularly within

the family, whereby member of such families will have to feed themselves and adjust

to their normal daily activities, until they secure the release of the victim. If the

32
victim is a business man or woman the business will suffer, if he is a civil servant or

an artisan, his place of work will be affected adversely. In both cases there is going to

be some setback, if his work in an organization the challenger to be experienced are

enormous as the victim’s absence will impact in the system and the output may drop.

It can be concluded that kidnapping activities is negatively impacting on Nigeria socio

economic.

Cycle of Violence Impact on Economy

Across the world, the consequences of violence amount to considerable direct and

indirect costs that erode economic development, increase instability, increase

inequality and erode human capital. Interpersonal violence results in medical,

policing and judicial costs immediately after the violent incident occurs, but there

are also longer term implications for productivity and economic activity.

Social unrest and collective violence destabilise governments and social institutions,

as well as reduce business confidence. Warfare destroys both private and public

infrastructure, and not only are private property and businesses destroyed by war,

but public assets such as electricity, water supply, telecommunications, schools and

health facilities are affected as well. Beyond the human toll, war and terrorism

disrupt the economy resulting in adverse flow-on effects and losses of productivity

for an extended period of time – even after the war concludes.

 Disruption of Economic Activities

A market disruption is a situation wherein markets cease to function in a regular

manner, typically characterized by rapid and large market declines. Market

disruptions can result from both physical threats to the stock exchange or

unusual trading (as in a crash).

33
 Loss of Productivity and Human Capital

The human capital approach measures lost productivity as the amount of time by

which working life is reduced due to illness. This work time lost is then valued at

the market wage; which economists assume, in a competitive market, reflects the

value of that work to society.

 Reduced Foreign Direct Investment

A foreign direct investment refers to a purchase of a particular organisation's

interest by another foreign organisation. Such an organisation or investor is

located in a different country than the organisation whose interest is purchased.

 Weakening of Social Fabric

Social Fabric” is the relationships and connections we make with one another;

making us all a part of the common thread of society as a whole.

I’ve been working with textiles, specifically sewing, since I was about 8 years

old and in natural progression that interest led to making art, which led me to get

my MFA in Textiles at University of North Texas.I created Social Fabric to

expose people to the myriad of textile and sewing arts. Much like the definition

of “Social Fabric”, we aim to create connections which bind our community

through our events, boutique and sewing classes

 Drivers of Resources

A resource driver is used to assign costs from a general ledger orientation to an

activity. A resource driver may include headcount, total number of desktop

computers, and other sizing/value characteristics.

 Psychological Impact

Psychological impact was operationalized as “symptoms of emotional distress,

such as anxiety/depression/post-traumatic stress disorder experienced by the

34
 patients, or behavioral changes such as irritability, increased use of internet or

increased screen time, onset or increase in substance-related behavior observed.

2.1.4 The Role of Security Agencies in Tacking Kidnapping Activities in Nigeria

The primary role which establishes security agencies is for protection and

maintenance of law and order, lives and properties. However, the Nigeria security

agencies has fallen short of this elementary purpose of establishment a factor which

is making it difficult to combat kidnapping and other sundry criminalities in the

polity.

Odekunle (2004) argues that the Nigeria police still have a long way to go in

meeting the expectations of Nigeria’s especially in the area of preventing violent

crimes such as kidnapping. He went further to maintain that those violent crimes and

conflict occur due to the inaptitude and inefficiency of the police in their

performance duties.

Adekole(2004) also maintain that argument that poor police remuneration for

officers of the Nigeria police is another reason for their poor performance of crime

prevention. Odenkunle (2004) maintain that crime prevention is a collective

responsibility between the police and the general public. But the vast majority of the

Nigerians do not believe that the police have their best interest, either because of the

past experience or for some other reasons know to them. He argued that public

perception of the Nigeria police force has greatly affected the level of support given

to them in combating crime. As a result of these many refrain from giving valuable

information which could help checkmate crime.

35
2.2 Empirical Review

Nigerian nation has witnessed kidnapping phenomenon and its rate is increasingly alarming.

Ujumadu (2008) and Ekpe (2009) cited in Inyang and Ubong (2013), maintained that in

2008, Nigeria was placed six on the global kidnap index by an online tourism site. They

maintained further that the rating puts the country Nigeria among countries with serious

kidnapping problems, behind Philippines, Venezuela, Columbia, Brazil and Mexico.

Umoren (2009) argued that kidnapping is one problem that has given the country bad image,

in recent times. He averred that kidnapping in Nigeria was a strategy used by those in

genuine struggle to the development of the Niger Delta region. In his view, kidnapping is

not anymore used for genuine struggle rather in committing crime. Kidnapping has great

adverse effect on the nation’s socioeconomic development (Okorie-Ajah, Nwokeoma &

Okpan, 2018). Inyang and Ubong (2013) noted that over the last few years, the wealthy and

the income earners have been picked up by kidnappers who only free their victims after

payments of ransom.

Okorie-Ajah, Nwokeoma and Okpan (2018) revealed that kidnapping exerts enormous and

far reaching economic and social costs. For them, it induces and creates a palpable

ambience of fear and despair for all citizens and stultify economic growth and sustainable

development. From their observation, kidnapping is one major development challenge

bedeviling Nigeria today. They conclude that it drives away investment, both domestic and

foreign direct investments and consequently slows down growth which has devastating

effect on the socioeconomic wellbeing of the family.

According to Inyang and Ubong (2013), cited in Okorie-Ajah, Nwokeoma and Okpan

(2018), economic effects of kidnapping as direct and indirect costs with devastating effect

on the economy. They averred that direct cost of kidnapping involves the economic value

that individuals and government may lose to kidnappers, that much money has been paid for
36
ransom. The former Inspector General of Police, Sir Mike Okiro, noted that N15 billion was

paid as ransom to kidnappers between 2006 and 2009 (Kyrian 2009; cited in Okorie-Ajah,

Nwokeoma & Okpan, 2018).

The huge amount of money spent as ransom payment could negatively affect both state and

national economy drastically. Since many people kidnapped paid a lot of money as ransom,

the situation affects both state and household economy with negative effect on the

socioeconomic wellbeing of the family. Some people go as far as borrowing to pay ransom

to kidnappers for the release of their love ones (Inyang &Ugbong, 2013; Okorie-Ajah,

Nwokeoma&Okpan, 2018).

Okorie-Ajah, Nwokeoma and Okpan (2018), pointed out that victims of kidnapping also

suffer indirect cost from the incidents. Some of the victims are killed in the process of

kidnapping. Some sustain various levels of injuries like bullet wounds which may deform

them forever. Many victims suffer various degrees of assault, abuse and tortured in the

hands of the kidnappers. Some of the female victims are even rapped by the kidnappers.

Ngwama (2014) observes at kidnappers target the executive, legislature, the judicial branch

of the government, and their family members in spite of the tight security at their disposal.

He maintained that government expatriates, religious leaders and their children are also the

target of kidnappers. Kidnappers target prominent people of high social status. For instance,

the father of the former Central Bank Governor was kidnapped and heavy ransom

demanded (Ngwama, 2014).

Akpan-Nsoh (2008) commented that most people are victims of kidnapping because of

their social status in the community. This is so because kidnappers believed that prominent

people of high socioeconomic standing and their family members can afford to pay ransom

demanded by them before the release of the kidnapped victim(s).

37
In July 2010, four journalists were kidnapped in Abia State on their way to Lagos. The

kidnappers demanded a ransom of N30 million. In Idah, Kogi State, the mother of the

former president of Nigeria Football Federation (NFF), was kidnapped and ransom

demanded by the kidnappers (Ngwama, 2014). Adetuba (2016) cited in Okorie-Ajah,

Nwokeoma and Okpan (2018), argued that seven people, including five foreign expatriates

were reportedly kidnapped by suspected militants in Calabar. They were on their way to

work at the Lafarge Holcim plant in Mfamosing. In the process, a local driver was fatally

shot by the kidnappers. The picture painted above show that kidnapping has now turned into

a business venture and a daily affair in Nigeria in general and Calabar Metropolis in

particular.

According to Inyang and Ubong (2013), Rev. Akan Weeks of Reigners Bible Church was

kidnapped in Ukanafun Local Government Area on his way to Port Harcourt and a ransom

of N5 million naira was demanded and paid before he was released.

Similarly, Efiezomor (2017) cited in Okorie-Ajah, Nwokeoma and Okpan (2018), noted that

kidnappers kidnapped a catholic priest in-charge of St. Patrick’s Catholic Church, Eku in

Ethiope East Local Government Area of Delta State, the kidnappers demanded a ransom of

N10 million for the release of Rev. Fr. Joseph OghenekevweOjakorotu.

There are a lot of factors responsible for the alarming rate of kidnapping in Nigeria. Many

youth would not have resorted to violence including kidnapping if they were gainfully

employed. As a result of unemployment, they see kidnapping as a venture to get out of

poverty (Umore, 2009; Inyang &Ubong, 2013).

For Chingunta and Mkanawire (2002), the level of youth unemployment and poverty vary

from social and economic strata. Thus, unemployment and poverty are factors that lead the

youth into kidnapping.

38
According to Ogabido (2007), cited in Inyang and Ubong (2013), “the issue of poverty and

unemployment of youth as well as social injustice and unfair distribution of the nations

resources are potent causes of kidnapping in Nigeria.

These factors have caused the youths to engage in kidnapping and criminal activities as a

way of getting their share of nation wealth”. Kidnapping has plagued the socio-economic

development of Nigeria and has lured some jobless youths and graduates into it as lucrative

and alternative means of making money, acquiring economic power and getting out of

poverty (Okorie-Ajah, Nwokeoma&Okpan, 2018; Ottuh&Aitufe, 2014; Dodo, 2010).

Ngwama (2014), contended that kidnappers are greedy businessmen indulging in

criminality. In Nigeria, it has become a multi million naira criminal industry. Due to greed,

it is one of the lucrative businesses in Nigeria after oil bunkering (Dodo, 2010). According

to Pharoah (2005), Turner (1998), all cited in Akpan (2010), kidnapping for ransom is

propelled especially by greed. Kidnappers have criminal, political, economic and greedy

motives (Akpan, 2010).

Umoren (2009), admitted that kidnapping is induced by greed. He maintained that

kidnapping pays and that it is the easiest way of making money for those who engage in it.

He maintained further that kidnapping has devastating effect on the victims and their

families in terms of finances. The money that would have been channeled for other

economic purposes for the socioeconomic wellbeing of the family is diverted for payment of

ransom for the release of the kidnapped victim(s). In Nigeria, people are kidnapped for

various reasons ranging from economic, political, personal/ cooperative grievances and

greed. Some victims are killed before they are rescued while others are rescued by their

relatives and friends after paying ransoms (Ottuh & Aitufe, 2010). Greed for money is a

serious factor when discussing the social vices of kidnapping.

39
2.3 Theoretical Framework

The study adopted cycle of violence and frustration–aggression theory.

Frustration Aggression Theory

Frustration Aggression Theory was propounded by Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, and

Sears (1939) stated that “the occurrence of aggressive behavior always presupposes the

existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always leads to

some form of aggression” (p. 1). What is especially noteworthy in this definition is that,

unlike the use of the word in everyday language, frustration here is not understood as an

emotional experience but as “an interference with the occurrence of an instigated goal-

response”

Johannes Breuer and Malte Elson (Dollard et al., 1939, p. 7). Put differently,

frustration is defined as an event instead of an affective state. The arguable benefit of

characterizing frustration through observable qualities of events or environmental

characteristics is that it allows description and testing of its causal effects, such as

those on aggression, objectively instead of relying on subjective self-reported

introspection. This basic yet somewhat counterintuitive ascertainment is important

as it is also implied in later modifications and reformulations of the frustration–

aggression hypothesis. A basketball player who yells at the referee after his team

loses by a buzzer beater that was preceded by an uncalled foul, a person who loudly

insults an instruction manual after 2 hours of failure in constructing a newly

purchased IKEA wall closet, or a toddler who throws a tantrum when she notices

that her favorite toy has been placed out of reach on the kitchen table are all

everyday examples of the link between frustrating events and aggressive responses.

Looking at the original definition by Dollard and colleagues, one might criticize

their claim to universal validity. Taken verbatim, “the occurrence of aggressive

40
 behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration” suggests that aggression

does not occur without any form of prior frustration, and the assertion that

frustration “always leads to some form of aggression” implies that aggression is a

certain outcome of any frustration. These deterministic assumptions were somewhat

qualified in a 1941 publication by the same authors in which they stated that

“frustration produces instigation to aggression but this is not the only type of

instigation that it may produce” (Miller, Sears, Mowrer, Doob, & Dollard, 1941, p.

339).

2.3.1 Attributes and Causes of Frustrations

Goal significance and expectations In the behaviorist tradition that dominated an

early period of research on the causes and effects of frustration, frustration was

defined as a cause of extinction—that is, an event resulting in the termination of

reinforcement that has previously maintained a behavior. Typically, this results in

individuals exhibiting a sudden and temporary increase in the frequency of a

behavior, a so-called extinction burst, particularly when the extinction procedure has

just begun. However, it may also lead to occurrences of novel respondent behaviors

(e.g., in a trial-and-error fashion). This process was later reformulated from a more

cognitivist perspective by Amsel (1962, 1992), whose frustration theory predicts that

frustration occurs when anticipated reward is reduced, delayed, or removed

completely. In a similar fashion, Hanratty et al. (1972) described frustration as the

“withdrawal of an anticipated reinforcer” (p. 31). With regard to the properties of

frustration, Brown and Farber (1951) identified two requirements for an event to

qualify as frustrating in the sense of the definition by Dollard et al. (1939).

1. Achieving the goal must be important or relevant to the subject.

41
 2. Achieving the goal must be perceived as a likely outcome by the subject. The

first of these requirements was also stressed by Lazarus (1991), who stated that a

goal has to be personally significant if the blockage of its attainment is to evoke

negative affect. Similarly, frustrations can be characterized as events that reduce the

experience of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) or reflectance (White, 1959). Notably,

Haner and Brown (1955) found that “proximity to the goal at which frustration

occurs will affect resultant aggression” (p. 206). Specifically, this means that, the

closer a person is to achieving a goal, the more intense the effect of a frustration will

be on the aggressive inclinations of that person (Harris, 1974). This premise is also

known as the “goal gradient principle”

2.3.2 Relevance of the Theory

According to Berkowitz, Frustration will lead to aggression to the extent that it elicit

negative emotion. Moreover, frustration is only one form of unpleasant negative

affect that can provoke responses.

When people legitimate need have been ignore it often lead to frustration and as

result of it, it can escalate to aggression where human life and property is on tension.

2.3.3 Criticism of the Theory

Frequent acts of violent crime have grown to form a major threat to Nigeria’s

national security. These include instances of militancy, insurgency and banditry.

Banditry includes cattle rustling, armed robbery and kidnapping for ransom.

Kidnapping has remained the most virulent form of banditry in Nigeria. It has

become the most pervasive and intractable violent crime in the country.

Kidnapping can be targeted at individuals or at groups. School children have been

kidnapped in groups in various parts of Nigeria. Usually, the prime targets of

42
 kidnapping for ransom are those considered to be wealthy enough to pay a fee in

exchange for being freed.

2.3.4 Cycle of Violence Theory

The theory was developed in 1979 by Dr Lenore Walker. It describes the phases an

abusive relationship moves through which leads to a violent event and its follow-up.

The cycle of violence looks at the repetitive nature of perpetrator’s actions that

hinder a victim’s ability to leave an abusive relationship. The theory provides an

insight into this by illustrating how the behaviour of a perpetrator can change very

dramatically, making it difficult for the woman to leave. Women who have

experienced violence may recognise this cycle.

The three stages of the cycle of violence

Phase 1: Tension-building Phase

• Build Up: Tension between the people in the relationship starts to increase and

verbal, emotional or financial abuse occurs.

• Stand-over: This phase can be very frightening for people experiencing abuse.

They feel as though the situation will explode if they do anything wrong. The

behaviour of the abuser intensifies and reaches a point where a release of tension is

inevitable.

Phase 2: Acute Explosion

The peak of the violence is reached in this phase. The perpetrator experiences a

release of tension. This feeling can become addictive, and the perpetrator may

become unable to deal with anger in any other way.

43
 Phase 3: Honeymoon Stage

i. Remorse: At this point, the perpetrator starts to feel ashamed. They may become

withdrawn and try to justify their actions to themselves and others. For example,

they may say: “You know it makes me angry when you say that.”

ii. Pursuit: During the pursuit phase, the perpetrator promises never to be violent again.

They may try to explain the violence by blaming other factors such as alcohol or

stress at work. The perpetrator may be very attentive to the person experiencing

violence, including buying gifts and helping around the house. It could seem as

though the perpetrator has changed. At this point, the person experiencing the

violence will feel confused and hurt but also relieved that the violence is over.

iii. Denial phase: Both people in the relationship may be in denial about the severity of

the abuse and violence. Intimacy increases and both people feel happy and want the

relationship to continue, so they ignore the possibility that the violence could happen

again. Over time, this phase passes and the cycle may begin again.

2.3.5 Short comings of the Theory

It is based on an unrepresentative sample of White heterosexual women in Colorado

who volunteered to be interviewed (Dutton, 2009). Even Walker (1979, xiii) noted

her sample “cannot be considered a legitimate data base from which to make specific

generalizations.”

It assumes that some phases (the honeymoon phase for example) are safer for

survivors to leave than others. This is an inaccurate and unsafe assumption. Leaving

at any time often escalates the violence and danger. (Wilson, 2019)

44
 It does not apply to all abusive relationships. Many survivors experience no

“honeymoon” stage at all, especially after a first incident, and describe tension as

chronic rather than episodic (Stark, 2007).

It takes the relationship out of its social context, which may include marginalization

and oppression based on race, ethnicity, gender identity and expression, and

geographic location, among other factors (Serrata, 2017). It doesn’t consider the

challenges, increased vulnerabilities, or the increased danger that oppression from

systems creates for the victim/survivor (i.e., criminal justice system, civil courts,

child welfare).

The term “battered woman syndrome” describes domestic violence as a personal

problem, and does not focus on the societal factors that cause it (Wilson, 2019).

It focuses on the abusive partner’s behavior while ignoring the victim/survivor’s

reactions, strategies and resilience (also noted by Serrata, 2017). In addition, it

doesn’t consider health issues that may impact the victim/survivor’s ability to seek

help, nor the layers of trauma, historical and current, that the survivor has endured.

2.3.6 Relevance of the theory

The cycle model contributed to understanding domestic violence and the base which

motivation for future possible kidnapping traits is formed in part because it refuted

several myths that were widely believed at the time. One myth was that people

experiencing violence stay in abusive relationships because they are masochistic or

otherwise experiencing serious mental or emotional issues. Other myths included the

perceptions that domestic violence occurs infrequently, randomly, and primarily

among people living in poverty. Walker’s books and articles suggested that abuse or

45
 domestic violence is common and occurs in all social classes, and provided an

alternative way of understanding why survivors may stay in these relationships

(Walker, 1979). Additionally, the “cycle of violence” theory also began the process

of shifting the “ownership” of the violence from the victim to the partner who uses

violence in the same vain, those who perpetrate such violence often find it very easy

to metamorphose into kidnappers as unleashing violence to humans right from the

home front had never been an issue, it also has a great impact on the economy in the

following ways,

 Destruction of economic activities such as farm produce, petty trading and animal

husbandry.

 Loss of productivity and human capital; this resultant effect emanates when locals

are kidnapped and their loved ones have to pay dearly from their little agricultural

earnings.

 Reduction of Foreign Direct Investments. The consistent kidnapping activities within

Guma LGA has deterred many intended investors from investing in both agricultural

and minning activities especially in Barite industrial mineral.

 Weakening of Social Activities. As a result of this dare devil menace, social life such

as football competitions, cultural festivals and religious annual conventions no

longer happens for fear of being a victim.

 Diversion of Resources. Existing business such as mega super markets, warehouses

and agro-allied businesses have all shut down.

 Psychological Impact. So far the people within the locality have been living intense

fear of the unknown hence no one knows when, where, how the dastardly act will be

committed and on who.

46
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This chapter concentrates on the methods and instruments that are to be adapted to

carry out this research. It shall cover location of the study, research design,

population, sample size and sampling techniques, methods of date collection, method

of data analysis and validation of the research instrument aimed at arriving at

dependable solution to the research problem.

3.1 Location of the Study

All the people that constitute the fours of the study are called population. According

(Silver1980) population is the totality of any group, person or objects which is

defined by some unique attributes. This is to say that population is any group of

being the research has fauns attention and chosen a approved topic of the study.

Therefore, the population of this study is Guma local government residents of Benue

State. The population of this study is too infinite. However, only Guma Local

Government Area is purposively selected in this study.

3.2 Research Design

The design of this study is the cross-sectional survey design. Austing and Ogwo

(2009) define cross-sectional survey design as the way of collecting data or

gathering information within short period of time based of the interties of the

researcher.

Anikweze (2009) opines that survey design is the type of research that involve

assessment of the opinion attitudes, achievement, performance and perception of

target population on the topic of interest to the researcher.

47
3.3 Population, Sample and Sampling Techniques

Target areas of the staff Population of Kaambi Ward 32,251, Abinsi Ward 36,449,

Nzorov Ward 23,847, Gbajimba Police Area Comman 37, and Makurdi Police

headquarters 69 making the total 92,653 are few wards to be used in carrying out the

research work on the kidnapping and its effects on socio-economic development of

Guma Local Government Area of Benue State (National Population Census of 2022

projection). However, the population is infinite and remain unknown therefore, the

study employed Cochran sampling formulae to determine the sample size as thus:

no = Z2pq
2
e
Where:
e = desired level of precision (margin of error 5% = 0.05)
p = estimated proportion of the population which has the attributes
in question
q = 1–p
z = z- value (found in a Z – table)
n= (1.96)2 (0.5) (0.5)
(0.05)2
n= 3.8416 x 0.5
0.0025
n= 1.9208
0.0025
n= 384.16

n= 384

The sample size recommended for the study was therefore 384 respondents.

However, this figure will be increased by 10%, i.e.

48
 = 422
This is to cover emergent issues that are common for a study of this nature such as

unreturned and/or unusable questionnaires.

S/N WARD SAMPLE PER WARD

1 Kaambi Ward 130

2 Abinsi Ward 132

3 Nzorov Ward 80

4 Gbajimba Police Area Comman 30

5 Makurdi Police headquarters 50

3.4 Sample Techniques

Sampling technique is a plan specifying how element were draw from the

population. As a result of the large population, which the study could cover, the use

of sample as representative of the large population was employed. Non probability

sampling approach was used for the study, using purposive, and snowball sampling

methods. The purposive and sampling enables the researcher to identify people who

have special insights into the research questions because of their experiences and

contact; thereby having useful data to provide. The snowball process was also used.

this process enable the researcher to identify and contact victim of kidnapping.

3.5 Method of Data Collection

The relevant data for this study were collected through the two methods, namely;

Primary and secondary method of Data collection.

49
 i. Primary Sources of Data: primary information related to this study was

generated from the sample population. The sample population was responsible

for a huge chunk of the primary information through the response to the

administered question.

ii. Secondary Sources of Data Collection: The secondary sources involved the use

of existing both related data, which were produced by earlier researcher for the

purpose contributing there quarter to the problem under study. Secondary

sources are useful in appreciating the previous studies for the empirical studies

and can also be use to broaden the best front which generalizations can be made

among other usage. The secondary data used for this study include journal,

magazine, periodical, textbook and internet. However, all authors consulted are

duly acknowledge and sited adequately in the reference of this research work.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

The researcher employed the use of descriptive statistical measurement such as

percentage and tabulation were use to analyze the data collected from various source

in order to draw inference and conclusion. By this technique, the information is

presented in frequency and simple percentage. Therefore, deferent table were

constructed based on the response obtained during the study.

50
References

Abubakar, O. K. G. (2014). Nigeria: Report of Borno Visit (North-Eastern

Nigeria).

Abolurin, A. (2010), Security and its Management in Nigeria. Ibadan: John

Archers Publishers
Abolurin, A. (2011), “Para-Military Agencies and the Promotion of Good
Governance for National Security in Nigeria” in Ade

Adedoyin, A. (2013), “An Appraisal of the Multidimensional Nature of

Security in the Post-Cold War Africa” in African Journal of Stability and
Development. Volume 7, (No 2 Page 113 – 130)

Adesoji, A. (2010). The Boko Haram Uprising and Islamic Revivalism in

Nigeria/Die Boko Haram-Unruhen und die Wiederbelebung des Islam in Nigeria.
Africa Spectrum,(p95108).

Agbiboa, D. (2013). The ongoing campaign of terror in Nigeria: Boko Haram

versus the state. Stability: International Journal of Security and
Development,(p2).

Agbiboa, D. (2015). Resistance to Boko Haram: Civilian Joint Task Forces in

North-Eastern Nigeria. Conflict Studies Quarterly.

Agbiboa, D. E. (2014). Peace at Daggers Drawn? Boko Haram and the state
of emergency in Nigeria. Studies in Conflict &Terrorism,(p 37, 41-67).

AL Jazeera And News Agencies: Security forces rescue 14 students abducted in Nigeria’s
Zamfara State. 26 Sep 2023
Betts, R. K. (1978). Analysis, war, and decision: Why intelligence failures are
inevitable. World Politics,(p31, 61-89).

Betts, R. K. (2009). Enemies of intelligence: Knowledge and power in

American national security, Columbia University Press.

Black, I. &Morris, B. (199). Israel's secret wars: a history of Israel's

intelligence services, Grove Press.

Blair, D. (2015). Boko Haram is now a mini-Islamic State, with its own
territory. the telegraph,(p30).

51
Blanchard, L. P. (2014). Nigeria's Boko Haram: Frequently Asked
Questions. Current Politics and Economics of Africa,(p7, 143).

Blanquart, G. (2012). Boko Haram: Terrorist Organization, Freedom

Fighters or Religious Fanatics? An Analysis of Boko Haram Within Nigeria, an
Australian Perspective and the Need for Counter Terrorism Responses that Involves
Prescribing them as a Terrorist Organization.
Boyce, C. &Neale, P. (2006). Conducting in-depth interviews: A guide for
extremists?

Campbell, J. (2014). Boko Haram: origins, challenges and responses.

NOREF Policy Brief.

Checkel, J. T. (1998). The constructive turn in international relations theory.

World politics,(p 50, 324-348).

Chothia, F. (2012). Who are Nigeria’s Boko Haram Islamists. BBC News, 11.

Clough, P. &Nutbrown, C. (2012). A student's guide to methodology,

Sage.

Comolli, V. (2015). Boko Haram: Nigeria's islamist insurgency, Oxford

University Press.

Connell, S. (2012). To Be Or Not To Be: Is Boko Haram a Foreign Terrorist

Organization? Global Security Studies,(p3).

Cook, D. (2014). Boko Haram: A New Islamic State in Nigeria. James A.

Baker III Institute for Public Policy, 11.

Coulthard, M. &Johnson, A. (2010). The Routledge handbook of

forensic

Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research.

Academy of management review,(p 14, 532-550).

Ekman, P. &Friesen, W. V. (1969). Nonverbal leakage and clues to

deception. Psychiatry,(32, 88-106).

Eme, O. I. (2012). The cost of Boko Haram activities in Nigeria. Oman

Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review,(2, 1032).
Eme, O. I., Okpaga, A. & Ugwu, S. C.(2012). Activities of Boko Haram

52
 and insecurity question in Nigeria. Oman Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business
and Management Review,(p 1, 77-99).

Fage, K.S. & Alabi, D. O. (2017). Nigerian government and politics. Abuja: Basfa Global
Concept Ltd.

Forest, J. J. (2012). Confronting the terrorism of Boko Haram in Nigeria.

Freeman, M. (2006). International child abduction effects. Reunite International Child

Abduction Centre.

Gill, P. & Phythian, M. (2006). Intelligence in an insecure world, Polity.

Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative

research. The qualitative report,(p 8, 597-606).

Grey, S. (2015). The New Spymasters: Inside the Modern World of Espionage
from the Cold War to Global Terror, St. Martin's Press.

Hegarty, S. (2016). Chibok abduction: The Nigerian town that lost its girls.

Heuer, R. J. (1999). Psychology of intelligence analysis, Lulu. com.

Hopf, T. (1998). The promise of constructivism in international relations

theory. International security,(p 23, 171-200).

Inyang, D. J. & Abrham, U. E. (2013). The social problem of kidnapping and its
implications on the socio-economic development of Nigeria: A study of Uyo
metropolisMediterrnean Journal of Social Sciences, 4(6). 531-544.
Doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p531
Rodney Walter (1973) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa Bogle-L'Ouverture
Publications, London and Tanzanian Publishing House, Dar-Es-Salaam Stuart
Corbridge.(1997) Development Studies.Oxford University Press

Schiller, D. T. (1985). The European experience, in: BM Jenkins (Ed.): Terrorism and

personal protection. Boston: Butterworth, pp. 46-63.

Seale, C. (1999). Quality in qualitative research. Qualitative inquiry,(p 5, 465-478).

Treverton, G. F. (2009). Intelligence for an Age of Terror, Cambridge

University Press.

53
Uzorma, P. N. &Nwanegbo-Ben, J. (2014). Challenges of hostage-taking and kidnapping in
the South-Eastern Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and
Literature. 2(6), 131-142

Walker, A. (2012). What is Boko Haram?, US Institute of Peace.

Williams, P. D. (2012). Security studies: an introduction, Routledge.

Wilson, P. (2009). The English School’s approach to international law.

Theorising International Society. Springer.

Voanews.com/a/africa_gunmen-abduct-students-school-north-central-nigeria/6206417.html
May 30, 2021

54