Chapter 4 Reading Questions

1. Chapter 4.1: In one to three paragraphs, explain how cross-cultural interactions spread technology and
facilitated changes in trade and travel from 1450 to 1750.
Cross-cultural interactions spread technology and facilitated changes in trade and travel from 1450 to 1750
by allowing for more innovations to spread across the globe and through the trade routes. As Europe started
to become more active in the Indian Ocean in order to find more wealth and spread Christianity and as
maritime technology became more developed, technology, especially maritime innovations that helped
cause the creation of new trade routes, began to spread more, and changes developed in other countries due
to it being much easier to travel to more distant places and spread ideas. Overland trade routes also
facilitated the interactions between European and Asian countries, helping spread the new technologies from
each of the regions.

2. Chapter 4.2: In one to three paragraphs, explain the causes and effects of the state sponsored expansion
of maritime exploration.
The causes of the state sponsored expansion of maritime exploration are improved navigation techniques,
countries seeking more revenue, and technological breakthroughs in sailing. Many states in Europe were
trying to convert more people to Christianity in an attempt to undo the actions of the protestant reformation.
As more technologies were developed, making it easier to travel and trade across the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans, more and more countries got involved in maritime exploration in search for more revenue, more
goods, and more converts. All these factors resulted in larger and more powerful countries in Europe taking
over the smaller civilizations, which had been discovered through maritime exploration. These larger
nations were also able to discover new resources and new lands such as the Americas. It increased slave
trade and trade in general between Eurasia and Africa and the Americas.

3. Chapter 4.3: In one to three paragraphs, explain the causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effects on
the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

The causes of the Columbian Exchange are the popularity of maritime exploration and Christopher Columbus;’s
expedition to the New World. After Columbus’s expedition and his discovery of exotic and valuable goods, the
Chapter 4 Reading Questions
Europeans came rushing to the New World. Their arrival brought diseases which the natives did not have any
immunities for, having never been in contact with them, so it killed off more then 50 percent of their population.
New animals were also brought to the New Workd. These new animals caused some plants to go extinct,
causing an imbalance in the ecosystem.

4. Chapter 4.4: In one to three paragraphs, explain how the empires of European states were established
between 1450 and 1750 and what economic and labor systems fueled them.
The empires of European states were established between 1450 and 1750 mainly through the explorations of the
states as they claimed land and established the basis of an empire in the areas they explored. They also set up
trading posts in Asia, Africa, and the Americas, which helped bring in more revenue for the developing empires.
The economic and labor systems that fueled them are mercantilism and hard labor such as slavery and forced
labor. Mercantilism was important for new empires in order to establish wealth and resources by controlling
trade, which allowed the empires to generate revenue to continue expanding. The European empires would
resort to the various labor systems in order to support these endeavors and enrich European powers.

5. Chapter 4.5: In one to three paragraphs, explain the economic strategies maritime empires used to
increase their power and the effect of the developing empires on political, economic, religious, and
cultural dynamics.
The economic strategies maritime empires used to increase their power are trading many goods, investing, and
spending very little precious metals. By trading as many goods possible, the Europeans were able to obtain
maximum amounts of gold and silver, for that is what the wealth of a country is measured on. These empires
would also spend as little of these precious metals as possible in order to maintain their wealth. Joint-stock
companies formed where investors buy and share stocks. This effected the developing empires political,
economic, religious, and cultural dynamics. Developing empires get more involved in trade because of the
profits it made, causing rivalries against countries for control of trade routes on the Indian Ocean. The rise of
the use of these trade routes allowed new connections to contribute to the development of syncretic belief
systems and practices. The political structures started changing as former rulers started being replaced by
colonizers who ruled in the favor of slave trade for profits.
Chapter 4 Reading Questions

6. Chapter 4.6: In one to three paragraphs, explain how the development of state power resulted in external
and internal challenges in the period between 1450 and 1750.
The development of state power resulted in external and internal challenges in the period between 1450 and
1750, such as the resistance to Portugal in Africa, local resistance in Russia, and revolts in the Spanish Empire.
In Africa, Portugal tried to establish a colony after being expelled from South Asia. They unfortunately resorted
to slave raids, which were successful at first. However, the people rebelled against this cruel practice and
despised Portugal's influence. In Russia, the peasants faced severe oppression and their conditions worsened as
demand for grain increased. The Russian princes imposed heavy tribute and taxes, forcing the peasants into
serfdom. As Russia expanded, so did serfdom. Later, a Cossack named Yemelyan Pugachev led a peasant
rebellion against Catherine the Great, who had given the nobility power over the serfs. Pugachev gained a large
following and briefly controlled a significant territory. However, Catherine responded by intensifying her
oppression of the peasants to appease the nobles. In South Asia, the Mughal empire ruled over much of present-
day India and Pakistan. While their centralized government spread Persian art, culture, and Islam, the majority
of the population remained Hindu. The Maratha fought against the Mughals in a series of battles and eventually
established the Hindu Maratha Empire, putting an end to Mughal rule in India.

7. Chapter 4.7: In one to three paragraphs, explain how social categories, roles, and practices were
maintained or changed from 1450 to 1750.
Social categories, roles, and practices were maintained and changed from 1450 to 1750 in many ways. The
Ottoman Empire was quite tolerant towards Jews and Christians, even inviting Jews to settle in Istanbul
after they were exiled from Spain. While they were allowed to worship, they had some restrictions like
living in certain parts of the cities and paying a jizya tax. In the Mughal Empire, Akbar was incredibly
tolerant of all religions. He abolished the jizya tax, provided support to Hindus, Muslims, and even built a
Catholic church. He also showed support for Sikhism. In terms of social classes, the Ottoman Empire had a
small middle class of merchants and artisans, with peasants below them and slaves at the bottom. Barbary
pirates would capture slaves in the Mediterranean and sell them to high-ranking officials as servants. The
Qing Dynasty in China maintained traditional practices like the civil service exam and bureaucracy, but they
were intolerant towards the Han ethnicity. In Europe, there was a hierarchy with royalty at the top, followed
by nobility. Many rulers used their power to destroy opposing nobles and establish absolute rule. In Russia,
social classes remained largely unchanged. In the Americas, social structures underwent significant changes
due to the arrival and influence of Europeans and Africans through the slave trade. Skin color played a
major role in the class hierarchy, and in Latin America, the casta system remained relatively unchanged.
Chapter 4 Reading Questions
8. Chapter 4.8: Identify four historical developments in the period from 1450-1750. Rank them according
to how significant they were in either maintaining continuity or bringing about change. Explain your
rankings in a paragraph.
Four historical developments in the period from 1450 to 1750 from most significant in maintaining
continuity or bringing about change to least significant are innovations in maritime technology, the
Columbian Exchange, mercantilism, and new social structures. Maritime technology innovations are the
most important as they enabled significant advancements in trade and travel. Without them, major historical
events like the Columbian Exchange would either not have occurred or been delayed. The Columbian
Exchange is the second most important as it spread new cultures and technologies in the Americas and
Africa, leading to economic growth in Europe. However, without maritime technology innovations, its
impact would have been much smaller. Mercantilism is the third most important as it contributed to the
development of European Empires, but it gained popularity only after the Columbian Exchange and the
spread of maritime technology. Lastly, new social structures were the least important as they mainly affected
the Americas and had limited global influence, despite changing how people of different ethnicities lived
and were perceived socially.

9. Chapter 4.8: In one to three paragraphs, explain how economic developments from 1450-1750 affected
social structures over time.

Economic developments from 1450 to 1750 affected the social structures over time by increasing the
gap between the middle class civilians and peasant class civilians. As European Empires grew due to the
Columbian Exchange and new maritime technologies, the middle class of white Europeans/Americans
with European descent expanded and provided capital for the Industrial Revolution. However, this led to
inflation. Meanwhile, the peasant class was oppressed as the middle class prospered. Peasant rebellions
were quickly suppressed to avoid conflicts with rulers.