DIGITAL LOGIC AND DESIGN

Topics Covered (Scheme of Studies 2023)

 Boolean Algebra

 Logical Gates

ALGEBRA (Basic Definition)

Boolean algebra, like any other mathematical system, may be defined with

 a set of elements
 a set of operators, and
 a number of unproved axioms or postulates.

Set of Elements
A set of elements is any collection of objects having a common property. If S is a set, and x and y are
certain objects, then x ∈ S denotes that x is a member of the set S, and y ∉S denotes that y is not an
element of S. A set with a number of elements is specified by braces: A = {1, 2, 3, 4), i.e., the elements of
set A are the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4.

Binary Operators
A binary operator defined on a set S of elements is a rule that as signs to each pair of elements from S a
unique element from S. As an example, consider the relation a * b = c. We say that * is a binary operator
if it specifies a rule for finding c from the pair (a, b) and also if a, b, c ∈ S. However, is not a binary
operator if a, b ∈S, whereas the rule finds c ∉ S.

Postulates
The postulates of a mathematical system form the basic assumptions from which it is possible to deduce
the rules, theorems, and properties of the system. The most common postulates used to formulate
various algebraic structures are:

1. Closure.
A set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every pair of elements of S, the binary
operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S. For example, the set of natural
numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4,...} is closed with respect to the binary operator plus (+) by the rules of
arithmetic addition, since for any a , b ∈N we obtain a unique c ∈N by the operation a + b = c.
The set of natural numbers is not closed with respect to the binary operator minus (-) by the
rules of arithmetic subtraction because 2-3-1 and 2, 3 ∈ N, while −1 ∉ N.
2. Associative law.
A binary operator on a set S is said to be associative whenever

(x *y) *z =x* (y *z)

3. Commutative law.

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A binary operator on a set S is said to be commutative whenever

x * x = y * x for all x, y ∈ S
4. Identity element.
A set S is said to have an identity element with respect to a binary operation * on S if there
exists an element e ∈ S with the property e * x = x * e = x for every x ∈ S
Example: The element 0 is an identity element with respect to operation + on the set of integers
I = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} since x + 0 = 0 + x = x for any∈ l
The set of natural numbers N has no identity element since 0 is excluded from the set.
5. Inverse.
A set S having the identity element e with respect to a binary operator * is said to have an
inverse whenever, for every x ∈ S, there exists an element y ∈ S such that x * y = e
Example: In the set of integers I with e = 0, the inverse of an element a is (-a) since a + (-a) = 0.
6. Distributive law.
If * and . are two binary operators on a set S, * is said to be distributive over . whenever
X * ( y . z ) = (x*y). (x*z)

Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra is an algebraic structure defined on a set of elements B together with two binary
operators + and . provided the following (Huntington) postulates are satisfied:
1. Closure with respect to the operator + and .
2. An identity element with respect to
a. + is designated by 0 such that x+ 0= 0+x = x.
b. . is designated by 1 such that x . 1 = 1. x = x
3. Commutative with respect to
a. + such that x + y = y + x
b. . such that x . y = y . х
4. Distributive
a. . is distributive over + such that x . ( y + z ) = ( x . y ) + ( x . z)
b. + is distributive over . such that x + ( y . z )= ( x + y ) . ( x + z)
5. For every element x ∈ B. there exists an element x ' ∈ B (called the complement of x) such that x
x + x ' = 1 and x . x ' = 0.
6. There exists at least two elements x, y ∈ B such that x ≠ y

TWO VALUE BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

A two-valued Boolean algebra is defined on a set of two elements, B = {0, 1}, with rules for the two
binary operators + and. as shown in the following operator tables (the rule for the complement operator
is for verification of postulate 5):

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X Y X .Y X Y X+Y x x
'

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

These rules are exactly the same as the AND, OR, and NOT operations, respectively. We must now show
that the Huntington postulates are valid for the set B = {0, 1} and the two binary operators + and .

1. Closure is obvious from the tables since the result of each operation is either 1 or 0 and 1,0 ∈ B.
2. From the tables we see that
(a) 0 + 0=0 and 1+ 0=1 so 0 is identity element with respect to + operator
(b) 0 . 1 = 0 and 1 . 1 = 1 so 1 is identity element with respect to . operator
3. The commutative laws are obvious from the symmetry of the binary operator tables.
4. The distributive law x . ( y + z ) = ( x. y ) + ( x .z) can be shown to hold true from the operator
tables by forming a truth table of all possible values of x, y, and z. For each combination, we
derive x . (y + z) and show that the value is the same as (x . y) + ( x . z)

The distributive law + is distributive over . such that x + ( y . z )= ( x + y ) . ( x + z) can also be

proved similarly.
5. From the complement table it is easily shown that
(a) x + x ' = 1 , since 0 + 1 = 1+ 0 = 1
(b) x . x ' = 0., since 0 . 1 = 0 and 1 . 0 = 0, which verifies postulate 5.
6. Postulate 6 is satisfied because the two-valued Boolean algebra has two distinct elements, 1 and
0, with 1 ≠ 0.

BASIC THEOREM AND POSTULATES BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

DUALITY PRINCIPLE
It states that every algebraic expression deduce from the postulates of Boolean algebra remains valid if
operator and identity elements are interchanged.

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e.g x + 0 =x from this we can deduce that x . 1 = x

BASIC THEOREMS

BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
A binary variable can take the value of 0 or 1.
A Boolean function is an expression formed with:
 binary variables
 the two binary operators OR and AND
 unary operator NOT
 parentheses, and an equal sign.
For a given value of the variables, the function can be either 0 or 1.
For example, consider the Boolean Function F₁ = xyz' and function F2 = x'yz
The function F1 is equal to 1 if x = 1 and y=1 and z' = 1; otherwise F₁ = 0.
F2 will be equal to 1 when x=0, y=1 and z=1 otherwise F2 will be 0;
The above is an example of a Boolean function represented as an algebraic expression.

A Boolean function may also be represented in a truth table. To represent a function in a truth table, we
need a list of the 2n combinations of 1's and 0's of the n binary variables, and a column showing the
combinations for which the function is equal to 1 or 0.
Consider the following functions expressed as algebraic expression.
F1 = xyz'
F2 = x + y'z
F3 = x'y'z + x'yz + xy'
F4 = xy' + xz'
The above functions can be expressed in the truth table as below
x y z F1 F2 F3 F4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 0

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1 1 1 0 1 0 0

Two functions of n variables are said to be equal if they have same values for all 2n combinations of n
variables e.g. F3 and F4 are equal.

A Boolean function may be transformed from an algebraic expression into logical diagram composed of
AND, OR and NOT Gates.

ALGEBRIC MANIPULATION
Each Boolean function consists of Terms and each Term contains Literals. Literal is a primed or unprimed
variable. When Boolean function is implemented with logical Gates,
 Each Term designate a Gate and
 Each Literal designate input to a Gate.
The minimization of number of Literals and numbers of Terms results in circuit with less equipment.
There are following three ways to simplify Boolean function so that it contains fewer Literals and fewer
Terms:
1. Simplification by Boolean Algebra
2. Simplification by Karnaugh Map
3. Simplification by Tabulation Method

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Simplification of Boolean function by Algebraic Manipulation

Boolean function can be simplified by cut and try procedure employing the postulates and basic
theorem of Boolean algebra. There are no specific Rules to follow that will guarantee the final answer.

Simplify the following Boolean functions to a minimum number of literals.

1) x + x’y
= ( x + x’ )( x + y ) Distributive Law
=1.(x+y) x + x’=1
=x+y x.1=x

2) x ( x’ + y )
= x.x’ + xy Distributive Law
= 0 + xy x.x’=0
= xy x+0=x

3) x’y’z + x’yz + xy’

= x’z’ (y’ + y ) + xy’ Distributive Law

=x’z’ . 1 + xy’ x + x’ = 1
=x’z’ + xy’ x.1=x

4) xy + x’z + yz
=xy + x’z + yz.1 x.1=x
=xy +x’z + yz( x + x’) x+x’=1
=xy +x’z + xyz + x’yz Distributive Law
=xy + xyz + x’z + x’yz Commutative Law
=xy(1 + z) + x’z( 1 + y) Distributive Law
=xy + x’z x + 1=1

5) (x+y)(x’+z)(y+z)
=xy + x’z +yz by Duality Principal
=xy + x’z from Question 4
=(x+y)(x’+z) by Duality Principal

COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION
Complement of a function is obtained by interchanging the AND and OR operator and complementing
each Literal. E.g. if F1= A + B + C then F1’ = A’B’C’ similarly if F2=x’yz then F2’= x + y’ + z’

Find the complement of the following functions by De Morgan’s Law

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1) F1= x’yz + x’y’z

F1’= (x’yz + x’y’z)’
= (x’yz)’. (x’y’z)’
= (x + y’ + z’) (x + y + z’)

2) F2= x (y’z’ +yz)

F2’= [x (y’z’ + yz)]’
= x’ + (y’z’ +yz)’
= x’ + (y + z)( y’ + z’)

CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORM

MINTERM (AND Term) OR STANDARD PRODUCT
For n variables there can be total of 2n MINTERMS. If n=3 then total MINTERMS that can be obtained are
23=8
For n variables:
Each MINTERM is AND Term of n variables with each variable being primed if corresponding bit of
variable is 0 and unprimed if corresponding bit of variable is 1

MAXTERM (OR Term) OR STANDARD SUM

For n variables there can be total of 2n MAXTERMS. If n=3 then total MAXTERMS that can be obtained
are 23=8
For n variables:
Each MAXTERMS is OR Term of n variables with each variable being primed if corresponding bit of
variable is 1 and unprimed if corresponding bit of variable is 0.

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CANONICAL FORM
Boolean function expressed in sum of product or product of sum form is said to be in its canonical form.

Note 1.
n
Number of possible functions that can be formed for n variables are 22 .
2
If n=2 then MINTERMS will be 22=4 and total possible functions will be 22 =16
Boolean function can be expressed as algebraic expression directly from truth table as:

 Sum of Product (SOP)

 Product of Sum (POS)

Sum of Product (SOP)/ Sum of MINTERMS

Function can be expressed from truth table by forming the MINTERMS for each combination of variables
which produce 1 for function and then taking OR of all those Terms E.g. F = xyz + z’y’z.
Complement of Function can be expressed from truth table by forming the MINTERMS for each
combination of variables which produce 0 for function and then taking OR of all those Terms.

Product of Sum (POS)/ Product of MAXTERMS

Function can be expressed from truth table by forming the MAXTERMS for each combination of
variables which produce 0 for function and then taking AND of all those Terms E.g. F = (x’+y’+z’)(x+y+z)
Complement of Function can be expressed from truth table by forming the MAXTERMS for each
combination of variables which produce 0 for function and then taking AND of all those Terms.

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Example
Consider the following table and write each function in SOP and POS form and also write complement
of each function in SOP and POS form.

x y z F1 F2
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

F1 and F2 in sum of product /MINTERM Form Complement of F1 and F2 in sum of product

are as follow /MINTERM Form are as follow.
F1= 001 + 100 + 111 F1’= 000 + 010 + 011 + 101 + 110
F1= x’y’z+ xy’z’ + xyz F1’= x’y’z’+ x’yz’ + x’yz + xy’z + xyz’
F1(x,y,z)=∑ (1 , 4 , 7) F1’(x,y,z)=∑ (0 , 2 ,3 , 5 , 6)
Similarly Similarly
F2= 011 + 101 + 110 + 111 F2’= 000 + 001 + 010 + 100
F2= x’yz+ xy’z +xyz’ +xyz F2’= x’y’z’ + x’y’z + x’yz’ + xy’z’
F2(x,y,z)=∑ (3 , 5 ,6 ,7) F2’(x,y,z)=∑ (0 , 1 ,2 , 4)

F1 and F2 in product of Sum /MAXTERM Form Complement of F1 and F2 in product of Sum

are as follow
F1= (0+0+0).(0+1+0).( 0+1+1).( 1+0+1 ).( 1+1+0)
F1= (x+y+z) .(x+y’+z).(x+y’+z’).(x’+y+z’) .(x’+y’+z)
F1(x,y,z)=∏ (0 , 2 , 3 ,5 , 6)
Similarly
F2= ( 0+0+0 ).( 0+0+1 ).( 0+1+0 ).( 1+0+0 )
F2= ( x+y+z ) .( x+y+z’) .( x+y’+z) .( x’+y+z)
F2(x,y,z)=∏ (0 , 1 , 2, 4 )
/MAXTERM Form are as follow.
F1’= ( 0+0+1 ).( 1+0+0 ).( 1+1+1)
F1’= ( x+y+z’). (x’+y+z ) .(x’+y’+z’)
F1’(x,y,z)=∏ ( 1, 4 , 7 )
Similarly
F2’= ( 0+1+1).(1+0+1). (1+1+0 ) .( 1+1+1 )
F2’= ( x+y’+z’).(x’+y+z’).(x’+y’+z).(x’+y’+z’)
F2’(x,y,z)=∏ (3 , 5 , 6 ,7)

CONVERSION BETWEEN CANONICAL FORMS

If a function F is expressed in sum of product form and we take complement of a Function by De

Morgan’s theorem, then we will get the complement of Function F that is F’ in Product of sum Form.

Note: - Taking complement of function by De Morgan’s Theorem convert the function in sum of product
form to product of sum form and vice versa.

SUMMARY

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 We get F in SOP form by taking those MINTERMS which give 1

 We get F’ in SOP form by taking those MINTERMS which give 0
 We get F in POS form by
o Taking those MAXTERMS which give 0 Or
o Taking complement of F’ expressed in SOP Form
 We get F’ in POS form by
o Taking those MAXTERMS which give 1 Or
o Taking complement of F expressed in SOP Form

Expressing Function in Sum of Product Form

It is sometime convenient to express the Boolean function in sum of MINTERMS form. If the function is
not already in this form, it can be made in this form by:
 First it must be brought into a form AND Terms
 Inspecting Each Term to see if it contains all variables. If it misses variable e.g. x, then the term
will be ANDed with (x + x’)
e.g. y = y.1
= y. (x + x’)
=yx + yx’
=xy + x’y

Expressing Function in Product of Sum Form

It is sometime convenient to express the Boolean function in Product of SUM form. If the function is not
already in this form, it can be made in this form by:
 First it must be brought into a form of OR Terms. This can be done by using distributive laws i.e.
x+yz=(x+y)(x+z)
 Inspecting Each Term to see if it contains all variables. If it misses variable e.g. x, then the term
will be ORed with (x. x’)
e.g. y = y + 0
= y + (x . x’)
=(y+x ) (y+x’)
=(x+y) (x’ +y)

Example
Express the following in sum of product form.

F= A+B’C n=3

Variables are three i.e. A,B,C so each Term should contain 3 variables.

First Term A misses two variables B and C so we will include missing Variable B and C as follow:

A = A.1 x.1=x
= A.(B+B’) x+x’=1
= AB + AB’ Distributive Law
= AB.1 + AB’.1 x.1=x

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= AB(C+C’) + AB’(C+C’) x+x’=1

= ABC + ABC’ + AB’C + AB’C’ Distributive Law

Second Term B’C miss variable A so we will include missing variable A

B’C = B’C.1 x.1=x
= B’C(A+A’) x+x’=1
= AB’C + A’B’C Distributive Law
By combining All Terms, we get
F = ABC + ABC’ + AB’C + AB’C’ + AB’C + A’B’C
The Term AB’C appear twice but we will write it once since x + x=x
F = ABC + ABC’ + AB’C + AB’C’ + A’B’C
= 111 + 110 + 101 + 100 + 001
=m7 + m6 + m5 + m4 + m1
=m1 + m4 +m5 + m6 + m7
F(A,B,C)=∑ (1 , 4 , 5 , 6 ,7 )

Example
Express the following in product of sum form.

F= xy + x’z n=3
= (xy + x’). (xy +z) x+yz=(x+y)(x+z)
=(x+x’)(x’+y).(x+y)(y+z) x+yz=(x+y)(x+z)
=1.(x’+y).(x+z)(y+z’) x+x’=1
=(x’+y).(x+z)(y+z) x+1=x
Each MAXTERM should contains 3 variables
1) x’+y= x’+y + 0 x+0=x
=x’+y + z.z’ x.x’=0
=(x’+y+z)(x’+y+z’) x+yz=(x+y)(x+z)
2) x+z = x+z +0
= x+z + y.y’
= (x+y+z)(x+y’+z)
3) y+z= y+z + 0
=y+z +x.x’
=(x+y+z)(x’+y+z)
Combining all and writing once those MAXTERMS which appears more than one time we get
F= (x’+y+z)(x’+y+z’)(x+y+z)(x+y’+z)
= (1 0 0)(1 0 1) (0 0 0) (0 1 0)
= M4 .M5 .M0 .M2
=M0.M2.M4.M5
F(x,y,z)=∏ (0 , 2 , 4 , 5)

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GATES
A Gate is an electronic circuit that allows or disallows current to flow. Gates are building blocks of binary
circuits. Logical Gates are circuits/block of hardware that produce a logical 1 or logical 0 output signal
based on one or more logical inputs signals. Each logical Gate perform one logical/ Boolean operation
(Boolean/logical Operators are (AND, OR, NOT etc.). Gates are made up of resistors, diodes and
transistors arranged in different ways to perform different operations. Four different names are used for
same circuit

 Digital circuit
 Switching circuit
 logic circuits
 Gales.

COMPOSITION OF LOGIC GATES

High or low binary conditions are represented by different voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal
can be changed as the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the low state is approximately zero
volts (0 V), while the high state is approximately five volts positive (+5 V).

Logic gates can be made of resistors, transistors or diodes. These components are wired together in
specific configurations to ensure they transform the inputs in expected ways. Resistors, for example, can
commonly be used as a pull-up or pull-down resistor. Pull-up and pull-down resistors are used when
there are any logic gate inputs to connect to a logic level 1 or 0. Pull-up resistors are connected to (+5 V),
and pull-down resistors are connected to ground (0 V).

Likewise, transistors provide switching i.e. turning on or off in response to input signals. while diodes
ensure current flows in only one direction to stabilize the circuit.

Commonly used logic gates are transistor-transistor logic (TTL) and complementary metal-oxide-
silicon (CMOS).

BASIC LOGIC GATES

There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XNOR.

 AND GATE
The AND gate is named so because, if 0 is false and 1 is true, the gate acts in the same way as the logical
"and" operator. The following illustration and table show the circuit symbol and logic combinations for
an AND gate. (In the symbol, the input terminals are on the left, and the output terminal is on the right.)
The output is "true" when both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the output is "false." In other words, the
output is 1 only when both inputs are 1.

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 OR GATE
The OR gate gets its name from behaving like the logical inclusive "or." The output is true if one or both
of the inputs are true. If both inputs are false, then the output is false. In other words, for the output to
be 1, at least one input must be 1.

 XOR (Exclusive OR) GATE

The XOR (exclusive-OR) gate acts in the same way as the logical "either/or." The output is true if either,
but not both, of the inputs are true. The output is false if both inputs are "false" or if both inputs are
true. Similarly, the output is 1 if the inputs are different but 0 if the inputs are the same.

 INVERTER (NOT) GATE

A logical inverter, sometimes called a NOT gate, has only one input. A NOT gate reverses the logic state.
If the input is 1, then the output is 0. If the input is 0, then the output is 1.

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 NAND (Negated AND) GATE

The NAND (Negated AND) gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the manner of
the logical operation "and" followed by negation. The output is false if both inputs are true. Otherwise,
the output is true. Another way to visualize it is that a NAND gate inverts the output of an AND gate. The
NAND gate symbol is an AND gate with the circle of a NOT gate at the output.

 NOR (NOT OR) GATE

The NOR (NOT OR) gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is true if both
inputs are false. Otherwise, the output is false.

 XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate

The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination of an XOR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is
true if the inputs are the same and false if the inputs are different. It is also called equivalence Gate.

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Complex operations can be performed using combinations of these logic gates. In theory, there is no
limit to the number of gates that can be arrayed together in a single device. But in practice, there is a
limit to the number of gates that can be packed into a given physical space.

Arrays of logic gates are found in digital ICs. As IC technology advances, the required physical volume for
each individual logic gate decreases, and digital devices become capable of performing more
complicated operations at increasing speeds.

UNIVERSAL GATES:
A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function without need to use any other
gate type. The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates. In practice, this is advantageous since NAND
and NOR gates are economical and easier to fabricate and are the basic gates used in all IC digital logic
families.

NAND Gate is a Universal Gate:

To prove that any Boolean function can be implemented using only NAND gates, we will show that the
AND, OR, and NOT operations can be performed using only these gates.

Implementing an Inverter Using only NAND Gate

A NAND gate can be used as an inverter (NOT gate).

1. All NAND input pins connect to the input signal A gives an output A’.

2.
Implementing AND Using only NAND Gates

An AND gate can be replaced by NAND gates as shown in the figure (The AND is replaced by a NAND
gate with its output complemented by a NAND gate inverter).

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Implementing OR Using only NAND Gates.

An OR gate can be replaced by NAND gates as shown in the figure (The OR gate is replaced by a NAND
gate with all its inputs complemented by NAND gate inverters).

Thus, the NAND gate is a universal gate since it can implement the AND, OR and NOT functions.

NOR Gate is a Universal Gate:

To prove that any Boolean function can be implemented using only NOR gates, we will show that the
AND, OR, and NOT operations can be performed using only these gates.

Implementing an Inverter Using only NOR Gate.

All NOR input pins connect to the input signal A gives an output A’.

Implementing OR Using only NOR Gates

An OR gate can be replaced by NOR gates as shown in the figure (The OR is replaced by a NOR gate with
its output complemented by a NOR gate inverter)

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Implementing AND Using only NOR Gates

An AND gate can be replaced by NOR gates as shown in the figure (The AND gate is replaced by a NOR
gate with all its inputs complemented by NOR gate inverters)

Thus, the NOR gate is a universal gate since it can implement the AND, OR and NOT functions.

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