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Geospatial Technologies
for Land Degradation
Assessment and
Management
Geospatial Technologies
for Land Degradation
Assessment and
Management
R. S. Dwivedi
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Dedicated to
my beloved wife
Asha
Contents
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. xvii

List of Tables............................................................................................................................... xxix
Foreword..................................................................................................................................... xxxi
Preface........................................................................................................................................xxxiii
Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................... xxxv
Author.......................................................................................................................................xxxvii
1 An Introduction to Geospatial Technology.......................................................................1

1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Geospatial Technology.....................................................................................1
1.2 History of Remote Sensing...........................................................................................2
1.3 Electromagnetic Radiation...........................................................................................3
1.3.1 Particle Model....................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Wave Model.......................................................................................................3
1.3.3 Amplitude..........................................................................................................4
1.3.4 Phase...................................................................................................................4
1.3.5 Polarization........................................................................................................4
1.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum...........................................................................................6
1.4.1 The Ultraviolet Spectrum................................................................................6
1.4.2 The Visible Spectrum.......................................................................................6
1.4.3 The Infrared Spectrum....................................................................................6
1.4.4 The Microwave Spectrum...............................................................................7
1.5 Energy–Matter Interactions in the Atmosphere........................................................7
1.5.1 Scattering...........................................................................................................8
1.5.1.1 Rayleigh Scattering...........................................................................8
1.5.1.2 Mie Scattering....................................................................................8
1.5.1.3 Nonselective Scattering....................................................................8
1.5.2 Absorption.........................................................................................................8
1.5.3 Emission.............................................................................................................9
1.6 Atmospheric Windows..................................................................................................9
1.6.1 Atmospheric Windows in Optical Region....................................................9
1.6.2 Atmospheric Windows in Microwave Region............................................ 10
1.7 Energy–Matter Interactions with the Terrain.......................................................... 11
1.7.1 Reflection Mechanism.................................................................................... 11
1.7.2 Transmission Mechanism.............................................................................. 12
1.7.3 Absorption Mechanism................................................................................. 12
1.7.4 Emission Mechanism..................................................................................... 13
1.8 EMR Laws..................................................................................................................... 13
1.8.1 Planck’s Law.................................................................................................... 13
1.8.2 Stefan–Boltzmann Law.................................................................................. 14
1.8.3 Wein’s Radiation Law..................................................................................... 15
1.8.4 Rayleigh–Jeans Law........................................................................................ 16
1.8.5 Kirchhoff’s Law............................................................................................... 16
vii
viii Contents
1.9 Spectral Response Pattern.......................................................................................... 16

1.10 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing.................................................................................. 17
1.11 Remote Sensing Process.............................................................................................. 20
1.11.1 The Source of Illumination............................................................................ 20
1.11.2 The Sensor........................................................................................................ 20
1.11.3 Platforms.......................................................................................................... 20
1.11.4 Data Reception................................................................................................ 21
1.11.5 Data Product Generation............................................................................... 21
1.11.6 Data Analysis/Interpretation........................................................................22
1.11.7 Data/Information Storage.............................................................................22
1.11.8 Archival and Distribution.............................................................................22
1.12 Geographical Information System............................................................................. 23
1.12.1 Components of GIS......................................................................................... 24
1.12.1.1 Hardware.......................................................................................... 24
1.12.1.2 Software............................................................................................ 24
1.12.1.3 Data................................................................................................... 25
1.13 Global Navigation Satellite Systems.......................................................................... 25
1.13.1 GPS Segments.................................................................................................. 26
1.13.1.1 Space Segment................................................................................. 26
1.13.1.2 Control Segment.............................................................................. 26
1.13.1.3 The User Segment........................................................................... 27
1.13.2 Operating Principle of GPS........................................................................... 27
1.13.3 Navigation........................................................................................................ 28
1.13.3.1 Stand-Alone Satellite Navigation.................................................. 28
1.13.3.2 Differential GNSS Navigation....................................................... 29
1.13.3.3 Network-Assisted GNSS Navigation............................................ 29
1.13.3.4 Carrier-Phase Differential (Kinematic) GPS............................... 29
1.14 Organization of This Book......................................................................................... 29
References................................................................................................................................30
2 Passive Remote Sensing....................................................................................................... 31

2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 31
2.2 Remote Sensing Platforms.......................................................................................... 32
2.2.1 Airborne Platforms......................................................................................... 32
2.2.2 Spaceborne Platforms.....................................................................................34
2.2.2.1 Geosynchronous Satellites.............................................................34
2.2.2.2 Polar Orbiting Satellites..................................................................34
2.3 Passive Sensors............................................................................................................. 35
2.3.1 The Optics........................................................................................................ 35
2.3.2 Detectors.......................................................................................................... 37
2.3.2.1 Quantum Detectors........................................................................ 38
2.3.2.2 Photoemissive Detectors................................................................ 38
2.3.2.3 Semiconductor Detectors............................................................... 38
2.3.2.4 Photoconductive Detectors............................................................ 38
2.3.2.5 Photovoltaic Detectors.................................................................... 39
2.3.2.6 Thermal Detectors........................................................................... 39
2.4 Optical Sensors............................................................................................................. 40
2.4.1 Conventional Photographic Cameras.......................................................... 40
2.4.2 Digital Aerial Cameras.................................................................................. 41
Contents ix
2.4.3 Video Cameras................................................................................................ 41

2.4.4 Radiometers..................................................................................................... 41
2.4.4.1 Radiometers Operating in Optical Region.................................. 41
2.4.4.2 Radiometers Operating in Microwave Region...........................43
2.4.4.3 Imaging Spectrometer.................................................................... 46
2.5 Resolution of a Sensor................................................................................................. 47
2.5.1 Spatial Resolution........................................................................................... 48
2.5.2 Spectral Resolution......................................................................................... 49
2.5.3 Radiometric Resolution.................................................................................. 49
2.5.4 Temporal Resolution....................................................................................... 50
2.5.5 Angular Resolution........................................................................................ 50
2.6 Spaceborne Missions with Passive Sensors.............................................................. 50
2.6.1 The Landsat Mission...................................................................................... 50
2.6.2 The SPOT Mission.......................................................................................... 51
2.6.3 Pleiades Mission.............................................................................................. 52
2.6.4 The Indian Earth Observation Mission....................................................... 53
2.6.4.1 Resourcesat-1.................................................................................... 53
2.6.4.2 Resourcesat-2................................................................................... 53
2.6.4.3 Resourcesat-2A................................................................................ 53
2.6.5 The Earth Observing System Mission.........................................................54
2.6.5.1 Terra (EO-AM).................................................................................54
2.6.5.2 Aqua (EOS PM-1).............................................................................54
2.6.6 Earth Observing-1 Mission (EO-1)................................................................ 56
2.6.7 RapidEye.......................................................................................................... 56
2.6.8 Hyperspatial Resolution Earth Missions..................................................... 57
2.6.8.1 WorldView Mission......................................................................... 57
2.6.8.2 Cartosat Mission.............................................................................. 58
2.6.8.3 GeoEye-1........................................................................................... 59
2.6.9 Passive Microwave Missions......................................................................... 60
2.6.9.1 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
AMSU-A�� 60
2.6.9.2 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program.................................. 60
2.6.9.3 Aqua (EO: PM-1).............................................................................. 61
2.6.9.4 Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity Mission.................................. 61
2.6.9.5 Soil Moisture Active Passive Mission..........................................63
2.7 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................64
References................................................................................................................................64
3 Active Remote Sensing......................................................................................................... 67

3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 67
3.2 Active Microwave Sensors.......................................................................................... 67
3.2.1 Imaging Sensors.............................................................................................. 67
3.2.1.1 Real Aperture Radar....................................................................... 68
3.2.1.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar.............................................................. 71
3.2.1.3 The Operating Modes of SAR........................................................ 73
3.2.2 Non-imaging Microwave Sensors................................................................ 75
3.2.2.1 Scatterometers.................................................................................. 76
3.2.2.2 Radar Altimeter............................................................................... 78
3.3 Spaceborne Radars Systems.......................................................................................80
x Contents
3.3.1 RISAT Mission.................................................................................................80

3.3.1.1 RISAT-1..............................................................................................80
3.3.1.2 RISAT-2.............................................................................................80
3.3.2 Sentinel Mission.............................................................................................. 81
3.3.2.1 Sentinel-1.......................................................................................... 81
3.3.2.2 Sentinel-2.......................................................................................... 81
3.3.2.3 Sentinel-3.......................................................................................... 81
3.3.2.4 Sentinel-4.......................................................................................... 81
3.3.2.5 Sentinel-5.......................................................................................... 82
3.3.2.6 Sentinel-5P........................................................................................ 82
3.3.3 CryoSat............................................................................................................. 82
3.3.4 Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity Mission................................................. 82
3.3.4.1 Measurement Principle..................................................................83
3.3.5 Soil Moisture Active Passive.........................................................................83
3.3.6 RADARSAT Mission......................................................................................85
3.3.6.1 RADARSAT Constellation.............................................................85
3.3.7 The Advanced Land Observing Satellite-2................................................. 86
3.3.8 TerraSAR-X and TanDEM-X.......................................................................... 87
3.4 Light Detection And Ranging.................................................................................... 89
3.4.1 Discrete Return LiDAR.................................................................................. 89
3.4.2 Waveform LiDAR............................................................................................ 91
3.4.3 Scanning Mechanism..................................................................................... 91
3.4.3.1 Oscillating Mirror Scanning Mechanism.................................... 91
3.4.3.2 Rotating Polygon Scanning Mechanism...................................... 93
3.4.3.3 Nutating Mirror Scanning System............................................... 93
3.4.3.4 Fiber Pointing System..................................................................... 93
3.4.3.5 Spaceborne LiDAR Mission........................................................... 94
3.4.3.6 Cloud Profiling Radar (CPR)......................................................... 95
3.5 Conclusion..................................................................................................................... 95
References................................................................................................................................ 96
4 Digital Image Processing..................................................................................................... 97

4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 97
4.2 Data Storage Media...................................................................................................... 99
4.2.1 Compact Disc................................................................................................... 99
4.2.2 Digital Versatile Disk..................................................................................... 99
4.2.3 Memory Sticks................................................................................................. 99
4.3 Digital Data Format................................................................................................... 100
4.3.1 Generic Binary............................................................................................... 100
4.3.2 Graphic Interchange Format....................................................................... 100
4.3.3 JPEG................................................................................................................ 100
4.3.4 TIFF and GeoTIFF......................................................................................... 101
4.3.5 Portable Network Graphics......................................................................... 101
4.4 Image Preprocessing................................................................................................. 101
4.4.1 Radiometric Correction................................................................................ 101
4.4.1.1 Atmospheric Effects...................................................................... 101
4.4.1.2 Absolute Atmospheric Correction.............................................. 102
4.4.1.3 Relative Atmospheric Correction................................................ 104
4.4.1.4 Instrumental Errors...................................................................... 104
Contents xi
4.4.2 Corrections for Solar Illumination Variation............................................ 105

4.4.3 Noise Removal.............................................................................................. 105
4.4.4 Geometric Image Correction....................................................................... 107
4.4.4.1 Correction for Systemic Distortions........................................... 108
4.4.4.2 Correction of Nonsystemic Errors.............................................. 109
4.4.5 Image Processing Levels.............................................................................. 110
4.5 Image Enhancement.................................................................................................. 111
4.5.1 Contrast Modification.................................................................................. 111
4.5.1.1 Density Slicing............................................................................... 112
4.5.1.2 Contrast Enhancement................................................................. 112
4.5.1.3 Edge Enhancement and Detection............................................. 117
4.5.2 Multiple Image Manipulation..................................................................... 118
4.5.2.1 Band Ratioing................................................................................ 118
4.5.2.2 Vegetation Indices......................................................................... 118
4.5.2.3 Image Transformation.................................................................. 119
4.6 Image Classification................................................................................................... 126
4.6.1 Unsupervised Classification....................................................................... 126
4.6.1.1 Unsupervised Classification using the Chain Method........... 126
4.6.1.2 Unsupervised Classification using the ISODATA Method..... 126
4.6.1.3 K-Means Clustering Algorithm................................................... 127
4.6.2 Supervised Classification............................................................................ 127
4.6.2.1 Parallelepiped Classification....................................................... 127
4.6.2.2 Minimum Distance Classification.............................................. 128
4.6.2.3 Maximum Likelihood Classification.......................................... 128
4.6.2.4 k-Nearest Neighbors..................................................................... 128
4.6.2.5 Mahalanobis Spectral Distance................................................... 129
4.6.2.6 Artificial Neural Networks.......................................................... 130
4.6.2.7 Object-Oriented Classification.................................................... 130
4.6.2.8 Spectral Angular Mapper Algorithm........................................ 131
4.6.2.9 Spectral Correlation Classifier..................................................... 132
4.6.2.10 Support Vector Machines Classifier........................................... 133
4.7 Digital Change Detection......................................................................................... 134
4.7.1 Image Enhancement Techniques................................................................ 135
4.7.1.1 Univariate Image Differencing................................................... 135
4.7.1.2 Image Regression.......................................................................... 135
4.7.1.3 Image Ratioing............................................................................... 135
4.7.1.4 Principal Component Analysis................................................... 136
4.7.1.5 Multivariate Alteration Detection............................................... 136
4.7.1.6 Post-Classification Comparison.................................................. 136
4.7.1.7 Artificial Neural Network-Based Change Detection............... 137
4.8 Accuracy Assessment................................................................................................ 137
4.8.1 Uni-Temporal Thematic Maps..................................................................... 138
4.8.1.1 Sampling Scheme.......................................................................... 138
4.8.1.2 Accuracy Assessment................................................................... 138
4.8.1.3 Kappa Coefficient (K)................................................................... 139
4.8.2 Multi-Temporal Thematic Maps................................................................. 140
4.9 Conclusions................................................................................................................. 143
References.............................................................................................................................. 144
xii Contents
5 An Introduction to Land Degradation............................................................................ 149

5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 149
5.1.1 Components of Land Degradation............................................................. 150
5.1.1.1 Soil Degradation............................................................................ 151
5.1.1.2 Vegetation Degradation................................................................ 159
5.1.1.3 Water Degradation........................................................................ 159
5.1.1.4 Climate Deterioration................................................................... 159
5.1.1.5 Losses to Urban/Industrial Development................................. 160
5.2 Extent and Spatial Distribution............................................................................... 160
5.3 Land Degradation Assessment................................................................................ 162
5.3.1 Expert opinion/GLASOD Approach......................................................... 162
5.3.2 Remote Sensing-Based Approach............................................................... 163
5.3.2.1 Computation of NDVI Indicators................................................ 164
5.3.2.2 NDVI-to-NPP Conversion............................................................ 164
5.3.2.3 Identification of the Areas Experiencing Land Degradation��164
5.3.3 Biophysical Models....................................................................................... 165
5.3.4 Abandonment of Agricultural Lands........................................................ 165
5.3.5 The Land Degradation Impact Index......................................................... 166
5.4 Conclusions................................................................................................................. 166
References.............................................................................................................................. 167
6 Water Erosion....................................................................................................................... 171

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 171
6.2 Factors of Water Erosion........................................................................................... 171
6.2.1 Climatic Factors............................................................................................. 172
6.2.2 Land Factors.................................................................................................. 172
6.2.2.1 Soil Texture and Clay Mineralogy.............................................. 172
6.2.2.2 Organic Matter.............................................................................. 172
6.2.2.3 Sodium and Other Cations.......................................................... 173
6.2.2.4 Iron and Aluminum Oxides........................................................ 173
6.2.2.5 Antecedent Soil Moisture............................................................. 173
6.2.2.6 Soil Crusting.................................................................................. 173
6.2.2.7 Topography.................................................................................... 173
6.2.2.8 Vegetation....................................................................................... 174
6.3 Water Erosion Models............................................................................................... 174
6.3.1 Empirical Models.......................................................................................... 174
6.3.2 Physically Based Models.............................................................................. 175
6.3.2.1 Water Erosion Prediction Project Model.................................... 175
6.3.3 Mixed Models................................................................................................ 175
6.3.3.1 CREAMS......................................................................................... 175
6.3.3.2 ANSWERS...................................................................................... 176
6.4 Role of Remote Sensing............................................................................................. 176
6.4.1 Spectral Response Pattern of Eroded Soils............................................... 176
6.4.2 Airborne Sensor Data................................................................................... 177
6.4.3 Spaceborne Multispectral Data................................................................... 178
6.4.3.1 Detection of Erosion Features and Eroded Areas.................... 178
6.4.3.2 Monitoring Eroded Lands........................................................... 184
6.4.3.3 Detection of Erosion Consequences........................................... 185
6.4.3.4 Erosion Controlling Factors......................................................... 186
Contents xiii
6.4.3.5 Soil Erosion Risk............................................................................ 186

6.4.3.6 Assimilation of Remote Sensing Data into Runoff and
Erosion Models�� 188
6.5 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 189
References.............................................................................................................................. 190
7 Wind Erosion........................................................................................................................ 197

7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 197
7.2 Background................................................................................................................. 197
7.2.1 Wind Erosion Processes............................................................................... 198
7.2.2 Causative Factors.......................................................................................... 198
7.2.2.1 Soil Erodibility............................................................................... 199
7.2.2.2 Soil Surface Conditions................................................................ 199
7.2.2.3 Soil Texture.................................................................................... 200
7.2.2.4 Climate............................................................................................ 200
7.2.2.5 Vegetation....................................................................................... 200
7.2.2.6 Soil Moisture.................................................................................. 201
7.3 Global Scenario........................................................................................................... 201
7.4.1 Airborne Sensors Data................................................................................. 202
7.4.2 Orbital Sensor Data...................................................................................... 203
7.4.2.1 Detection of Wind Erosion Features and Eroded Areas......... 204
7.4.2.2 Characterization of Dune Activity............................................. 206
7.4.2.3 Measuring Sand Availability....................................................... 206
7.4.2.4 Erosion Control Measures and Impact Assessment................ 208
7.5 Modeling Wind Erosion............................................................................................ 214
7.5.1 Field Scale Wind Erosion Models............................................................... 214
7.5.1.1 Wind Erosion Equation................................................................ 214
7.5.1.2 Revised Wind Erosion Equation................................................. 214
7.5.1.3 Wind Erosion Prediction System................................................ 215
7.5.1.4 Texas Erosion Analysis Model.................................................... 215
7.5.1.5 Wind Erosion Stochastic Simulator............................................ 215
7.5.2 Regional Scale Models................................................................................. 216
7.5.2.1 Wind Erosion on European Light Soils...................................... 216
7.5.2.2 Wind Erosion Assessment Model............................................... 217
7.5.2.3 Integrated Wind Erosion Modeling System.............................. 217
7.5.3 Global Scale Models..................................................................................... 217
7.5.3.1 Dust Production Model................................................................ 218
7.5.3.2 Dust Entrainment and Deposition Model................................. 219
7.5.4 Other Global Dust Models.......................................................................... 219
7.6 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 220
References.............................................................................................................................. 224
8 Soil Salinization and Alkalinization.............................................................................. 229

Coauthored by Dr. Jamshid Fareftih
8.1
Introduction................................................................................................................ 229
8.2
Origin of Salts............................................................................................................. 230
8.3
Nature of Salt-Affected Soils.................................................................................... 231
xiv Contents
8.4 Extent and Spatial Distribution............................................................................... 232

8.5 Soil Salinity Symptoms............................................................................................. 233
8.5.1 Surface Manifestation.................................................................................. 233
8.5.2 The Presence of Halophytic Plants.............................................................234
8.5.3 Crop Performance......................................................................................... 235
8.6 Proximal Sensing....................................................................................................... 235
8.6.1 Spectral Measurements in Laboratory....................................................... 235
8.6.2 In situ Spectral Measurements.................................................................... 237
8.6.3 Frequency-Domain Electromagnetic Techniques.................................... 238
8.6.4 Ground Penetrating Radar Measurements............................................... 239
8.7 Inventory and Monitoring of Salt-Affected Soils.................................................. 239
8.7.1 Airborne Sensors Data................................................................................. 240
8.7.1.1 Aerial Photographs, Videography, and Digital
Multispectral Camera Images�� 240
8.7.2 Orbital Sensor Data...................................................................................... 241
8.7.2.1 Multispectral Visible, NIR, and Thermal IR Sensor Data....... 242
8.7.2.2 Computer-Assisted Digital Analysis.......................................... 246
8.7.3 State-of-the-Art.............................................................................................. 247
8.7.3.1 Temporal Behavior of Salt-Affected Soils.................................. 248
8.7.3.2 Spaceborne Microwave Sensor Data.......................................... 252
8.7.3.3 Spaceborne Hyperspectral Sensor Data..................................... 253
8.8 Solute Transport Modeling.......................................................................................254
8.9 Conclusion...................................................................................................................254
References.............................................................................................................................. 255
9 Soil Acidification................................................................................................................. 263

9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 263
9.2 Background................................................................................................................. 263
9.3 Global Scenario........................................................................................................... 264
9.4 Development of Soil Acidity.................................................................................... 265
9.4.1 Causative Factors of Soil Acidification...................................................... 265
9.4.1.1 Acidic Precipitation....................................................................... 265
9.4.1.2 Acidifying Gases and Particles................................................... 266
9.4.1.3 Acidifying Fertilizers and Legumes.......................................... 266
9.4.1.4 Nutrient Uptake by Crops and Root Exudates......................... 267
9.4.1.5 Mineralization............................................................................... 267
9.4.2 The Impact of Soil Acidification................................................................. 267
9.4.3 Soil Acidity and Base Saturation and Buffering Capacity...................... 268
9.4.4 Soil Acidity and Crop Responses............................................................... 268
9.5 Delineation and Mapping of Acid Soils................................................................. 269
9.5.1 Aerial Photographs....................................................................................... 269
9.5.1.1 Aspect/Elemental Analysis......................................................... 270
9.5.1.2 Physiographic Analysis................................................................ 270
9.5.1.3 Morphogenetic Analysis.............................................................. 270
9.5.2 Spaceborne Multispectral Measurements................................................. 271
9.5.2.1 Visual Interpretation..................................................................... 271
9.5.2.2 Computer-Assisted Digital Analysis.......................................... 276
9.5.3 Mapping Vegetation-Covered Soils........................................................... 279
9.5.4 Digital Soil Mapping.................................................................................... 279
Contents xv
9.6 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 281

References.............................................................................................................................. 281
10 Waterlogging........................................................................................................................ 285
10.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 285
10.2 The Effects of Waterlogging..................................................................................... 286
10.2.1 The Effects on Soils....................................................................................... 286
10.2.2 Plant Responses to Waterlogging............................................................... 286
10.3 Norms for Categorization......................................................................................... 288
10.4.1 In situ Spectral Reflectance Studies............................................................ 289
10.4.2 Aerial Photographs and Airborne Spectral Measurements................... 290
10.4.3 Spaceborne Multispectral Measurements................................................. 290
10.4.3.1 Optical Sensor Data...................................................................... 290
10.4.3.2 Thermal Sensor Data.................................................................... 294
10.4.4 Geophysical Techniques.............................................................................. 295
10.4.4.1 Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR)............................................... 295
10.4.4.2 Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) Sensors................................. 296
10.5 Using Models to Simulate Plant Responses to Waterlogging.............................. 297
10.6 Conclusions................................................................................................................. 298
References.............................................................................................................................. 298
11 Land Degradation due to Mining, Aquaculture, and Shifting Cultivation............ 303

11.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 303
11.2 Global Distribution....................................................................................................304
11.3 Role of Remote Sensing.............................................................................................305
11.3.1 Aerial Photographs.......................................................................................305
11.3.1.1 Mining............................................................................................305
11.3.1.2 Aquaculture...................................................................................305
11.3.1.3 Shifting Cultivation......................................................................306
11.3.2 Sapaceborne Multispectral Measurements...............................................306
11.3.2.1 Mining............................................................................................306
11.3.2.2 Aquaculture................................................................................... 310
11.3.2.3 Shifting Cultivation...................................................................... 315
11.4 Conclusions................................................................................................................. 317
References.............................................................................................................................. 317
12 Drought.................................................................................................................................. 321
12.1
Introduction................................................................................................................ 321
12.2
Background................................................................................................................. 321
12.2.1 Drought Indicators....................................................................................... 323
12.3
Global Scenario........................................................................................................... 324
12.4
Drought Assessment and Monitoring.................................................................... 325
12.4.1 Meteorological Indicators............................................................................ 326
12.4.1.1 Deciles............................................................................................. 326
12.4.1.2 Percent of Normal Precipitation.................................................. 326
12.4.1.3 Palmer Drought Severity Index.................................................. 326
12.4.1.4 Standardized Precipitation Index............................................... 327
12.4.1.5 Crop Moisture Index..................................................................... 327
12.4.1.6 Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index............ 328
xvi Contents
12.4.1.7 Soil Moisture Deficit Index.......................................................... 328

12.4.1.8 Surface Water Supply Index......................................................... 329
12.4.2 Remote Sensing-Based Methods................................................................ 329
12.4.2.1 Estimation of Meteorological Parameters.................................. 330
12.4.2.2 Drought Impacts............................................................................ 332
12.4.3 Process-Based Indicators............................................................................. 337
12.4.4 Water Balance Approach............................................................................. 338
12.5 Drought Forecasting.................................................................................................. 339
12.5.1 Regression Analysis..................................................................................... 339
12.5.2 Time Series Analysis.................................................................................... 339
12.5.3 Probability Models.......................................................................................340
12.5.4 ANN Model...................................................................................................340
12.5.5 Hybrid Models.............................................................................................. 341
12.6 Long-Lead Drought Forecasting.............................................................................. 341
12.7 Drought Monitoring Systems: Global Scenario..................................................... 341
12.7.1 Global Integrated Drought Monitoring and Prediction System............342
12.7.1.1 Approach........................................................................................342
12.7.2 European Drought Monitoring System.....................................................343
12.7.3 Drought Monitoring System for South Asia.............................................344
12.7.4 Indian National Agricultural Drought Assessment and
Monitoring System ��344
12.8 Conclusion...................................................................................................................346
References.............................................................................................................................. 347
13 Land Degradation Information Systems........................................................................ 355

13.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 355
13.2 Background................................................................................................................. 356
13.2.1 Components of an IS.................................................................................... 356
13.3 Database...................................................................................................................... 358
13.3.1 Database Model............................................................................................. 358
13.3.1.1 Hierarchical Model....................................................................... 358
13.3.1.2 Network Model.............................................................................. 358
13.3.1.3 Relational Model........................................................................... 359
13.3.1.4 Object-Oriented Model................................................................. 360
13.4 Land Degradation ISs................................................................................................ 361
13.4.1 Soil Database................................................................................................. 362
13.4.1.1 Data Acquisition............................................................................ 362
13.4.1.2 Geo-referencing and Creation of Digital Data.......................... 362
13.4.1.3 Data Verification and Editing...................................................... 363
13.4.1.4 Data Updation................................................................................ 363
13.4.1.5 Soil Degradation Data.................................................................. 363
13.4.1.6 Soil ISs............................................................................................. 363
13.5 Gladis/GIS System..................................................................................................... 369
13.5.1 Panning Method........................................................................................... 374
13.5.1.1 Metadata, Formats and Resolution Information, Layers......... 374
13.6 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 375
References.............................................................................................................................. 376
Index..............................................................................................................................................379
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 The electromagnetic radiation...............................................................................3

Figure 1.2 Wavelength and amplitude of the electromagnetic radiation..........................4
Figure 1.3 The concept of the phase of electromagnetic radiation.....................................5
Figure 1.4 (a) Horizontally polarized wave is one for which the electric field lies
only in the y–z plane. (b) Vertically polarized wave is one for which
the electric field lies only in the x–z plane...........................................................5
Figure 1.5 The electromagnetic spectrum..............................................................................6
Figure 1.6 The atmospheric windows in visible and infrared regions............................ 10
Figure 1.7 Absorption bands in microwave region............................................................ 10
Figure 1.8 Schematic of a reflection from a specular reflector.......................................... 12
Figure 1.9 Near-perfect diffuse reflector and Lambertian surface..................................... 12
Figure 1.10 Reflection/scattering, absorption, transmission, and emission..................... 13
Figure 1.11 pectral distribution of energy radiated by blackbodies at various
S
temperatures.......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 1.12 Spectral reflectance pattern of water and other major terrain features........ 17
Figure 1.13 A
Comparison of multispectral and hyperspectral response patterns
of vegetation.......................................................................................................... 18
Figure 1.14 he concept of hyperspectral imagery. Image measurements are
T
made at many narrow contiguous wavelength bands, resulting in a
complete spectrum for each pixel....................................................................... 19
Figure 1.15 Two-dimensional projection of a hyperspectral cube..................................... 19
Figure 1.16 he remote sensing system. A = energy source/illumination;
T
B = radiation and the atmosphere; C = interaction with the object;
D = recording of energy by the sensor; E = transmission, reception,
and processing; F = interpretation/analysis; and G = applications............... 20
Figure 1.17 hree major components of a Geographic Information System. These
T
components consist of input, computer hardware and software, and
output subsystems................................................................................................ 24
Figure 1.18 GIS data–thematic data layers............................................................................. 25
Figure 1.19 GPS nominal satellite constellation.................................................................... 26
Figure 1.20 A GPS receiver....................................................................................................... 27
Figure 1.21 Third dimension positioning using GPS........................................................... 28
Figure 2.1 Remote sensing platforms................................................................................... 33
xvii
xviii List of Figures
Figure 2.2 Schematic of a geostationary orbits. Polar as well as low-earth orbits

are also shown........................................................................................................34
Figure 2.3 Schematic representation of a sun-synchronous orbit..................................... 35
Figure 2.4 Schematic of a conventional photographic camera........................................... 40
Figure 2.5 Sketch of an opto-mechanical scanner................................................................42
Figure 2.6 Sketch of a push-broom scanner..........................................................................43
Figure 2.7 S
chematic diagram of a microwave radiometer using heterodyne
principle...................................................................................................................44
Figure 2.8 S
chematic diagram showing working principle of a microwave
radiometer............................................................................................................... 45
Figure 2.9 V
arious types of scanning mechanisms. In imaging spectrometer
both line array detectors and area array detectors are used. Area array
detector is, however, very common..................................................................... 47
Figure 2.10 A
n illustration of the effects of spatial resolution on detectability of
terrain features....................................................................................................... 49
Figure 2.11 howing the effect of malfunctioning of scan line corrector (SLC) (a),
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sketch of part of the uncorrected image (b), and after correction (c)
Data gaps produced from the SLC-off mode have alternating wedges
with the widest parts occurring at the scene edge........................................... 51
Figure 2.12 Cartosat 1 stereo and wide swath imaging........................................................ 62
Figure 2.13 The microwave imaging radiometer with aperture synthesis (MIRAS).......63
Figure 3.1 Schematic of a typical active microwave system components......................... 68
Figure 3.2 Imaging geometry of a side-looking airborne real aperture radar................. 70
Figure 3.3 R
elationship between real aperture and synthetic aperture radar.
Where D is real aperture; β is real beam width, βs is synthetic aperture
beam, h is height, ∆Ls is azimuth resolution, ψ is off-nadir angle.................. 72
Figure 3.4 The strip map SAR operation mode.................................................................... 73
Figure 3.5 Bore sight imaging geometry: the antenna pointing angle is equal to 90°...... 74
Figure 3.6 S
quinted imaging geometry: the antenna pointing angle is different
from 90°.................................................................................................................... 74
Figure 3.7 Spotlight SAR operation mode............................................................................. 75
Figure 3.8 Scan SAR operation mode; two-sub swath case................................................ 75
Figure 3.9 NSCAT viewing geometry....................................................................................77
Figure 3.10 SeaWinds viewing geometry...............................................................................77
Figure 3.11 The concept of deramp technique....................................................................... 79
Figure 3.12 Artist’s rendition of SMOS mission.....................................................................83
List of Figures xix
Figure 3.13 rtist’s rendition of the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP)
A
spacecraft in orbit...................................................................................................84
Figure 3.14 The RADARSAT-1 spacecraft and illustration of observation geometries...... 85
Figure 3.15 A
rtist’s rendition of the RADARSAT constellation mission imaging
concept..................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 3.16 RADARSAT constellation imaging modes......................................................... 87
Figure 3.17 The imaging modes of ALOS-2 mission............................................................. 88
Figure 3.18 An airborne LiDAR system..................................................................................90
Figure 3.19 bservational differences between discrete-return and full-waveform
O
LiDAR......................................................................................................................90
Figure 3.20 arious kinds of commonly used laser scanners (clock-wise)
V
oscillating mirror scanner, Palmer scanner, fibre scanner and rotating
polygon.................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 3.21 Oscillating mirror scanning pattern................................................................... 92
Figure 3.22 Rotating polygon scanning pattern.................................................................... 93
Figure 3.23 Nutating mirror scanning pattern...................................................................... 94
Figure 3.24 Fiber scanning pattern.......................................................................................... 94
Figure 3.25 Illustration of the CloudSat spacecraft............................................................... 95
Figure 4.1 Digital image.......................................................................................................... 98
Figure 4.2 A
n illustration of the contents of a Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV digital data
(digital numbers—DN values) for vegetation, soils, and water body.
Note the low DN values for water body in columns 8, 9, and 10, and
rows 18–20 in all the spectral bands................................................................... 98
Figure 4.3 Stripping in satellite image and its correction................................................ 106
Figure 4.4 V
ertical striping correction in Resourcesat-1 AWiFS image. The vertical
stripes highlighted with red box (left) have been removed (right)................ 106
Figure 4.5 N
oise correction in spectral band 2 of Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV image.
The image in the left (a) displays vertical stripping—characteristics
of push-broom sensors—and (b) shows the image after employing
necessary noise corrections............................................................................... 107
Figure 4.6 Pixel dropouts in Resourcesat-1 LISS-IV-band 2 image................................. 107
Figure 4.7 Bow-tie effect in Terra/Aqua MODIS image................................................... 109
Figure 4.8 Landsat-MSS band 4 (0.7–1.1 µm) of March 2, 1985 raw digital data
(a), linearly stretched data (b), and corresponding histograms of raw
digital data and linear-stretched data area given in (c)................................. 112
andsat-MSS band 4 (0.7–1.1 µm) of March 2, 1985 raw digital data (a)
Figure 4.9 L
and nonlinear-stretched data (b). The histograms of the raw digital
data and nonlinear-stretched data area given in (c)....................................... 113
xx List of Figures
Figure 4.10 A
n illustration of histogram equalization: raw digital LISS-IV image
(a), corresponding histogram (b), histogram-equalized image (c), and
the histogram of the stretched image (d)......................................................... 114
Figure 4.11 A
n illustration of histogram matching. The first principal component
(pc1) of LISS-IV multispectral image (a), Cartosat-1 2.5 m-PAN image
(b), and histogram-matched image of pc1 (c).................................................. 115
Figure 4.12 n example of spatial filtering of resourcesat-2 LISS-IV data (a), 3 × 3
A
high-pass-filtered data (b), 3 × 3 median-filtered data (c), and 3 × 3 low-
pass-filtered data (d)............................................................................................ 116
Figure 4.13 Cartosat-2 PAN raw image (a) and Fourier-transformed image (b)............. 117
Figure 4.14 dge enhancement and detection. Cartosat-1 2.5 m-PAN image (a), and
E
the image background with edges (b).............................................................. 118
Figure 4.15 he ratio image of Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV dada of October 1, 2015.
T
The spectral band-2 by band-3 image (a), and spectral band-3 by
band-2 image (b). Note the regular-shaped very light gray to white
agricultural fields in center of the image as well as upper-right and
lower-left corner of image (b). Although these features are also
conspicuous in image (a), they stand out much better in band 3 by 2
image...................................................................................................................... 119
Figure 4.16 Principal component analysis of Landsat-8 OLI data.................................... 120
Figure 4.17 Kauth-Thomas transformation.......................................................................... 122
Figure 4.18 T
he standard FCC of Landsat-8 OLI data (a), and the tasseled cap-
transformed image (b)........................................................................................ 123
Figure 4.19 M
odels of IHS color spaces: (a) The color cube model (b) The color
cylinder model..................................................................................................... 123
Figure 4.20 A
n illustration of digital image fusion for Cartosat-1 PAN data
with 2.5 m spatial resolution and Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV image
generated through the Brovey, IHS, and principal component
transformations.................................................................................................... 125
Figure 4.21 esourcesat-2 LISS-IV digital raw image acquired on March 7, 2017 (a)
R
and Salt-affected soil map derived using ISODATA classifier (b). Biege
color denotes severely salt-affected soils, magenta moderately salt-
affected soils, yellow crop with very good vigor, and green crop with
moderate vigor..................................................................................................... 127
Figure 4.22 esourcesat-2 LISS-III digital raw image (a) and thematic map derived
R
using K-mean classifier (b). Pink color indicates moderately deep to
deep ravines, cyan shallow ravines, yellow cropland with very good
vigor, sienne crop with moderate vigor........................................................... 129
Figure 4.23 alt-affected soil map of the area shown in Figure 4.21a developed
S
using maximum likelihood classifier. The pink color denotes salt-
affected soils, yellow crop, and blue water body............................................ 129
List of Figures xxi
S
using Mahalanobis spectral distance classifier. Pink color denotes
salt-affected soils, yellow crop, and blue indicates water body.................... 130
Figure 4.25 he concept of an artificial neural network. Each circular node
T
represents an artificial neuron and an arrow represents a connection
from the output of one neuron to the input of another.................................. 132
S
using spectral angle mapper classifier. Pink color denotes salt-affected
soils, yellow color cropland................................................................................ 133
S
using spectral correlation classifier. Pink color denotes salt-affected
soils, yellow color cropland................................................................................ 134
Figure 4.28 ap showing mining areas in part of Andhra Pradesh, southern
M
India. The map has been developed using support vector machine
algorithm............................................................................................................... 141
Figure 4.29 n illustration of the framework for accuracy assessment of single-
A
date and multi-temporal change detection approaches (Macleod and
Congalton, 1998; http://info.asprs.org/publications/pers/98journal/
march/1998_mar_207-216.pdf, accessed on June 10, 2017)............................. 143
Figure 5.1a Soil and water being splashed by the impact of a single raindrop.............. 152
Figure 5.1b I n spite of across slope tillage operation sheet erosion is taking place
due to the absence of adequate protective vegetation cover during
rainy season......................................................................................................... 152
Figure 5.1c Deep gully formstion due to vertical erosion owing poor soil structure...... 152
Figure 5.1d Rill erosion as observed in the field.................................................................. 153
Figure 5.2 A schematic of wind erosion process............................................................... 153
Figure 5.3 Human-induced soil degradation around the world..................................... 161
Figure 5.4 lobal Assessment of Human-induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD)
G
(Oldeman et al., 1991)........................................................................................... 162
Figure 6.1 heet and rill erosion around Nagireddipalle village, Kurnool district,
S
Andhra Pradesh, southern India as seen in Resourcesat-1 LISS-III image...... 179
Figure 6.2 heet erosion as seen in Resourcesat-1 LISS-III images during three
S
cropping seasons, namely kharif (rainy season), November 2005, rabi
(winter season), February 2006, and zaid crop April 2006. The ground
photograph of the area experiencing sheet erosion could be seen
adjacent to April 2006 image.............................................................................. 179
Figure 6.3 ills and gullies as seen in Resourcesat-1 LISS-III images during three
R
cropping seasons, namely kharif (rainy season), October 2004; rabi
(winter season), February 2005; and zaid crop April 2005. The ground
photograph of the area experiencing sheet erosion could be seen
adjacent to April 2005 image.............................................................................. 180
Figure 6.4 ills and gullies as seen in Landsat-TM image covering part of
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Belgaum district, Karnataka, southern India.................................................... 181
xxii List of Figures
Figure 6.5 (a) Shallow ravines in part of Mahoba district, Uttar Pradesh, northern
India. (b) Valley land in the foreground (lower left) with fallow
agricultural land amidst medium deep ravines. (c) Very deep ravines
along the river Chambal bordering Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh, northern India. The elevated terrain in the background
indicates the original elevation of the terrain before it had turned into
ravines. Similarly, the isolated two structures- a shrine and an isolated
house (d) attest the extent to which the terrain has been deformed due
to very severe water erosion................................................................................. 181
Figure 6.6 avines in parts of northern India along the river Chambal as seen in
R
Resourcesat-1 LISS-III images during three cropping seasons, namely
kharif (rainy season), October 2004; rabi (winter season), February
2005; and zaid crop, April 2005. The February image provides ample
contrast with the agricultural crop background (seen in different hues
of red color). Whereas moderately deep-to-deep ravines exhibit dark
bluish green color shallow ravines confining to peripheral land show
up in light bluish color. The ground photographs vividly show the
magnitude of dissection (erosion) of the terrain............................................... 182
Figure 6.7 avines as seen along the river Chambal and Yamuna, in Landsat MSS
R
image of February 28, 1975. As evident from the image ravines have
devastated a fairly large areas of erstwhile fertile agricultural lands........... 183
Figure 6.8 Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV image with 5.8 m spatial resolution and acquired
on February 24, 2017 showing meandering Yamuna river in blue colour,
standing winter season crops in red colour on river terraces. Deep to
very deep ravines- network of gullies, with varying widths and side
slopes in green and reddish brown colour indicating scrubs. Etawah
town is located at the upper right corner........................................................... 184
Figure 7.1 The effect of vegetation cover on wind transport............................................. 201
Figure 7.2 egraded dry land area susceptible to wind erosion. Note that the
D
white areas are non-degraded: the Sahara sand desert e.g. is not
considered as being degraded.............................................................................. 202
Figure 7.3 Active barchan (crescent-shaped) dunes in part of Thar desert,
Rajasthan, western India as captured by Resourcesat-1 LISS-III
sensor in October, January, and April images during 2005–2005. The
establishment of vegetation cover seen adjacent to April 2006 image.
Of the three-period LISS-III images, the post-monsoon (October 2005)
shows vegetation in light pinkish color. Blue circle indicates sand sheet
and green color unstabilized barchans dunes................................................... 204
Figure 7.4 artially stabilized longitudinal dunes (finger-like structures) in part
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of Thar desert, Rajasthan, western India as captured by Resourcesat-1
LISS-III sensor in October, January, and April images during 2005–
2006. The establishment of vegetation cover (ground photo) seen
adjacent to April 2006 image. Of the three-period LISS-III images, the
post-monsoon (October 2005) image shows vegetation in light pinkish
color.........................................................................................................................205
List of Figures xxiii
Figure 7.5 S
helterbelt in part of Ganganagar district, Rajasthan, western
India, for protection of crops from wind erosion as captured by
Resourcesat-1 LISS-IV...................................................................................... 208
Figure 7.6 I llustrating the effect of protecting the areas with wind erosion
activities from cattle grazing and human encroachments in an area
around western Rajasthan, western India.................................................... 209
Figure 7.7 evelopment of crop land due to introduction of canal irrigation
D
around Suratgarh, part of Ganganagar district, Rajasthan, western
India.................................................................................................................... 210
Figure 7.8 aterlogged areas and other land use/land cover categories in (a)
W
1975, (b) 1985, (c) 1990, (d) 1995, and (e) 2002.................................................. 211
Annexure 7a A
ground photo showing severe wind erosion encroaching
boundary wall in village in western Rajasthan, western India................. 221
Annexure 7b ground photo stabilized dunes in western Rajasthan, western
A
India................................................................................................................... 221
Annexure 7c A
ground photograph sowing mixed pearl millet crop on a stabilized
sand dune in part of Thar desert, Rajasthan, western India....................... 222
Annexure 7d obile dune encroaching the village in part of Thar desert,
M
Rajasthan, western India.................................................................................222
Annexure 7e Barchan dunes in part of Thar desert, Rajasthan, western India..............223
Annexure 7f resh sand deposition in an active wind erosion terrain in the
F
periphery of Thar desert, Rajasthan, western India..................................... 223
Figure 8.1 xcessive soil degradation caused by soil salinity, Southeast Iran
E
(Farifteh, 1988)................................................................................................... 230
Figure 8.2 everely salt-affected soils in (a and b) Dashat-e-Kavir, Iran, (c)
S
Northeast of Thailand, (d) South of Spain; Laguna de Fuente de
Piedra (Farifteh, 2007)...................................................................................... 232
Figure 8.3 lobal distribution of solanchalks based on WRB and FAO/
G
UNESCO soil map of the world (FAO, 1998)................................................. 232
Figure 8.4 urface features formed as the results of excessive salt accumulation
S
in soil: (a) Dashat-e-Kavir, Iran; (b) South Spain; (c) Tedej, Northeast
Hungary; and (d) Northeast of Thailand......................................................234
Figure 8.5 ocket of saline soils encapsulated in agricultural fields: (a)
P
Southwest Australia, (b) Northeast Thailand, (c) Southeast Iran, and
(d) South Spain..................................................................................................234
Figure 8.6 aboratory spectra of salt-affected soils from soil materials
L
impregnated by different evaporate minerals.............................................. 236
Figure 8.7 hermal infrared emissivity laboratory spectra of salt minerals
T
including chloride (halite), sulfate (gypsum), and carbonate
(magnesite and calcite). Spectra are offset for clarity.................................. 237
xxiv List of Figures
Figure 8.8 alt-affected soils in black soils (Vertisols) as seen in IRS-1C LISS-III
S
image with 24 m spatial resolution in part of Guntur district, Andhra
Pradesh, southern India. Here salt-affected soils are confined to the
stream beds. The source rock for sodium bearing mineral (plagioclase
feldspar) that impart salinity and/or sodicity to the soils are located in
the upper slope. After weathering of rock the mineral is released and
is carried away by fluvial activities................................................................... 243
Figure 8.9 esourcesat-2 LISS-IV image over an alluvial plain, part of Etah
R
district, Uttar Pradesh, northern India. Salt-affected soils could be
seen in different shades white color. The light reddish brown color
represents salt-affected soils under different stages of reclamation............ 244
Figure 8.10 alt-affected soils developed on the Indo-Gangetic alluvium as seen
S
in IKONOS-2 image in part of Sitapur district, Uttar Pradesh, northern
India (after Dwivedi, 2008). By virtue of higher spatial resolution, even
individual mango tree is also seen.................................................................... 244
Figure 8.11 uickBird image of Northeast Thailand. The letter ‘S’ indicates saline
Q
soils........................................................................................................................ 245
Figure 8.12 S
alt-affected soil map derived from Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV digital
data of March 7, 2017 using ISODATA classifier. Beige color denotes
severely salt-affected soils, magenta moderately salt-affected soils,
yellow crop with very good vigor and green crop with moderate vigor...... 247
Figure 8.13 n illustration of intra-annual variations in spectral response patterns
A
of salt-affected soil in part of Etah district, Uttar Pradesh, northern
India. Note the manifestation of a pocket of salt-affected soils in the
lowerleft of image acquired on March 6, 2014 seen as white color
(adjacent to canal-linear feature in blue color) on three other dates
(April 23, May 9, and June 26, 2014). During the month of March when
rabi (winter season) crop is in its maximum vegetative growth stage it
provides very good image contrast that helps in improved delineation
of these soils.......................................................................................................... 249
Figure 8.14 emporal behavior of salt-affected soil as seen in Landsat images for
T
1973, 1975, 1998, 2011, and 2014. The numeral ‘1’ indicates salt-affected
soils. The red color background shows standing winter crop and the
linear features are irrigation canals. As evident from the unclassified
images (raw images) of different years there has been substantial
shrinkage in the spatial extent of salt-affected soils during 41 years
period..................................................................................................................... 249
Figure 8.15 emporal behaviour of salt-affected soils in part of Jaunpur and
T
Varanasi distiricts of Uttar Pradesh, northern India as seen in
thematic maps derived from Landsat MSS data of March, 1975
(a) and Landsat TM data of March, 1992 (b). Yellow colour indicates
cropland and purple colour salt-affectes soils................................................. 250
Figure 8.16 patio-temporal behavior of salt-affected soils in Periyar–Vaigai
S
command area, part of Tamil Nadu, southern India...................................... 250
List of Figures xxv
Figure 8.17 onitoring salt-affected soils around Kanekallu village, part of

M
Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh................................................................ 251
Figure 8.18 irborne hyperspectral image (HyMap) of saline soils in Toolbin lake
A
in Western Australia............................................................................................ 253
Figure 8.19 Illustrating the estimation of solute concentrations in sub-surface.............254
Figure 9.1 Soil pH map.......................................................................................................... 268
Figure 9.2 (a–c) Root growth comparison in sweet potato cv. Meriken grown in
nutrient solution with aluminum (V. Ila’ava)................................................... 269
Figure 9.3 Schematic diagram of the approach.................................................................. 273
Figure 9.4 cid soils (laterites) as seen in the Resourcesat-2 LISS-III image of
A
various cropping seasons, and on the ground................................................ 275
Figure 9.5 A standard false color composite of IRS LISS III image of the area............. 276
Figure 9.6 Soil map of the area............................................................................................. 276
Figure 10.1 Spectral reflectance pattern of water and other major terrain features....... 290
Figure 10.2 W
aterlogging as manifested on the surface Resourcesat-2 LISS-III
images of three cropping seasons, namely kharif (monsoon) October
2006, rabi (winter season) February 2006, and zaid (summer season)
May 2006. Cyan color of different hues indicates waterlogged areas.
A ground photograph of the waterlogged areas in also appended............. 291
Figure 10.3 he principal component transformation of multi-temporal
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multispectral Landsat MSS and Resourcesat-2 LISS-III data. Within
water bodies shallow water with cyan color and deep and clear water
with dark blue color are very clearly seen. Waterlogged areas are
manifested light yellow to yellow color. In addition canal network
also has come out well........................................................................................ 292
Figure 10.4 aterlogging in part of Mahanadi stage-1 canal command area,
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Odisha, eastern India.......................................................................................... 292
Figure 10.5 he dynamics of waterlogging in part of Indira Gandhi canal
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command area, Ganganagar, Rajasthan, western India as manifested
in multispectral temporal images during the period 1975–2005.................. 293
Figure 10.6 D
etection of sub-surface waterlogging using Landsat TM thermal
band (10.5–12.5 µm) day- and night-time data over part Mahanadi
Stage-I command area, Odisha, eastern India. Yellow full circles
represent ground observation points................................................................ 295
Figure 10.7 radar record obtained with a 200 MHz antenna on a low aeolian
A
dune in North Dakota. The water table provides high-amplitude
linear reflections. The depth of penetration is limited by the
conductivity of the alkaline ground water...................................................... 296
Figure 11.1 patial distribution of swidden practice (including shifting cultivation
S
and slash-and-burn agriculture) in pan-tropical developing countries......305
xxvi List of Figures
Figure 11.2 Schematic diagram of the approach for delineation of mining features...... 307
Figure 11.3 ining features as seen in IRS-1C LISS-III image and Resourcesat-2
M
LISS-IV image around Mugaon, west Madhban, Goa, southern
India. The numeral ‘1’ in LISS-IV image indicates mining pond, ‘2’
mine dump, and ‘4’ agricultural land. White patches within red-
colored background are opencast iron ore mining, and dark red color
indicates the forests...........................................................................................308
Figure 11.4 ining areas as captured by Resourcesat-2 LISS-III in multi-temporal
M
images ranging from post-rainy season to summer. Accompanying
ground photograph provides a glimpse of various features
associated with mining.....................................................................................309
Figure 11.5 chematic diagram of approach for monitoring aquaculture farm
S
ponds................................................................................................................... 311
Figure 11.6 regional view of aquaculture ponds in coastal Andhra Pradesh as
A
captured by Resouecsat-2 LISS-III sensor with 23.5 m spatial resolution.......313
Figure 11.7 quaculture farm ponds as captured by IRS-1C LISS-III and PAN
A
sensors................................................................................................................. 313
Figure 11.8 quaculture ponds as seen in Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV (5.8 m spatial
A
resolution) and Cartosat-1 PAN-merged image. The numeral ‘1’
indicates aquaculture farm ponds (National Remote Sensing
Centre, Indian Space Research Organization, Department of Space,
Government of India)........................................................................................ 314
Figure 11.9 onitoring aquaculture using temporal satellite data over
M
surroundings of Kaikalur, Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh,
southern India.................................................................................................... 315
Figure 11.10 S
hifting cultivation areas (irregular-shaped clearings in light
yellow to light green color) within dense vegetation (dark to very
dark colored background) around Gumti reservoir, part of North
Tripura district, Tripura state, north-eastern region, India as seen in
Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) collected on April 6, 2018
image.................................................................................................................... 316
Figure 11.11 hifting cultivation areas (irregular-shaped clearings in light yellow
S
to light green color) within dense vegetation (dark to very dark
colored background) around Gumti reservoir, part of North Tripura
district, Tripura state, north-eastern region, India as seen in Landsat-
3MSS data of April1 5, 1978 (left) and Landsat-8 OLI, April 6, 2018
(right) images...................................................................................................... 316
Figure 12.1 elationship between various types of drought and duration of
R
drought events.................................................................................................... 322
Figure 12.2 orld drought severity distribution map computed over the 1901–
W
2008 period (modified after World Resources Institute, 2015). Drought
is defined as a continuous period where soil moisture remains below
the 20th percentile at monthly scale (Sheffield and Wood, 2007)................ 324
List of Figures xxvii
Figure 12.3 VCI for the last week of November 2017..........................................................334

Figure 12.4 TCI for the last week of November 2017........................................................... 336
Figure 12.5 VHI for the last week of November 2017.......................................................... 337
Figure 12.6 chematic view of the GIDMaPS algorithm. SPI, standardized
S
precipitation index; SSI, standardized soil moisture index; MSDI,
multivariate standardized drought index........................................................343
Figure 12.7 Methodology for agricultural drought assessment........................................345
Figure 13.1 Components of an information system............................................................ 357
Figure 13.2 A
sample polygon map (a) and its representation in a hierarchical
database model (b)............................................................................................... 359
Figure 13.3 Network database model.................................................................................... 359
Figure 13.4 A relational database model for a map polygon............................................. 360
Figure 13.5 Object-oriented database model........................................................................ 361
Figure 13.6 Simplified representation of ISRIC’s GSIF framework................................... 367
Figure 13.7 rincipal elements and basic sources of the database (Stolbovoiand
P
Fischer, 1997)......................................................................................................... 369
Figure 13.8 Snapshot of the GLADIS/GIS system’s portal................................................. 370
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Scarcely had he uttered these words, when, seizing a palette, he
seated himself at the easel, and was soon totally absorbed in his
occupation. Hour after hour passed unheeded by Sebastian, who
was too much engrossed by the beautiful creation of his pencil,
which seemed bursting into life, to mark the flight of time. “Another
touch,” he exclaimed, “a soft shade here—now the mouth. Yes!
there! it opens—those eyes—they pierce me through!—what a
forehead!—what delicacy! Oh my beautiful—” and Sebastian forgot
the hour, forgot he was a slave, forgot his dreaded punishment—all,
all was obliterated from the soul of the youthful artist, who thought of
nothing, saw nothing, but his beautiful picture.
But who can describe the horror and consternation of the
unhappy slave, when, on suddenly turning round, he beheld all the
pupils, with the master at their head, standing beside him.
Sebastian never once dreamt of justifying himself, and with his
palette in one hand, and his brushes in the other, he hung down his
head, awaiting in silence the punishment he believed he justly
merited. For some moments a dead silence prevailed; for if
Sebastian was confounded at being caught in the commission of
such a flagrant crime, Murillo and his pupils were not less astonished
at the discovery they had made.
Murillo, having, with a gesture of the hand, imposed silence on his
pupils, who could hardly restrain themselves from giving way to their
admiration, approached Sebastian, and concealing his emotion,
said, in a cold and severe tone, while he looked alternately from the
beautiful head of the virgin to the terrified slave, who stood like a
statue before him,
“Who is your master, Sebastian?”
“You,” replied the boy, in a voice scarcely audible.
“I mean your drawing-master,” said Murillo.
“You, Senor,” again replied the trembling slave.
“It cannot be; I never gave you lessons,” said the astonished
painter.
“But you gave them to others, and I listened to them,” rejoined the
boy, emboldened by the kindness of his master.
“And you have done better than listen—you have profited by
them,” exclaimed Murillo, unable longer to conceal his admiration.
“Gentlemen, does this boy merit punishment, or reward?”
At the word punishment, Sebastian’s heart beat quick; the word
reward gave him a little courage; but, fearing that his ears deceived
him, he looked with timid and imploring eyes towards his master.
“A reward, Senor!” cried the pupils, in a breath.
“That is well; but what shall it be?”
Sebastian began to breathe.
“Ten ducats, at least,” said Mendez.
“Fifteen,” cried Ferdinand.
“No,” said Gonzalo; “a beautiful new dress for the next holiday.”
“Speak, Sebastian,” said Murillo, looking at his slave, whom none
of these rewards seemed to move; “are these things not to your
taste? Tell me what you wish for. I am so much pleased with your
beautiful composition, that I will grant any request you may make.
Speak, then; do not be afraid.”
“Oh, master, if I dared—” and Sebastian, clasping his hands, fell
at the feet of his master. It was easy to read in the half-opened lips of
the boy and his sparkling eyes some devouring thoughts within,
which timidity prevented him from uttering.
With the view of encouraging him, each of the pupils suggested
some favor for him to demand.
“Ask gold, Sebastian.”
“Ask rich dresses, Sebastian.”
“Ask to be received as a pupil, Sebastian.”
A faint smile passed over the countenance of the slave at the last
words, but he hung down his head and remained silent.
“Ask for the best place in the studio,” said Gonzalo, who, from
being the last pupil, had the worst light for his easel.
“Come, take courage,” said Murillo gaily.
“The master is so kind to-day,” said Ferdinand, “that I would risk
something. Ask your freedom, Sebastian.”
At these words Sebastian uttered a cry of anguish, and raising his
eyes to his master, he exclaimed, in a voice choked with sobs, “The
freedom of my father! the freedom of my father!”
“And thine, also,” said Murillo, who, no longer able to conceal his
emotion, threw his arms around Sebastian, and pressed him to his
breast.
“Your pencil,” he continued, “shows that you have talent; your
request proves that you have a heart; the artist is complete. From
this day, consider yourself not only as my pupil, but my son. Happy
Murillo! I have done more than paint—I have made a painter!”
Murillo kept his word, and Sebastian Gomez, known better under
the name of the mulatto of Murillo, became one of the most
celebrated painters in Spain. There may yet be seen in the churches
of Seville the celebrated picture which he had been found painting by
his master; also a St. Anne, admirably done; a holy Joseph, which is
extremely beautiful; and others of the highest merit.
At a crowded lecture the other evening, a young lady standing at

the door of the church was addressed by an honest Hibernian, who
was in attendance on the occasion, with, “Indade, Miss, I should be
glad to give you a sate, but the empty ones are all full.”
Sketches of the Manners, Customs, and History
of the Indians of America.
CHAPTER V.
Peru discovered by Francisco Pizarro.—He invites the Inca to visit
him.—Description of the Inca.—Rejects the Bible.—
Treacherously seized by Pizarro.—The Inca proposes to
ransom himself.—The ransom brought.—Pizarro seizes the
gold, then murders the Inca.—Conquers Peru.
When the Spaniards first discovered the Pacific, Peru was a

mighty empire. It extended from north to south more than 2000
miles. Cuzco, the capital city, was filled with great buildings, palaces,
and temples, which last were ornamented, or covered, rather, with
pure gold. The improvements of civilized life were far advanced;
agriculture was the employment of the quiet villagers; in the cities
manufactures flourished; and science and literature were in a course
of improvement which would, doubtless, have resulted in the
discovery of letters.
Their government was a regular hereditary monarchy; but the
despotism of the emperor was restricted by known codes of law.
They had splendid public roads. That from Cuzco to Quito extended
a distance of 1500 miles or more. It passed over mountains, through
marshes, across deserts. Along this route, at intervals, were large
stone buildings, like the caravanseras of the East, large enough to
contain thousands of people. In some instances these caravanseras
were furnished with the means of repairing the equipments and arms
of the troops or travellers.
Such was the ancient empire of Peru, when Francisco Pizarro, an
obscure Spanish adventurer, with an army of only sixty-two
horsemen and a hundred or two foot-soldiers, determined to invade
it. He, like all the other Spaniards who went out to South America,
was thirsting to obtain gold. These men, miscalled Christians, gave
up their hearts and souls to the worship of mammon, and they
committed every horrible crime to obtain riches. But the Christian
who now cheats his neighbor in a quiet way-of-trade manner, to
obtain wealth—is he better than those Spaniards? I fear not. Had he
the temptation and the opportunity, he would do as they did.
At the time Pizarro invaded Peru, there was a civil war raging
between Atahualpa, the reigning monarch, or Inca, as he was called,
and his brother Huascar. These brothers were so engaged in their
strife, that Pizarro had marched into the country without being
opposed, and entered the city of Caxamala on the 15th of
November, 1532. Here the army of the Inca met the Spaniards.
Pizarro was sensible he could not contend with such a multitude, all
well armed and disciplined, so he determined by craft to get
possession of the person of the Inca.
He sent to invite the Inca to sup with him in the city of Caxamala,
and promised then to give an account of his reasons for coming to
Peru. The simple-hearted Inca believed the Spaniards were children
of the sun. Now the Inca worshiped the sun, and thought he himself
had descended from that bright luminary. He was very anxious,
therefore, to see the Spaniards, and could not believe they meant to
injure him; so he consented to visit Pizarro.
Atahualpa took with him twenty thousand warriors, and these
were attended by a multitude of women as bearers of the luggage,
when he set out to visit the Spaniards. The person of the sovereign
was one blaze of jewels. He was borne on a litter plated with gold,
overshadowed with plumes, and carried on the shoulders of his chief
nobles. On his forehead he had the sacred tuft of scarlet, which he
wore as the descendant of the sun. The whole moved to the sound
of music, with the solemnity of a religious procession.
The Inca putting the Bible to his ear.
When the Inca entered the fatal gates from which he was never to
return, his curiosity was his chief emotion. Forgetting the habitual
Oriental gravity of the throne, he started up, and continued standing
as he passed along, gazing with eagerness at every surrounding
object. A friar, named Valverde, now approached, bearing a cross
and a Bible. The friar commenced his harangue by declaring that the
pope had given the Indies to Spain; that the Inca was bound to obey;
that the book he carried contained the only true mode of worshiping
Heaven.
“Where am I to find your religion?” said the Inca.
“In this book,” replied the friar.
The Inca declared that whatever might be the peaceful intentions
of the Spaniards, “he well knew how they had acted on the road,
how they had treated his caciques, and burned his cottages.” He
then took the Bible, and turning over some of the leaves, put it
eagerly to his ear.
“This book,” said he, “has no tongue; it tells me nothing.” With
these words he flung it contemptuously on the ground.
The friar exclaimed at the impiety, and called on his countrymen
for revenge. The Inca spoke a few words to his people, which were
answered by murmurs of indignation. At this moment Pizarro gave
the signal to his troops: a general discharge of cannon, musketry,
and crossbows followed, and smote down the unfortunate Peruvians.
The cavalry were let loose, and they broke through the Inca’s guard
at the first shock. Pizarro rushed forward at the head of a chosen
company of shield-bearers, to seize the Inca.
Pizarro seizing the Inca.

That sovereign was surrounded by a circle of his high officers and
devoted servants. They never moved except to throw themselves
upon the Spanish swords. They saw that their prince was doomed,
and they gave themselves up to his fate. The circle rapidly thinned,
and the Inca would soon have been slain, had not Pizarro called to
his soldiers to forbear. He wished to take the Inca alive, that he might
extort gold from him for his ransom.
Pizarro, therefore, rushed forward, and, seizing the Inca by the
mantle, dragged him to the ground. The Peruvians, seeing his fall in
the midst of the Spanish lances, thought he was slain, and instantly
gave up the battle. In the force of their despair they burst through
one of the walls and fled over the open country. More than two
thousand were left dead within the gates, while not a single Spaniard
had been killed. It was a murder rather than a battle.
The Spaniards proceeded to plunder the camp of the Inca, and
he, seeing their passion for gold, offered to purchase his ransom. He
offered to cover the floor of the chamber where he was confined with
wedges of gold and silver. The Spaniards laughed at this, as they
conceived, impossible proposal. The Inca thought they despised the
small sum he had offered, and starting to his feet, he haughtily
stretched his arm as high as he could reach, and told them he would
give them that chamber full to the mark he then touched with his
hand. The chamber was twenty-two feet long, sixteen wide, and the
point he touched on the wall was nine feet high.
Pizarro accepted the proposal, and sent messengers to Cuzco to
obtain the ransom. These brought back twenty-six horse loads of
gold, and a thousand pounds’ weight of silver. The generals of the
Inca also brought additional treasures of gold and silver vessels, and
the room was filled. Pizarro grasped the treasure, and divided it
among his troops, after deducting one fifth for the king, and taking a
large share for himself.
Pizarro had promised to set the Inca at liberty; but it is probable
he never intended it. After he had, in the name of the Inca, drawn all
the gold he could from the country, he barbarously murdered the
poor Indian chief!
There is a tradition that the fate of the Inca was hastened by the
following circumstance. One of the soldiers on guard over him, wrote
the name of God on the thumb nail of the Inca, explaining to him at
the same time the meaning of the word. The Inca showed it to the
first Spaniard who entered. The man read it. The Inca was delighted;
and Pizarro appearing at the moment, the important nail was
presented to him. But Pizarro could not read! the conqueror of Peru
could not write his name; and the Inca manifested such contempt
towards him for this ignorance, that Pizarro resolved he should not
live.
After the Inca’s death, another long and bloody war, or, rather,
ravage, commenced. The Spaniards finally took Cuzco, the royal
city, plundered the temples, and desolated the land, till the
Peruvians, in despair, submitted to their chains, and became the
slaves of the Spaniards.
Since that time the Spanish power has always governed Peru, till
the revolution in 1823, when the colonists threw off the yoke of the
mother country. But, in justice to the kings of Spain, it should be
remembered that they have frequently made laws to protect their
Indian subjects in South America. Still the poor natives were often,
indeed always, cruelly oppressed by the colonists. But now the spirit
of liberality and improvement is ameliorating the condition of all the
laboring classes in the independent Republic of Peru, and the
Indians are entitled to the privileges of free citizens.
CHAPTER VI.
Indian tradition.—Manco Capac.—His reign.—Religion.—Property.—
Agriculture.—Buildings.—Public roads.—Manufactures.—
Domestic animals.—Results of the conquest of the country by
the Spaniards.
The Peruvians have a tradition that the city of Cuzco was founded
in this manner. The early inhabitants of the country were ignorant,
and brutal as the wild beasts of the forest, till a man and woman of
majestic form, and clothed in decent garments, appeared among
them. They declared themselves to be children of the sun, sent to
instruct and to reclaim the human race. They persuaded the savages
to conform to the laws they proposed, united them, the Indians,
together in a society, and taught them to build the city.
Manco Capac was the name of this wonderful man; the woman
was called Marna Ocollo. Though they were the children of the sun,
it seems they had been brought up very industriously; for Manco
Capac taught the Indians agriculture, and other useful arts; and
Marna Ocollo taught the women to spin and weave, and make
feather garments.
After the people had been taught to work, and had built houses
and cultivated fields, and so on, Manco Capac introduced such laws
and usages as were calculated to perpetuate the good habits of the
people. And thus, according to the Indian tradition, was founded the
empire of the Incas.
The territory was, at first, small; but it was gradually enlarged by
conquering the neighboring tribes,—merely, however, to do good by
extending the blessings of their laws and arts to the barbarians,—till
the dominions of the Inca Atahualpa, the twelfth in succession,
extended from north to south along the Pacific Ocean above 2000
miles; its breadth from east to west was from the ocean to the
Andes. The empire had continued four hundred years.
The most singular and striking circumstance in the Peruvian
government, was the influence of religion upon its genius and its
laws. The whole civil policy was founded on religion. The Inca
appeared not only as a legislator, but as the messenger of heaven.
His precepts were received as the mandates of the Deity. Any
violation of his laws was punished with death; but the people were so
impressed with the power and sacred character of their ruler that
they seldom ventured to disobey.
Manco Capac taught the Peruvians to worship the sun, as the
great source of light, of joy, and fertility. The moon and stars were
entitled to secondary honors. They offered to the sun a part of those
productions which his genial warmth had called forth from the bosom
of the earth, and his beams had ripened. They sacrificed some of the
animals which were indebted to his influence for nourishment. They
presented to him choice specimens of those works of ingenuity
which his light had guided the hand of man in forming. But the Incas
never stained the altar of the sun with human blood.
Thus the Peruvians were formed, by the spirit of the religion which
they had adopted, till they possessed a national character more
gentle than that of any other people in America.
The state of property in Peru was no less singular than that of
religion, and contributed, likewise, towards giving a mild turn of
character to the people. All the lands capable of cultivation, were
divided into three shares. One was consecrated to the sun, and the
product of it was applied to the erection of the temples, and
furnishing what was requisite towards celebrating the public rites of
religion.
The second share belonged to the Inca, or was set apart as the
provision made by the community for the support of government.
The third and largest share was reserved for the maintenance of the
people, among whom it was parcelled out. All such lands were
cultivated by the joint industry of the community.
A state thus constituted may be considered like one great family,
in which the union of the members was so complete, and the
exchange of good offices so perceptible, as to create stronger
attachment between man and man than subsisted under any other
form of society in the new world. The Peruvians were advanced far
beyond any of the nations in America, both in the necessary arts of
life, and in such as have some title to be called elegant.
Agriculture was carried on by the Peruvians with a good deal of
skill. They had artificial canals to water their fields; and to this day
the Spaniards have preserved and use some of the canals made in
the days of the Incas. They had no plough, but turned up the earth
with a kind of mattock of hard wood. The men labored in the fields
with the women, thus showing the advance of civilization over the
rude tribes which imposed all the drudgery upon females.
The superior ingenuity of the Peruvians was also obvious in their
houses and public buildings. In the extensive plains along the Pacific
Ocean, where the sky is always serene and the climate mild, the
houses were, of course, very slight fabrics. But in the higher regions,
where rain falls and the rigor of the changing seasons is felt, houses
were constructed with great solidity. They were generally of a square
form, the walls about eight feet high, built of bricks hardened in the
sun, without any windows, and the door strait and low. Many of these
houses are still to be seen in Peru.
But it was in the temples consecrated to the sun, and in the
buildings intended for the residence of their monarchs, that the
Peruvians displayed the utmost extent of their art. The temple of
Pachacmac, together with a palace of the Inca and a fortress, were
so connected together as to form one great structure, nearly two
miles in circuit.
Still this wide structure was not a very lofty affair. The Indians,
being unacquainted with the use of the pulley and other mechanical
powers, could not elevate the large stones and bricks which they
employed in building; and the walls of this, their grandest edifice, did
not rise above twelve feet from the ground. There was not a single
window in any part of the building. The light was only admitted by the
doors; and the largest apartments must have been illuminated by
some other means.
The noblest and most useful works of the Incas, were their public
roads. They had two, from Cuzco to Quito, extending,
uninterruptedly, above fifteen hundred miles. These roads were not,
to be sure, equal to our modern turnpikes; but at the time Peru was
discovered there were no public roads in any kingdom of Europe that
could be compared to the great roads of the Incas.
The Peruvians had, likewise, made considerable advances in
manufactures and the arts which may be called elegant. They made
cloth, and they could refine silver and gold. They manufactured
earthen ware; and they had some curious instruments formed of
copper, which had been made so hard as to answer the purposes of
iron. This metal they had not discovered. If they had only understood
the working of iron and steel as well as they did that of gold and
silver, they would have been a much richer and more civilized
people.
The Peruvians had tamed the duck and the llama, and rendered
them domestic animals. The llama is somewhat larger than the
sheep, and in appearance resembles a camel. The Indians
manufactured its wool into cloth; its flesh they used for food;
moreover, the animal was employed as a beast of burden, and would
carry a moderate load with much patience and docility. The aid of
domestic animals is essential to the improvement and civilization of
human society.
In short, the Peruvians, when contrasted with the naked, indolent,
and ignorant inhabitants of the West Indian Islands, seem to have
been a comfortable, ingenious, and respectable nation. The
conquest of their country destroyed their system of government.
They were made not merely to pay tribute to their new rulers, but, far
worse, they were reduced to the condition of slaves. They were
compelled to leave the pleasant fields they used to cultivate, and
driven in crowds to the mountains in search of gold. They were
forced to labor hard, and allowed only a scanty subsistence; till,
heart-broken and despairing of any change for the better, they sunk
under their calamities and died!
An Indian girl feeding a duck. Llama carrying a burden on its back.

In a few years after Pizarro entered Cuzco, a great part of the
ancient population of Peru had been swept away, destroyed by the
avarice and cruelty of their conquerors.
The Alligator.
I am not about to recommend this creature to you on account of

his beauty or amiable qualities. He has, in fact, too large a mouth,
and too long a tail, to be handsome, and his reputation is not of the
pleasantest kind. However, it is interesting to hear about all the
works of nature, and as this is one of the most wonderful, I shall
proceed to describe it.
Alligators live in warm climates, and spend the greater part of
their time in the water. There are four or five kinds in America, but
the most dangerous are found along the banks of the river
Mississippi. These creatures are sometimes fifteen or even twenty
feet in length; their mouths are two or three feet long and fourteen or
fifteen inches wide. Their teeth are strong and sharp, and their claws
are also very strong.
During the middle of the day the alligators are generally at rest—
lying lazily upon the shore, or in the water. Toward evening, however,
they begin to move about in search of prey, and then the roar of the
larger ones is terrific. It is louder and deeper than the lowing of the
bull, and it has all the savage wildness of the bittern’s cry. It would
seem that this bellowing could not be agreeable to anything, for as
soon as the birds and beasts hear it, they fly as if smitten with terror;
but still, when an alligator wishes to speak something loving into the
ear of another, he goes to bellowing with all his might, and this
sound, so awful to other creatures, seems very pleasant and musical
to the alligator which is thus addressed. This shows that there is a
great difference in tastes.
THE CROCODILE.
The male alligators sometimes engage in ferocious battles. These
usually take place in shallow water, where their feet can touch the
ground. At first they only cudgel each other with their tails; but the
blows given are tremendous, and soon rouse the anger of the
parties. They then go at it with teeth and claws. The snapping,
scratching, rending and thumping, are now tremendous; the water
boils around with the struggle; streams of blood mingle with the
waves; and at last one of the combatants is actually torn in pieces by
his adversary.
The appetite of the alligator is voracious; I never heard of one that
had the dyspepsia. Nothing of the animal kind comes amiss;
mountain cat, monkey, vulture, parrot, snake-lizard, and even the
electric eel, rattlesnake, and venomous bush-master, are alike
swallowed down! Nor does it matter whether the creature be alive or
dead, save only that it seems most admired when in a putrid state. It
frequently happens that the creature will deposit an animal he has
killed in the water till partly decayed, and when most offensive to us,
it seems most delicious to the alligator.
In some of the rivers of North and South America, within the
tropics, these creatures are very numerous. They also infest the
lakes and lagoons all around the Gulf of Mexico; and it is here that
the alligator’s paradise is found. When the spring rains come these
creatures have a perfect carnival. Many fishes, birds, and animals,
are killed during the freshets, and are borne along in the floods; upon
their remains these creatures feast; and as the vulture is provided by
providence to devour and remove offal from the land, which would
otherwise infect the air and produce pestilence; so the alligators are
the scavengers of the waters, and clear away putrescence that
would otherwise render them poisonous and unapproachable to
man. So, after all, the alligator has his part to play in the great
economy of nature, and is actually very useful.
The alligator is nearly the same as the crocodile of the eastern
continent. The females lay eggs, and one of them is said to produce
a hundred in a season. They are of the size of geese eggs, and are
often eaten, being esteemed tolerable food. The eggs, being
deposited in the sand and covered up, are hatched by the heat.
Braham’s Parrot.—Parrots, like cuckoos, form their notes deep

in the throat, and show great aptitude in imitating the human voice. A
lady who admired the musical talents of Braham, the celebrated
singer, gave him a parrot, which she had taught with much care. A
person who saw it at Braham’s house, thus describes it:—“After
dinner, during a pause in the conversation, I was startled by a voice
from one corner of the room, calling out in a strong, hearty manner,
‘Come, Braham, give us a song!’ Nothing could exceed the surprise
and admiration of the company. The request being repeated and not
ananswered, the parrot struck up the first verse of God save the
King, in a clear, warbling tone, aiming at the style of Braham, and
sung it through. The ease with which the bird was taught was equally
surprising with his performance. The same lady prepared him to
accost Catalani, when dining with Mr. Braham, which so alarmed
Madame that she nearly fell from her chair. Upon his commencing
Rule Brittania, in a loud and intrepid tone, the chantress fell upon her
knees before the bird, expressing, in terms of delight, her admiration
of its talents.”
This parrot has only been exceeded by Lord Kelly’s, who, upon
being asked to sing, replied, “I never sing on a Sunday.” “Never mind
that, Poll; come, give us a song.” “No, excuse me. I’ve got a cold—
don’t you hear how hoarse I am?” This extraordinary creature
performed the three verses entire of God save the King, words and
music, without hesitation, from beginning to end.
Mungo Park and the Frogs.
The tales of travellers often appear to us incredible, merely

because they relate things different from our own observation and
experience. You know that there are some countries so hot that they
never have ice or snow there. Now it chanced that a man from some
northern portion of the world, happening to be in one of those hot
places, told the people, that, where he lived, the water sometimes
became solid, in consequence of the cold, and almost as hard as a
stone.
Now this was so different from the experience of the people, that
they would not credit the traveller’s story. This shows us that a thing
may be a reality, which is, at the same time, very different from our
own observation and experience.
Mungo Park was a famous traveller in Africa. He went into
countries where no white man had been before, and he saw places
which no white man had seen. He tells us many curious things, but
perhaps nothing is more amusing than what he says about the frogs.
At a certain place that he visited, he went to a brook to let his horse
drink; but what was his surprise to find it almost covered with frogs,
who kept bobbing up and down, so that his horse was afraid to put
his nose into the water. At last Mr. Park was obliged to take a bush
and give the frogs a flogging, before he could make them get out of
the way so as to let his poor beast quench his thirst.
A Child lost in the Woods.
The Bangor Whig of the 11th of June contains an affecting

account of a search made at Linnæus, in the Aroostook country, for a
little girl of nine years, the daughter of Mr. David W. Barbar, who, on
the 4th, was sent through the woods to a neighbor’s, half a mile
distant, to borrow a little flour for breakfast. Not returning that day,
the next morning about forty of the neighbors set out to hunt for her,
but spent the day without success. The next day sixty searched the
woods, with no better fortune. The following morning between two
and three hundred of the settlers assembled early, anxious and
fearful for the safety of the lost child.
“The company set out,” says the Whig, “for a thorough and a last
search. The child had been in the woods three days and nights, and
many hearts were sunk in despondency at the utter hopelessness of
finding it alive. But to learn its fate or restore it was the determined
purpose of each. Half the day had been expended in advancing into
the forest. It was time for returning; but who could think of doing so
while an innocent child might be wandering but a few rods in
advance? On the company pushed, still deeper into the dense wilds.
The sun had reached the meridian, and was dipping down toward
the west. It seemed vain to look farther, and slowly and heavily those
stout-hearted men brushed a tear from their cheeks, gave up all as
lost, and, as their hearts seemed to die within them, commenced
their return. The line was stretched to include a survey of the
greatest possible ground; not a bush or tree, where it was possible
for a child to be concealed, within the limits of the line, was passed
without diligent search. Those at the extremities of the lines tasked
themselves to the utmost in examining the woods beyond the lines.
They had travelled for some time, when, at the farthest point of
vision, the man on one flank thought he saw a bush bend. He ran

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Geospatial Technologies for Land

Degradation Assessment and

Economics of Land Degradation and Improvement – A

Geospatial Technologies for All Ali Mansourian

Geospatial Technologies for Crops and Soils Tarik

Geospatial Technologies for Urban Health Yongmei Lu

Land Degradation and Socio Economic Development A Field

Geospatial Technologies for Agriculture Case Studies

Geospatial Applications for Natural Resources

Sustainable Development Goals Connectivity Dilemma Land

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-4960-2 (Hardback)

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at

List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. xvii

1 An Introduction to Geospatial Technology.......................................................................1

1.9  Spectral Response Pattern.......................................................................................... 16

2 Passive Remote Sensing....................................................................................................... 31

2.4.3  Video Cameras................................................................................................ 41

3 Active Remote Sensing......................................................................................................... 67

3.3.1  RISAT Mission.................................................................................................80

4 Digital Image Processing..................................................................................................... 97

4.4.2  Corrections for Solar Illumination Variation............................................ 105

5 An Introduction to Land Degradation............................................................................ 149

6 Water Erosion....................................................................................................................... 171

6.4.3.5  Soil Erosion Risk............................................................................ 186

7 Wind Erosion........................................................................................................................ 197

8 Soil Salinization and Alkalinization.............................................................................. 229

8.4  Extent and Spatial Distribution............................................................................... 232

9 Soil Acidification................................................................................................................. 263

9.6  Conclusion................................................................................................................... 281

11 Land Degradation due to Mining, Aquaculture, and Shifting Cultivation............ 303

12.4.1.7  Soil Moisture Deficit Index.......................................................... 328

13 Land Degradation Information Systems........................................................................ 355

Figure 1.1 The electromagnetic radiation...............................................................................3

Figure 2.2 Schematic of a geostationary orbits. Polar as well as low-earth orbits

Figure 8.17  onitoring salt-affected soils around Kanekallu village, part of

Figure 12.3 VCI for the last week of November 2017..........................................................334

At a crowded lecture the other evening, a young lady standing at

When the Spaniards first discovered the Pacific, Peru was a

Pizarro seizing the Inca.

An Indian girl feeding a duck. Llama carrying a burden on its back.

I am not about to recommend this creature to you on account of

Braham’s Parrot.—Parrots, like cuckoos, form their notes deep

The tales of travellers often appear to us incredible, merely

The Bangor Whig of the 11th of June contains an affecting

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1.9 Spectral Response Pattern.......................................................................................... 16

2.4.3 Video Cameras................................................................................................ 41

3.3.1 RISAT Mission.................................................................................................80

4.4.2 Corrections for Solar Illumination Variation............................................ 105

6.4.3.5 Soil Erosion Risk............................................................................ 186

8.4 Extent and Spatial Distribution............................................................................... 232

9.6 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 281

12.4.1.7 Soil Moisture Deficit Index.......................................................... 328

Figure 2.2 Schematic of a geostationary orbits. Polar as well as low-earth orbits

Figure 8.17 onitoring salt-affected soils around Kanekallu village, part of