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PDF Gas Turbines For Electric Power Generation S Can Gulen Ebook Full Chapter
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“John is the only person I know that can fill the gap between technology and philosophy; and he
really did in this book. I recommend this text for students and professional engineers, as well as
for non-experienced people who are interested in getting a frank and sometimes humorous
assessment of gas turbine technology.”
—Alberto Traverso, University of Genoa
“This book is clearly written by an expert with a lot of industry experience in OEMs (original
equipment manufacturers) and operation, resulting in a book that shows a very practical approach
to design and analysis of turbomachinery that matters in the real world without lacking the
theoretical depths that are necessary to understand the topic thoroughly. This very well-written
book covers the theoretical basics of thermodynamics as well as components such as the
compressor, the combustor, the turbine, the whole engine, and additional topics needed to under-
stand the analysis and design of electrical power generation equipment. It provides a comprehen-
sive overview for everyone interested in this fascinating topic, be it a practitioner with OEMs and
utilities, or academics, such as a researcher or a new student of the field.
This long-awaited book closes a gap in the literature between the practitioner’s view and a
purely theoretical approach.”
—Hans-Juergen Kiesow, ABB, Siemens (retired)
“It is rare that one comes across a book that can be considered seminal in the area of gas turbine
engineering and that provides an excellent blend of theory and practice of the state of the art of
heavy- duty advanced gas turbines. The book provides a detailed, lucid, and insightful treatment
of a wide range of gas turbine topics, including history, cycles, components and their interactions,
and technology trends. It provides a quantitative and qualitative treatment of the subject matter
with usable equations, insights, and rules of thumb that enable quick design checks and calcula-
tions. It will be of immense value to designers and users of gas turbines. John’s technical
leadership over the past two and a half decades has contributed immeasurably to the current
understanding of large advanced gas turbines. Much of this expertise has been successfully
encapsulated in this book. This book is of archival quality and will endure and enrich gas turbine
engineers for decades to come.”
—Cyrus B. Meher-Homji, PE, Bechtel Fellow and Turbomachinery
Technology Manager, Bechtel Corporation
Gas Turbines for Electric Power Generation
In this essential reference, both students and practitioners in the field will find an
accessible discussion of electric power generation with gas turbine power plants using
quantitative and qualitative tools. Beginning with a basic discussion of thermodynamics
of gas turbine cycles from a second law perspective, the material goes on to provide an
in-depth analysis of the translation of the cycle to a final product, facilitating quick
estimates.
In order to provide readers with the knowledge they need to design turbines effect-
ively, there are explanations of simple- and combined-cycle design considerations and
state-of-the-art performance prediction and optimization techniques, as well as rules of
thumb for design and off-design performance and operational flexibility and simplified
calculations for myriad design and off-design performance. The text also features an
introduction to proper material selection, manufacturing techniques, and the construc-
tion, maintenance, and operation of gas turbine power plants.
S. Can Gülen (PhD) PE, Bechtel Fellow, ASME Fellow, has a combined 25 years of
mechanical engineering experience covering a wide spectrum of technology, system,
and software design, development, assessment, and analysis in the field of steam and
gas turbine combined-cycle process and power plant turbomachinery and thermo-
dynamics at Thermoflow, Inc., General Electric, and Bechtel.
He has written numerous technical papers and journal articles on design practices and
technical assessment reports. He holds more than 20 US patents on gas turbine
performance, cost, optimization, data reconciliation, analysis, and modeling.
Gas Turbines for Electric
Power Generation
S . CA N GÜ L E N
Bechtel Infrastructure & Power, Inc.
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108416658
DOI: 10.1017/9781108241625
© S. Can Gülen 2019
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2019
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Gülen, S. Can, 1962‒ author.
Title: Gas turbines for electric power generation / S. Can Gülen (Bechtel
Infrastructure & Power, Inc.).
Description: Cambridge ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2019. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018039284 | ISBN 9781108416658 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Gas-turbines. | Electric power production. | Electric generators.
Classification: LCC TJ778 .G8284 2019 | DDC 621.31/2133–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018039284
ISBN 978-1-108-41665-8 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Contents
1 Introduction 1
Part I Prerequisites 7
3 Ground Rules 20
3.1 Units 20
3.2 Important Metrics 23
3.3 Cycle Terminology 28
3.4 Total or Static? 29
3.5 50 or 60 Hertz? 33
3.6 Firing Temperature 35
3.7 Rating Performance 36
References 38
vii
viii Contents
Part II Fundamentals 73
5 Thermodynamics 75
5.1 Mean Effective Temperatures 79
5.2 Optimum Brayton-Cycle Pressure Ratio 87
5.3 Exergy 92
5.4 Kilowatt “Thermal” 95
5.5 “Tds” Equations 96
5.6 Property Calculations 101
5.7 Maxwell Relations 106
5.8 Simple Property Calculation 108
5.9 Enthalpy 113
5.10 Maximum Power/Minimum Entropy 117
References 118
12 Combustion 308
12.1 Basics 308
12.2 Combustor Hardware 321
12.3 DLN Combustors 325
12.4 Combustor Operability 332
12.5 Emission Regulations 341
12.6 Fuel Flexibility 346
12.7 Combustor Calculations 354
References 359
13 Materials 362
13.1 Steels 366
13.2 Superalloys 367
13.3 Future Materials 373
13.4 Thermal Barrier Coatings 375
13.5 Typical Material Properties 376
13.6 When Materials Fail 380
References 395
20 Economics 593
20.1 How Much Does It Cost? 593
20.2 Levelized Cost of Electricity 597
Contents xi
24 Epilogue 687
24.1 Brayton-Cycle Variations 692
24.2 Other Future Prospects 694
24.3 Additive Manufacturing Technologies 696
24.4 Data Analytics 698
References 701
To paraphrase the great Prussian emperor, to cover everything is to cover nothing. This
book is a monograph on a specific class of heat engines, namely the heavy-duty
industrial gas turbine for electric power generation. It does not cover gas turbines used
for aircraft, marine, or land-based vehicle propulsion (i.e., there is no discussion of
turbofan, turbojet, or turboprop engines, except in a historical context). Its focus is fully
on land-based (i.e., stationary shaft) power generation and conversion thereof into
electric power via alternating current synchronous machines; especially so-called frame
machines with outputs of 100 MWe or more, which are also known as heavy-duty
industrial gas turbines. In other words, a discussion of “microturbines” is not to be
found herein.
This is not a textbook, although it can be used by a student of mechanical engineering
with sufficient background in thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer as a
useful reference to help complete certain class assignments.
This is not a handbook of generalized information either. In our times, the necessity
of handbooks is debatable. A wide range of detailed information on any given subject is
only one mouse click away. This book is a compendium of expert knowledge, which is
either impossible to find online or, even if found, is either too sketchy or too diluted or
too obscure to be of immediate, practical use.
The intended audience is primarily professionals (i.e., engineers and researchers) who
are working in the industry or in research organizations on various aspects of electric
power generation with gas turbines. Graduate and undergraduate students who are
working on projects toward their degree with an ultimate goal of joining the industry
can be added to this group as well.
It is an advanced text with little material of an introductory nature (mostly a few
paragraphs to start the main narrative). In other words, one will not find the derivation of
Navier–Stokes equations from the analysis of an infinitesimally small control volume of
fluid in this book. The goal of the author is to provide the reader with specialized
knowledge, calculation methods, and tools that can be readily applied to the solution of
the day-to-day problems encountered in the design, development, optimization, oper-
ation, and maintenance of gas turbine power plants. Said methods and tools comprise
xiii
xiv Preface
specific data (some hard to find – even on the Internet, at least not in a compact and
readily usable form), practical formulae, Visual Basic code, charts, and rules of thumbs.
Most of the specific methods and tools have been developed and used by the author over
the course of more than two decades spent in the industry.
What is the use of such a monograph? After all, at the time of writing (i.e., near the
end of the second decade of the twenty-first century), almost all aspects of gas turbine
power plant design are dominated by highly sophisticated, extremely expensive (i.e.,
not available to individuals) computer software with steep learning curves. These “black
box” tools incorporate the latest techniques in computational fluid dynamics and finite
element analysis fortified with flashy graphical user interfaces and other “digital”
accoutrements on the most advanced computing platforms to enable engineers (some
fresh out of school) to design, say, advanced airfoils in order to squeeze the last
0.01 percent efficiency from the compressor or the turbine. Most complicated gas
turbine combined cycle calculations for tens or hundreds of cases can be done in a
matter of seconds by user-friendly heat balance simulation software.
The goal of this monograph, as envisioned by the author, is to provide the junior
engineer or researcher using those tools, as well as his or her supervisor with decades of
experience under his or her belt, with a single source of reference to put every little
detail in its rightful place in the proverbial big picture, which will be expounded upon in
the next few pages.
Before moving on, however, there is a simple fact that needs to be stated unequivo-
cally. This book is dedicated to the memory of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–193∞)
and his elite cadre of reformers. Without their vision, sacrifices and groundbreaking
work, there would not have been a fertile ground where my parents, teachers, mentors,
family and friends could shape me into the author of this book.
1 Introduction
The “big picture” mentioned at the conclusion of the Preface can be best described in an
analogy to the Russian nesting doll (matryoshka) comprising a set of wooden dolls of
decreasing size placed one inside another.
1
2 Introduction
its components or one of the parts thereof ) from a proverbial “blank sheet” on his or her
own anymore.
This book is about the first four “dolls” of the matryoshka described above. The fifth
to seventh dolls will be covered in sufficient detail for one to gain a good grasp of the
impact of particular design decisions on the first four. Finally, the remaining dolls will
be touched upon briefly mainly to illustrate where the technology is, where it came
from, and how far it can go.
Electric power is the lifeblood of contemporary human civilization. Electricity
consumption per capita is shown to have a strong correlation with key social devel-
opment and economic indices (i.e., human development index, gross domestic prod-
uct per capita, etc.). This simple fact is both a boon and a bane simultaneously, as
evidenced by the great disparity between developed and underdeveloped countries.
Consider that China and India, two up-and-coming countries with populations well
above one billion each, lag well behind, say, the USA in this key measure: about
4,000 and 600 kWh/person for China and India, respectively, vis-à-vis more than
12,000 for the USA! There is increasing concern that the unstoppable striving of these
two giants of the so-called Third World toward a better life standard will push fossil
fuel-based electricity production to levels where the global drive to limit carbon
dioxide emissions will become an exercise in futility. It is not a stretch to assume
that readers of these lines are already well versed in the dangers of global warming
and its connection to anthropomorphic greenhouse gas emissions, of which CO2 is by
far the biggest culprit.
This brings us to the subject of electric power (or electricity) generation from burning
a particular fossil fuel – namely, natural gas – in advanced gas turbine-based power
plants. At the time of writing, natural gas-fired power plants, primarily in the form of
combined cycles, are by far the most efficient means of electric power generation via
combustion of fossil fuels. Their rated performance (i.e., similar to the sticker perform-
ance of a passenger car) is more than 60 percent net thermal efficiency at power outputs
of 500–1,000 MWe or even more. Best-in-class power plants can reach 56–57 percent
thermal efficiency during actual field operation. The average efficiency of all natural
gas-fired power plants in the USA in 2015 was about 46 percent, vis-à-vis about
33 percent for all coal-fired plants (as reported by the US Energy Information Adminis-
tration [EIA]). Furthermore, in terms of specific CO2 emissions (i.e., pounds of CO2
emitted per MWh of electricity generated), coal-fired generation is by far the worst
culprit, at nearly 150 percent more than that by natural gas-fired generation (again, in
2015 per the EIA).
In 2015, natural gas and coal each accounted for about a third of all US electricity
generation, with more than 1,700 power plants utilizing the former and more than
500 power plants utilizing the latter. Almost all natural gas-fired power plants are based
on gas turbine technology. Finally, in several months of 2016, US natural gas-fired
electricity generation surpassed coal-fired generation. The top two driving factors
leading to this trend are low natural gas prices due to the shale gas boom and the much
more favorable emissions characteristics of natural gas vis-à-vis coal and all other types
of fossil fuels.
Introduction 3
“Sails in a chimney-corner”
Rotor
Hot air
Hearth
Figure 1.1 “Chimney gas turbine” described by John Wilkins, Lord Bishop of Chester.
edition was published in 1683), English clergyman, natural philosopher, polymath, and
author, John Wilkins (1614–1672), Lord Bishop of Chester, described “a better Inven-
tion to this purpose, mentioned in Cardan, whereby a Spit may be turned (without the
Help of Weights) by the Motion of the Air that ascends the Chimney.”1 The “moving of
Sails in a Chimney-corner” (i.e., a “chimney gas turbine”), as depicted in Figure 1.1, is
the purpose that Wilkins refers to.2 Bishop Wilkins indicated that the “invention” was
mentioned in the 1559 treatise De Varietate Rerum by the Italian polymath, Gerolamo
Cardano (“Cardan” as Wilkins calls him), who is well known for his achievements in
algebra, but was also an inventor of mechanical devices such as the combination lock.
While the contraption in Figure 1.1 is unmistakably a gas turbine, the aforementioned
“vignettes” are bona fide examples of turbomachinery, which laid the foundation for the
modern-day variant.
Once the historical foundations of the gas turbine are laid down, the current state of
the art is going to be assessed in realistic terms. The “class hierarchy” of heavy-duty
industrial gas turbines will be established in this chapter as well.
1
The complete title is Mathematical Magick, or, The wonders that may by performed by mechanichal
geometry: in two books, concerning mechanical powers [and] motions. Being one of the most easie,
pleasant, useful (and yet most neglected) part of Mathematicks. Not before treated of in this language
(London: Printed for J. Nicholson, at the Kings-Arms in Little Britain; A. Bell, at the Croft-Keys in Cornhill;
B. Tooke, at the Middle-Temple-Gate in Fleetstreet; and R. Smith under the Piazza’s of the Royal-
Exchange. MDCCVIII).
2
According to Wilkins, “the Motion of these Sails may likewise be serviceable for sundry other Purposes; for
the Chiming of Bells, for the Reeling of Yarn or the Rocking of a Cradle, with diverse the like domestick
Occasions.”
Introduction 5
Prerequisites
2 The Tool Chest
Let us state the obvious first: this is a book for engineers and engineering students.
A solid understanding of the key concepts of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat
transfer is more than a prerequisite; it is a must. Without that, slogging through the
material covered in this book will become a tedious chore (which is definitely not the
author’s intention).
One does not have to hold a degree in advanced mathematics to be a good gas turbine
engineer. Nevertheless, a strong foundation in calculus is requisite to understanding
the laws of thermodynamics, especially the second one. Furthermore, the foundation
of the thermal design of power plants in general and gas turbines in particular consists of
the famous “TdS” equations. The reader must be readily conversant in them and in
Maxwell relationships (if you draw a blank here, it is time to pick up your thermo-
dynamics textbook and blow the dust off its cover) – simply put, there is no shortcut
around it. If your math skills are rusty, the excellent book by Zel’dovich and Yaglon is
the perfect resource for getting up to speed [1].
It also helps greatly to have an adequate understanding of basic statistical concepts,
which, in turn, require a firm grasp of calculus. This is imperative for understanding the
difference between “engineering” and “commercial” performance (i.e., commercial
“margins”). It is also very handy in order to prevent being lured into unrealistic
expectations by the proverbial “fool’s gold.” A very useful tool to help you in statistical
analysis is the Oracle Crystal Ball, which is a Microsoft Excel-based software for
predictive modeling, forecasting, Monte Carlo simulation, and optimization.1 Monte
Carlo simulation in particular is a very valuable tool to differentiate between substantial
and insignificant differences when comparing design options. Its use will be demon-
strated later in the book (see Chapter 20).
In order to derive the maximum benefit from this book to impact your daily work, you
need to perform calculations. Some of the equations developed in the following chapters
are amenable to quick implementation with a pen, a piece of paper, and a $10 drugstore
1
For more information about Crystal Ball, visit www.oracle.com/crystalball (last accessed by the author in
December 2017).
9
10 The Tool Chest
calculator (or the calculator app on your smartphone). Once you go beyond a few “back
of the envelope”-type estimates, you will probably need to implement quite a few such
equations in an Excel spreadsheet. Nevertheless, at a certain point, you will realize that
it is a good idea to distill some of your calculations into compact snippets of computer
code. This is where the real fun starts.
It is highly recommended that you are well versed in at least one of the following
programming languages2:
1. Visual Basic (VB; especially VBA in Excel)
2. C or C++
3. FORTRAN
4. Matlab (from MathWorks®)
The last one is extremely popular among the younger generation – students and
practitioners. Even though the author has not had extensive experience with it, he is
aware that it is a very simple and powerful tool for computational purposes. The most
beneficial one in this author’s opinion, which is also quite easy to learn and implement,
is VB. In particular, VBA (Visual Basic for Applications) is the programming language
of Excel and other Microsoft Office programs. (It is highly unlikely that the reader of
this book does not have access to Microsoft Office and Excel through his or her
organization or on his or her own.) If you are not already familiar with VBA, you can
get started by automating tasks in Excel by using the Macro feature, which essentially
records a sequence of your Excel spreadsheet actions in a VB function.
An alternative to Microsoft Office is Apache OpenOffice (AOO), which is an
open-source office productivity software suite. It contains a word processor (Writer –
equivalent to Microsoft Word), a spreadsheet (Calc – equivalent to Microsoft Excel),
and a presentation application (Impress – equivalent to Microsoft PowerPoint), among
others. Readers who are more familiar with it can of course substitute the AOO variant
for Excel, which is the software program most familiar to the author.
If you are already familiar with C++ and/or FORTRAN and, even better, if you
already have old programs that you had developed earlier in your educational and/or
professional career, you can easily translate them into VB. It is very intuitive and easy.
Another way to capture such legacy code in Excel or similar software programs is via
converting them into a dynamic-link library (DLL; i.e., an executable file encapsulated
in a DLL).
In Appendix C of the book, some examples of Excel VBA code based on the
formulae developed for the subject matter hand will be provided. You can use them
in your own applications as is or as starting points. For the younger generation of
readers, these code snippets (or formulae and methods contained therein) can be used as
building blocks or starting points to design your own “apps.”
However, at some point, for serious work, the calculations requisite for accurate and
reliable engineering design analysis require specialty software. This is especially true
2
There are many new computer languages out there. Whatever works for you is just fine.
2.1 Computer Software 11
for transient (dynamic) analysis of the power plant for operability analysis and control
system development. The software used for the latter task is extremely complex, with a
steep learning curve (and it is very expensive, of course), and it requires a huge number
of man-hours to develop and execute fully functional power plant models. It is no
exaggeration to state that some people spend an entire career on such programs and
associated tasks. Unfortunately, there are no shortcut calculation methods to replace
them (which require the solution of combinations of partial differential equations), and
even simplified approaches to estimate their outcomes are quite complicated and require
a deep engineering knowledge of the underlying phenomena. This will be touched upon
again in Chapter 19.
Software for steady-state performance calculations are commonly known as “heat
balance simulation tools.” The name derives from the fact that the underlying funda-
mental principle is the first law of thermodynamics (also known as conservation of
energy) along with mass continuity (also known as conservation of mass). These two
laws of conservation are applied to the individual pieces of equipment comprising the
power generation system in question. In the end, a “balance” is established between the
two forms of energy transfer – work and heat – and mass transfer across the entire
system (i.e., the “control volume”).
There are several steady-state, heat balance simulation tools widely used in the
industry:
Note that this brief introduction is not intended as a commercial for particular
software programs. In addition to the aforementioned software tools, with which the
author had hands-on experience, there are many other commercially available software
packages for steady-state and/or transient simulation. Examples of the former are
IPSEpro (offered by SimTech in Austria) and PEPSE (now offered by Curtiss-Wright
Nuclear Division). There is also Simulink by Mathworks, the developer of Matlab,
which can be used for dynamic simulation of gas turbine power plants and controls.
Similar to Matlab, Simulink is widely used by the new generation of engineering
students and practitioners and might come in handy especially in doing the gas turbine
transient calculations described in Chapter 19.
Gas turbine original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) utilize their own proprietary
codes for the design of flange-to-flange gas turbines. To a large extent, these are legacy
FORTRAN codes going back 50 years or more and incorporate “lessons learned” from
a huge amount of laboratory, factory test bed, and field operation data in the form of
empirical correlations. As such, they are simply irreplaceable, unknown to the general
public, and, even to some of their current users, they are quasi “black boxes.” Even their
in-house name, “cycle deck,” goes back to the times when these codes, compiled in
punched-card decks, were run on mainframe computers.
In terms of commercially available software for flange-to-flange gas turbine design,
in the author’s opinion, the most user-friendly one with sufficient detail to model a hot
gas path reasonably accurately is the GASCAN code encapsulated in the “Cooled
Turbine Stage” component of Thermoflow’s Thermoflex software. This program will
be frequently used herein to illustrate concepts and design principles.
Another similar program, with a focus on aircraft propulsion, is GasTurb by
Dr. Kurzke. Once a “one-man show” by Dr. Kurzke, in future, this program is going
to be developed and maintained by Dr. Jeschke and his team at the Institute for
2.1 Computer Software 13
Jet Propulsion at RWTH Aachen University, Germany. More information on this can be
found online. For underlying theory and origins of the computer codes (in FORTRAN),
readers with knowledge of German can refer to the somewhat dated (but still very
valuable) book by Münzberg and Kurzke [2].
For transient simulation and off-design, unsteady-state performance calculations, in
addition to HYSYS, commercially available software products include ProTRAX
(formerly known as PC-TRAX) and EASY5. ProTRAX was originally developed as
a power plant operator training simulator. Basically, the software creates a “digital twin”
of the entire fossil fuel-fired power plant, which is then run in real time with all pertinent
controls and operator screens to create real-life scenarios. Thus, operators can be trained
in all features and procedures of the power plant they will be working in. (In fact, the
first dynamic simulators were developed for safety analysis of nuclear power plants
almost 50 years ago.) Such dynamic simulators are indispensable for plant controls
design, testing, and commissioning, especially when they are combined with the actual
control system hardware and software, including operator consoles (e.g., General
Electric’s Mark series systems). Examples of other commercially available dynamic
simulation software are Simcenter Amesim (now part of Siemens PLM Software),
Apros (by Fortum and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd. for modeling
and dynamic simulation of power plants), ISAAC Dynamics (a dynamic simulation
software by the TransientGroup – formerly Struttura Informatica – in Florence, Italy),
3KEYMASTER (modeling and simulation platform by WSC, Inc., in Maryland, USA),
and Modelica (developed by the non-profit Modelica Association and is free).
As mentioned earlier, dynamic simulation software is extremely complex and expen-
sive and requires a significant amount of training for an engineer to become well versed
in its use. While their steady-state counterparts (especially Thermoflow software) are
comparatively easy to use, they are also very expensive (initial purchase and annual
maintenance fees for upgrades and customer support can run to tens of thousands of
dollars) and are unlikely to be affordable to individuals. In any event, all software tools
require a certain experience level achievable via a sometimes steep and lengthy learning
curve. While they make our lives easier and increase our productivity, they hide the
fundamental principles that are at work from us – sometimes with disastrous results (i.e.,
the famous GIGO: garbage in, garbage out).
The material in this book is intended to make the inner workings of such software
tools “transparent” to the reader, who may already be a user of them. (Thermoflow
software, especially GT PRO/MASTER and Thermoflex, will be used in some of the
coverage.) By the same token, the methodology and fundamental principles, expressed
as simple physics-based equations, introduced in the following chapters should provide
a companion to or an alternative for carrying out certain basic design and analysis tasks.
Before moving on, a few words on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are in order.
In most gas turbine theory books (e.g., by Saravanamuttoo and his coauthors [3]),
compressor and turbine design processes are covered via one-dimensional “free vortex”
theory fortified by empirical correlations. This was indeed how actual gas turbines were
designed and developed by major OEMs in the post-war period until the sixties.
Thereafter, improved analytical methods for the solution of two-dimensional inviscid
Another random document with
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GENTSCHE GESLACHTSNAMEN.
En gelukkig! Wat men heden ten dage in de spelling onzer taal ook
moge veranderen, welke oude en schoone, alle recht [139]van
bestaan hebbende vormen ook uit de schrijftaal mogen verloren
gaan, in deze onze dagen van verbastering, verarming en
vervlakking der taal, de geslachtsnamen der Vlamingen, der
Gentenaren zijn in hunne, nu eenmaal vastgezette vormen
onveranderlijk, en blijven in deze hunne edele en volledige vormen
in leven, zoolang er Vlamingen zullen zijn, rechtzinnige,
ouderwetsche, vrome, degelijke Vlaamsche mannen, die ze zullen
voeren.
God geve, dat dit nog vele eeuwen, met volle eere, het geval moge
zijn!
Als namen die juist niet aan handwerk of ambacht of nering, maar
dan toch aan een bedrijf hun ontstaan te danken hebben, vindt men
te Gent: D e C l e r c k en D e C l e r c q met D e S c h r ij v e r , D e
R u y t e r , enz. En deze namen vormen den geleidelijken overgang
tot die geslachtsnamen, welke aan waardigheden, aan ambten en
bedieningen ontleend zijn. Dezen zijn nog al talrijk, en schier volledig
vertegenwoordigd onder de burgerij van Gent. Men vindt er:
C a r d i n a e l , B i s s c h o p en D e B i s s c h o p , D e P r o o s t ,
D e P a e p e , D e M u y n c k , en D e C o s t e r . Dan D e
K e y s e r , D e C o n i n c k (met D e K o n i n c k en D e
C e u n i n c k ), D e P r i n c e , D e G r a e v e , D e
B o r c h g r a v e met B u r g g r a e v e , H a r t o g h , D e
L a n t s h e e r e en J o n c k h e e r e . Dan komt D e
M a e s s c h a l k , D e R i d d e r en D e R u d d e r , S e r g e a n t
[141]en D e K r ij g e r . Eindelijk D e M e e s t e r , B a a s en D e
G h e s e l l e , D e P o o r t e r en B u r g e r . Ten slotte D e
Boeve.
Sommige namen van deze groep maken als ’t ware eenen overgang
uit tot die van de volgende groep, omdat zij, ofschoon oorspronkelijk
van volkseigenen, van Germaanschen oorsprong zijnde, toch ook
voorkomen als Kerkelijke namen, dewijl de Heiligen, die deze namen
gedragen hebben, Germaansche mannen geweest zijn. Bij
voorbeeld: de geslachtsnaam L a m b r e c h t s , zoon van
L a m b r e c h t of L a m b e r t (’t is het zelfde), een Kerkelijke naam,
maar die toch, in zijnen oudsten, oorspronkelijken vorm
L a n d b r e c h t of L a n d b e r c h t , van Germaanschen oorsprong
is. Zoo is het ook gesteld met den geslachtsnaam H u y b r e c h t s ,
zoon van H u y b r e c h t , in verlatijnschten Kerkelijken vorm
H u b e r t u s ; maar, volgens zijnen Oud-Germaanschen oorsprong,
H u b r e c h t of H u b e r c h t , voluit H u g i b e r c h t . En eveneens is
dit het geval met Beernaerts, zoon van B e e r n a e r t , den Oud-
Vlaamschen vorm van den naam die als B e r n h a r d van Oud-
Germaanschen oorsprong is, maar als B e r n a r d u s in Kerkelijk
Latijn voorkomt, en heden ten dage als B e r n a r d en als B a r e n d
aan Holland, als B e r e n d , B e a r n (B e e r n ) of B e a r t (B e e r t )
aan Friesland eigen is. B e e r t komt ook als geslachtsnaam te Gent
voor; en de geslachtsnaam B a e r t s o e n , zoon van B a a r t , mede
een Gentsche geslachtsnaam, dankt zijnen oorsprong vermoedelijk
ook aan den, in alle Germaansche landen veelvuldig verspreiden
mansvóórnaam B e r n h a r d , B e e r n a e r t , B a r e n d , B e e r t ,
Baart.
Ten slotte willen we uit alle drie de hoofdgroepen (zie bladzijden 145
en 146) eenige namen uitkiezen, om die den Lezer voor te stellen, in
hunnen oorsprong en in hunne beteekenis, en in hunnen
samenhang met andere namen en naamsvormen, bij den Vlamingen
verwante volken en volksstammen in gebruik.
Uit den aard der zaak vinden we onder de Friezen de namen, aan
A l l e ontleend, het menigvuldigst vertegenwoordigd. Vooreerst
vermelden oude Friesche geschriften den hedendaagschen vorm
A l l e als A l l o , A l l a , A l l en A l . Dan is A l l e in den
vrouwelijken vorm (eigenlijk anders niet als een verkleinvorm) A l t j e
en A l k e , oudtijds ook geschreven A l t j e n en A l k e n , nog heden
aan menige Friezin als vóórnaam eigen. Vervolgens komen de
geslachtsnamen A l l e m a , A l m a en A l l e s , nog heden in leven,
en A l l i n g a (de Friesche weêrga van den Vlaamschen, eigenlijk
Sassischen vorm A l l i n k , A l l i n c k x ) met A l l a m a , reeds
uitgestorven. Eindelijk de plaatsnamen A l l i n g a w i e r , een dorp in
Wonseradeel; en een ander A l l i n g a w i e r , eene sate
(boerenhofstede) bij den dorpe Grouw; A l l i n g a - s a t e te Arum en
te Tietjerk, A l l e m a - of A l m a - s t a t e bij Oudwoude, A l l e m a -
s a t e te Wirdum, A l m a - s a t e te Minnertsga en te Blya. Dit alles
is Friesland.