FUNCTIONALISM THEORY,

Also known as structural-functionalism is a sociological perspective that views society as a

complex system composed of interdependent parts working together to promote stability and
cohesion. This theory emphasizes the importance of social institutions, norms, and values in
maintaining social order and addressing societal needs. Here are some key aspects of
functionalism theory:

1. Social cohesion and integration: Functionalism posits that society is held together by
shared values and norms, which create a sense of unity and solidarity among its
members (Durkheim, 1893). Social institutions, such as the family, education system,
and religious organizations, play crucial roles in fostering social cohesion and integrating
individuals into the larger society.
2. Functions and dysfunctions: According to functionalism, every social institution serves a
specific function that contributes to the overall stability of society (Merton, 1949).
Functions are the positive consequences of an institution, while dysfunctions are the
negative or unintended consequences. For example, the education system's function is to
transmit knowledge and skills to individuals, but a dysfunction could be the perpetuation
of social inequalities through unequal access to educational resources.
3. Consensus and social order: Functionalism assumes that society is based on a general
consensus about values, norms, and beliefs (Parsons, 1951). This consensus ensures that
individuals conform to societal expectations, which maintains social order and prevents
conflict.
4. Social change and equilibrium: Functionalism views social change as a gradual process
that occurs when there is a disturbance in the equilibrium of the social system (Parsons,
1966). As society adjusts to new conditions, social institutions and norms evolve to
restore balance and stability.

Functionalism has been criticized for its conservative approach and over-emphasis on social
consensus, as it tends to overlook power imbalances and conflicts within society. Additionally,
critics argue that functionalism has difficulty explaining rapid social change and the persistence
of social problems. Nonetheless, the theory provides valuable insights into the role of
institutions and norms in shaping social life and maintaining social cohesion.

CONFLICT THEORY
is a sociological perspective that views society as an arena of inequality, where groups and
individuals compete for limited resources and power. Unlike functionalism, conflict theory

1
emphasizes the role of conflict, domination, and coercion in shaping social structures and
relationships. Here are some key aspects of conflict theory:

1. Social inequality: Conflict theory argues that society is characterized by inequalities

based on class, race, gender, and other factors (Marx & Engels, 1848). These inequalities
lead to the exploitation of subordinate groups by dominant groups, who control
resources and maintain their privileged positions.
2. Social change: According to conflict theory, social change results from the struggle
between groups seeking to preserve or challenge existing power relations (Dahrendorf,
1959). Social conflict can lead to either incremental or radical transformations in social
structures, depending on the nature and intensity of the struggle.
3. Power and domination: Conflict theorists emphasize the role of power in maintaining
social order and shaping social interactions (Weber, 1946). Power is understood as the
ability of individuals or groups to impose their will on others, even against their
resistance. This includes not only economic power but also political, social, and
ideological power.
4. Ideology and false consciousness: Conflict theory suggests that dominant groups
promote ideologies to justify and legitimize their privileged positions and maintain the
status quo (Marx & Engels, 1848). These ideologies often create a false consciousness
among subordinate groups, preventing them from recognizing their exploitation and
challenging the existing power relations.
5. Conflict and consensus: While conflict theorists acknowledge the presence of consensus
and cooperation in society, they emphasize the role of conflict as a driver of social
change and transformation (Collins, 1975). Conflict can potentially lead to the
emancipation of oppressed groups and the creation of more just and equitable social
arrangements.

Critics argue that conflict theory tends to overemphasize conflict and struggle, underestimating
the importance of shared values, norms, and cooperation in maintaining social order.
Additionally, some argue that conflict theory may struggle to account for social stability and
integration in the face of persistent conflicts and inequalities. Despite these limitations, conflict
theory provides valuable insights into the dynamics of power, domination, and resistance in
society.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
is a sociological theory that focuses on the meanings that people attach to symbols, language,
and social interactions in their everyday lives. Developed by George Herbert Mead, this

2
perspective views society as a product of human interactions, which are shaped by shared
symbols and meanings. Here are some key aspects of symbolic interactionism theory:

1. Symbols and meanings: Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the importance of symbols,

such as language, gestures, and objects, in shaping social interactions (Mead, 1934).
Individuals interpret these symbols and assign meanings to them based on their personal
experiences and cultural contexts.
2. Social construction of reality: According to symbolic interactionism, reality is socially
constructed through the interpretation and negotiation of symbols and meanings among
individuals (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). This means that individuals actively create and
maintain their social world through their interactions and shared understandings.
3. Role-taking and the "looking-glass self": Symbolic interactionism suggests that
individuals develop a sense of self through interactions with others and by internalizing
the perspectives of others (Cooley, 1902). This process involves role-taking, in which
individuals imagine themselves from the perspective of others and adjust their behavior
accordingly (Mead, 1934).
4. The importance of context: Symbolic interactionism highlights the significance of
context in shaping social interactions and the interpretation of symbols (Blumer, 1969).
This includes both the immediate situational context and the broader cultural and
historical contexts in which individuals are embedded.
5. Negotiation and renegotiation of meanings: As individuals interact and encounter new
situations, they continuously negotiate and renegotiate the meanings they assign to
symbols and experiences (Strauss, 1993). This ongoing process of meaning-making
contributes to the dynamism and complexity of social life.

Critics argue that symbolic interactionism may neglect the influence of larger social structures,
such as institutions and power relations, on individual experiences and interactions.
Additionally, the theory may struggle to account for the persistence of social patterns and
structures over time. Despite these limitations, symbolic interactionism offers valuable insights
into the role of meaning-making and social interactions in shaping individual experiences and
the broader social world.

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
Involves the systematic study of social behavior, interactions, and institutions to explain and
understand various aspects of human societies. It provides frameworks and insights that help
sociologists analyze and interpret social phenomena and patterns. Here are some key aspects of
sociological theory:
3
 1. Classical theories: The foundations of modern sociology were laid by classical theorists
such as Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim, and Max Weber. Their theories focused on
understanding the emergence of modern societies, social structure, and social change.
2. Social structure: Sociological theories often examine the way societies are organized,
including social institutions, norms, and roles. This involves analyzing how social
structures influence individual behavior and experiences, as well as the distribution of
resources and power.
3. Social inequalities: Sociological theories seek to explain the causes and consequences of
social inequalities based on factors such as class, race, gender, and sexuality. This
involves examining the ways in which social structures and institutions perpetuate or
challenge systems of oppression and privilege.
4. Socialization and identity: Theories in sociology explore the processes through which
individuals develop their sense of self and social identities. This includes understanding
the role of culture, social norms, and interactions in shaping individual experiences and
self-concepts.
5. Culture and meaning: Sociological theories examine the role of culture in creating shared
meanings and shaping social interactions. This involves analyzing how symbols,
language, and cultural practices influence individual behavior and social structures.
6. Social change and collective action: Sociological theories seek to explain the processes
and mechanisms of social change, as well as the role of collective action in transforming
societies. This includes understanding the dynamics of social movements, revolutions,
and other forms of collective action.
7. Micro- and macro-level analysis: Sociological theories can be categorized into micro-
level theories, focusing on individual interactions and experiences, and macro-level
theories, analyzing large-scale social structures and institutions. Some theories, like
symbolic interactionism, emphasize the micro-level, while others, such as functionalism
and conflict theory, focus on the macro-level.

Sociological theory continues to evolve and expand as new empirical research and theoretical
perspectives emerge. Contemporary sociologists draw upon classical theories while integrating
insights from various disciplines, such as psychology, anthropology, and economics, to further
our understanding of the complex and dynamic nature of human societies.