Handbook of Fractional Calculus With Applications Vol 4 Applications in Physics Part A de Gruyter Reference 1st Edition Vasily E. Tarasov (Editor)

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Volume 1: Theory
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Vasily E. Tarasov (Ed.)
Handbook of
Fractional Calculus
with Applications
|
Volume 4: Applications in Physics, Part A
Series edited by Jose Antonio Tenreiro Machado
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Editor
Prof. Dr. Vasily E. Tarasov
Lomonosov Moscow State University
Skobeltsyn Inst. of Nuclear Physics
Leninskie Gory
Moscow 119991
Russian Federation
tarasov@theory.sinp.msu.ru
Series Editor
Prof. Dr. Jose Antonio Tenreiro Machado
Department of Electrical Engineering
Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto
Instituto Politécnico do Porto
4200-072 Porto
Portugal
jtm@isep.ipp.pt
ISBN 978-3-11-057088-5
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-057170-7
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-057100-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018967593
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.
© 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: djmilic / iStock / Getty Images Plus
Typesetting: VTeX UAB, Lithuania
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck
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Preface
Fractional calculus (FC) was initially developed in 1695, nearly at the same time as
the conventional calculus. However, FC attracted limited attention and remained a
pure mathematical exercise, in spite of the contributions of important mathemati-
cians, physicists, and engineers. FC had rapid further development during the last few
decades, both in mathematics and applied sciences, being nowadays recognized as an
excellent tool for describing complex systems, phenomena involving long range mem-
ory effects, and non-locality. A huge number of research papers and books devoted to
this subject have been published, and presently several specialized conferences and
workshops are organized each year. The FC popularity in all fields of science is due
to its successful application in mathematical models, namely in the form of FC oper-
ators and fractional integral and differential equations. Presently, we are witnessing
considerable progress both in regard to theoretical aspects and applications of FC in
areas such as physics, engineering, biology, medicine, economy, or finance.
The popularity of FC has attracted many researchers from all over the world, and
there is a demand for works covering all areas of science in a systematic and rigorous
form. In fact, the literature devoted to FC and its applications is huge, but readers are
confronted with a high heterogeneity and, in some cases, with misleading and inac-
curate information. The Handbook of Fractional Calculus with Applications (HFCA)
intends to fill that gap and provides the readers with a solid and systematic treatment
of the main aspects and applications of FC. Motivated by these ideas, the editors of
the volumes involved a team of internationally recognized experts for a joint publish-
ing project, offering a survey of their own and other important results in their fields of
research. As a result of these joint efforts, a modern encyclopedia of FC and its appli-
cations, reflecting present day scientific knowledge, is now available with the HFCA.
This work is distributed by several distinct volumes, each one developed under the
supervision of its editors.
The fourth and fifth volumes of HFCA are devoted to the application of fractional
calculus (FC) and fractional differential equations in different areas of physics. These
volumes describe the fundamental physical effects and, first of all, those that belong
to fractional relaxation-oscillation or diffusion-wave phenomena. FC allows describ-
ing spatial non-locality and fading memory of power-law type, the openness of phys-
ical systems and dissipation, long-range interactions, and other physical phenom-
ena. The most well-known physical phenomena and processes, which are described
by fractional differential equations, include fractional viscoelasticity, spatial and fre-
quency dispersion of power type, nonexponential relaxation, anomalous diffusion,
and many others. The fourth volume of HFCA focuses on the application of FC in var-
ious aspects of classical mechanics and continuum mechanics. The most important
basic models and phenomena include the fractional oscillator and Van der Pol oscil-
lator, fractional relaxation and fractional oscillation phenomena, discrete long-range
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110571707-201
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VI | Preface
interactions, and nonlinear systems with power-law memory. In the 13 chapters, the
non-locality and memory of the power-law type are described in phenomena, such
as viscoelasticity, thermodynamics, thermodiffusion in deformable solid, in gradient
mechanics, and mechanics of fractal media.
My special thanks go to the authors of individual chapters that are excellent sur-
veys of selected classical and new results in several important fields of FC. The editors
believe that the HFCA will represent a valuable and reliable reference work for all
scholars and professionals willing to develop research in the challenging, relevant,
and timely scientific area.
Vasily E. Tarasov
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Contents
Preface | V
J. A. Tenreiro Machado and António M. Lopes

Fractional Van der Pol oscillator | 1
Dumitru Baleanu and Sami I. Muslih

Fractional Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics with memory | 23
Rudolf Gorenflo and Francesco Mainardi

Fractional relaxation-oscillation phenomena | 45
Vasily E. Tarasov
Fractional calculus and long-range interactions | 75
Mark Edelman
Dynamics of nonlinear systems with power-law memory | 103
Aleksander Stanislavsky
Fractional oscillator basics | 133
Francesco Mainardi
Fractional viscoelasticity | 153
Raoul R. Nigmatullin and Dumitru Baleanu

Relationships between 1D and space fractals and fractional integrals and their
applications in physics | 183
Yuriy Povstenko
Thermodiffusion in a deformable solid: fractional calculus approach | 221
Elias C. Aifantis
Fractional generalizations of gradient mechanics | 241
Jun Li and Martin Ostoja-Starzewski

Application of fractional calculus to fractal media | 263
Francesco Paolo Pinnola and Massimiliano Zingales

Fractional-order constitutive equations in mechanics and thermodynamics | 277
Index | 305
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J. A. Tenreiro Machado and António M. Lopes
Fractional Van der Pol oscillator
Abstract: This chapter presents the Van der Pol oscillator (VPO). Several formulations
of the VPO are analyzed, namely the classical integer-order and the real and complex
fractional-order models. The autonomous and forced versions are investigated in time
and frequency domains, using phase portraits, spectral analysis, and bifurcation dia-
grams.
Keywords: Fractional calculus, Van der Pol oscillator, nonlinear dynamics, chaos
PACS: 05.45.Pq, 05.45.Xt, 05.45.-a
1 Introduction
The Van der Pol oscillator (VPO) was introduced by the Dutch electrical engineer Balt-
hazar van der Pol (1889–1959) to describe triode oscillations in electrical circuits [37,
38]. The VPO dynamics is modeled by a second-order nonlinear differential equation,
and—in the scope of mechanical systems—can be interpreted as describing a nonlin-
ear mass-spring-damper system with a position-dependent damping coefficient, or
analogously, as a resistance-inductance-capacitance electrical nonlinear circuit with
a negative-nonlinear resistance. The VPO has been used to describe phenomena in
many areas, namely electronics, biology, and acoustics, since it exhibits a behavior
that is ubiquitous in several natural and artificial systems [12, 13, 16, 17, 21, 26, 31, 34,
39, 42].
This chapter studies several formulations of the VPO, both in the time and
frequency domains, using phase portraits, spectral analysis, and bifurcation dia-
grams. In the first phase, the autonomous and forced integer-order VPO is analyzed.
In the second phase, the influence of a fractional order time derivative is investi-
gated.
In this line of thought, the chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 intro-
duces the autonomous and forced VPO. Sections 3 and 4 study the real and complex
fractional-order models, respectively. Finally, Section 4 presents the main conclu-
sions.
J. A. Tenreiro Machado, Institute of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto, Department of Electrical

Engineering, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal, e-mail:
jtm@isep.ipp.pt
António M. Lopes, UISPA–LAETA/INEGI, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto
Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal, e-mail: aml@fe.up.pt
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110571707-001
Brought to you by | University of Warwick

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2 | J. A. T. Machado and A. M. Lopes
2 Integer-Order Van der Pol oscillator

The standard autonomous integer-order VPO model is given by the second-order non-
linear differential equation:
ẍ + λ(x2 − 1)ẋ + x = 0, (1)
where λ > 0 is a control parameter, or damping, that reflects the degree of nonlinearity
of the system.
The state-space model of (1), with x1 = x and x2 = x,̇ is given by
ẋ 0 1 x
[ 1] = [ ] [ 1] . (2)
ẋ2 −1 −λ(x12 − 1) x2
Equation (1) has a limit cycle that attracts other solutions, with exception of the
unique equilibrium point (x, x)̇ = (0, 0).
Figure 1 depicts the phase portraits and the time domain trajectories of the au-
tonomous VPO for the initial conditions (x(0), x(0))
̇ = (0, 1) and different values of the
parameter λ. It is seen that as λ varies, the unstable focus and the limit cycle remain
the same. In other words, the topology of the phase space does not change and, as
λ increases, all solutions tend to approach the limit cycle in a shorter time interval.
Therefore, for λ = 0, the autonomous VPO behaves as a harmonic oscillator, whereas
for λ > 0, it exhibits a stable limit cycle, with amplitude xmax ≈ 2.
Figure 2 represents the angular frequency of the limit cycle, ω (period T = 2π ω
),
versus the parameter λ. For small values of λ, the frequency is approximately ω =
1 rad s−1 , whereas for increasing values of λ, we verify that ω decreases. Figure 3 de-
picts the Fourier spectra of x for the autonomous VPO as a function of λ, for λ ∈ [0, 10],
confirming the variation of ω with the parameter λ and showing the corresponding
harmonics.
We now consider the sinusoidal forced integer-order VPO model:
ẍ + λ(x 2 − 1)ẋ + x = A cos(ωf t). (3)
The forced VPO behavior depends not only on the damping λ, but also on the
2π
amplitude and frequency of the excitation function {A, ωf } (period Tf = ω ).
f
Figure 4 depicts the phase portraits and the time-domain trajectories of the forced
VPO for the initial conditions [x(0), x(0)]̇ = (0, 1). The damping is set to λ = 5,
and the frequency and amplitudes of the exciting function are ωf = 7 rad s−1 and
A = {10, 28, 48, 53}, respectively. Figure 5 represents the corresponding Poincaré maps.
For A = {10, 48}, the forced VPO exhibits quasi-periodic motion: (i) the trajectories

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Figure 1: The autonomous VPO dynamics for λ = {0.3, 0.8, 3, 8}: (a) phase portraits (x, x);
̇ (b) time-
domain trajectories x.

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Figure 2: The autonomous VPO angular frequency of

the limit cycle ω versus the parameter λ.
Figure 3: The Fourier spectra of the signal

x of the autonomous VPO, as a function of
λ ∈ [0, 10].
cover densely the region in the interior of the phase space; (ii) the ratio between the
two frequency components visible on the time-domain trajectories is an irrational
value; (iii) the orbits in the Poincaré maps are almost closed connected curves, mean-
ing that at the time instants t = nTf , n ∈ ℕ, the trajectories never return exactly
to the same points. For A = {28, 53}, the forced VPO reveals periodic motion: (i) the
phase trajectories do not cover densely the interior of the phase portraits; (ii) the ratio
between the two frequency components observed on the time trajectories is a rational
number; (iii) the Poincaré maps are sets of points.
Figure 6 shows different bifurcation diagrams of the forced VPO, obtained by ap-
plying the method of Poincaré sections. These diagrams represent the loci of the sam-
pled output, x(nTf ), versus the parameters A, λ, and ωf . When varying the parameter A
(Figures 6(a) and 6(b)), regions of periodic, quasi-periodic, and period-locked motion
are observed. In the periodic regions, the period of the limit cycle is an odd multiple
of Tf . Period-locked motion occurs for the critical driving amplitudes A = 16.9 and
A = 73.3 rad s−1 , respectively, and the period of the solutions equals Tf . When varying
the parameters λ and wf (Figure 6(c) and Figure 6(d), respectively) it is verified that
periodic and quasi-periodic regions alternate.

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Figure 4: The forced VPO dynamics for λ = 5, ωf = 7, and A = {10, 28, 48, 53}: (a) phase portraits
(x, x);
̇ (b) time-domain trajectories x.

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Figure 5: The Poincaré maps of the forced VPO for λ = 5, ωf = 7, and A = {10, 28, 48, 53}.
Figure 6: The bifurcation diagrams of the forced VPO: (a) λ = 5, ωf = 3, A ∈ [0, 80]; (b) λ = 5, ωf = 7,
A ∈ [0, 80]; (c) A = 5, ωf = 5, λ ∈ [0, 8]; (d) λ = 3, A = 5, ωf ∈ [1, 10].

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Figure 7: The bifurcation diagram of the forced VPO dynamics for A = 5 and λ = 5: (a) normal view
(ωf ∈ [3, 6]); (b) magnified view (ωf ∈ [5.632, 5.634]).
Figure 8: The Fourier spectra of x for the forced VPO: (a) λ = 5, ωf = 3, A ∈ [0, 80]; (b) λ = 5, ωf = 7,
A ∈ [0, 80]; (c) A = 5, ωf = 5, λ ∈ [0, 8]; (d) λ = 3, A = 5, ωf ∈ [1, 10].
Figure 7 illustrates chaotic behavior, revealing the existence of period-doubling-

cascades phenomena [19, 25, 40]. The bifurcation diagram looks self-similar under
scaling, meaning that the structure of the bifurcation curves repeats successively in
the parameter space [33].
Figure 8 depicts the Fourier spectra of x for the same parameters used in Figure 6.
The periodic, quasi-periodic, and period-locked motions are confirmed.

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3 Real fractional-order Van der Pol oscillator

The standard VPO model (1) can be generalized by replacing the integer-order time
derivatives with real-order ones, yielding:
x(α1 ) + λ(x2 − 1)x (α2 ) + x = A cos(ωf t), 0 < α1 , α2 < 2, (4)
where x(αi ) , i = {1, 2}, denotes the αi -order time derivative of x, that is, x(αi ) = Dαi x.
Different versions of Equation (4) were studied, differing on the restrictions ap-
plied to the derivative orders α1 and α2 [2–4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 20, 32]. Recently, the variable-
order VPO was proposed [8], based on the concept of variable-order fractional dynam-
ics, which extends the fractional calculus to derivatives and integrals of variable-order
[1, 22, 29, 35, 41].
In this section, the real-order fractional Van der Pol oscillator (RF-VPO) model is
studied, so that α2 = α and α1 = α2 + 1:
x(1+α) + λ(x 2 − 1)x (α) + x = A cos(ωf t), 0 < α < 1. (5)
The integrator s−α is approximated in the Fourier domain by means of the CRONE’s
recursive method [23, 24, 36]. The order is set to N = 5, and the bandwidth is [ωl , ωh ] =
[10−2 , 102 ] rad s−1 .
Figure 9 shows the phase portraits of the autonomous RF-VPO, for the initial con-
ditions (x(0), x(α) (0)) = (0, 1) and different values of α and λ. Significant variations on
the limit cycle are verified, revealing a large influence not only of the parameter λ, but
also of the order α upon the system dynamics. Such impact is underlined by the results
depicted in Figure 10, which illustrate the frequency ω and the amplitude xmax of the
output versus α and λ.
Figure 11 shows the amplitude Fourier spectra of the output x for various λ and
α. It can be noticed that the energy of x is not only concentrated at the fundamental
and integer-odd harmonics, but also distributed along the entire frequency domain
[6, 18].
In what concerns the forced RF-VPO, Figure 12 illustrates the phase portraits
and the time-domain trajectories for several distinct values of the parameters. The
initial conditions are (x(0), x(α) (0)) = (0, 1), the derivative order is α = 0.8, the
damping is set to λ = 5, and the frequency and amplitudes of the exciting func-
tion are ωf = 7 rad s−1 and A = {5, 15, 22, 35}, respectively. Figure 13 represents the
corresponding Poincaré maps. For A = {15, 22}, the forced RF-VPO exhibits periodic
motion, whereas for A = 5 and A = 35, it reveals quasi-periodic and chaotic mo-
tions.

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Figure 9: The autonomous RF-VPO phase portraits (x, x (α) ): (a) λ = 1 and α = {0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1}; (b) λ =
{0.5, 0.8, 3, 8} and α = 0.8.

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Figure 10: The limit cycle of the autonomous RF-VPO for λ ∈ [0, 10] and α ∈ [0.5, 1]: (a) frequency;
(b) maximum amplitude.
Figure 11: The amplitude Fourier spectra of x for the autonomous RF-VPO output, with λ ∈ [0, 10] and
α = 0.8 and with α ∈ [0.5, 1] and λ = 8.
Figures 14 and 15 show the bifurcation diagrams and the Fourier spectra of x, respec-
tively, for the varying parameters A, λ, ωf , and α. Just as the classical VPO, regions of
periodic, quasi-periodic, and period-locked motion are observed, revealing that the
RF-VPO exhibits different types of behavior.
In synthesis, the results show that the fractional order α can act as an extra degree-
of-freedom that may be useful for tuning and control, having in mind that:
– the rate of convergence to the steady-state solution of the RF-VPO varies with α,
since the fractional order acts as a damping coefficient;
– both the maximum amplitude and the frequency of the RF-VPO limit cycle depend
on α;
– the fractional order α can change the dynamics of the forced RF-VPO between pe-
riodic, quasi-periodic, and period-locked motions.

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Figure 12: The forced RF-VPO dynamics for α = 0.8, λ = 5, ωf = 7, and A = {5, 15, 22, 35}: (a) phase
portraits (x, x (α) ); (b) time-domain trajectories x.

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Figure 13: The Poincaré maps of the forced RF-VPO for α = 0.8, λ = 5, ωf = 7, and A = {5, 15, 22, 35}.
Figure 14: The bifurcation diagrams of the forced RF-VPO: (a) λ = 5, ωf = 7, α = 0.8, A ∈ [0, 80];
(b) A = 5, ωf = 5, α = 0.8, λ ∈ [0, 8]; (c) A = 5, λ = 3, α = 0.8, ωf ∈ [1, 10]; (d) A = 5, λ = 5, ωf = 5,
α ∈ [0.5, 1].

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Figure 15: The Fourier spectra of x for the forced RF-VPO: (a) λ = 5, ωf = 7, α = 0.8, A ∈ [0, 80];
(b) A = 5, ωf = 5, α = 0.8, λ ∈ [0, 8]; (c) A = 5, λ = 3, α = 0.8, ωf ∈ [1, 10]; (d) A = 5, λ = 5, ωf = 5,
α ∈ [0.5, 1].
4 Complex fractional-order Van der Pol oscillator

The model (4) is generalized by introducing complex-order time derivatives. In this
regard, different variants are possible [27, 28]. In this section, the complex-order frac-
tional Van der Pol oscillator (CF-VPO) is studied, based on the model
x(1+γ) + λ(x2 − 1)x (γ) + x = A cos(ωf t), γ = α + jβ, 0 < α < 1, β ∈ ℝ, (6)
where x(γ) = ℜ[Dγ x]. This operator is implemented in the Fourier domain by means of
the CRONE’s recursive method [10, 14, 15, 23, 24, 30]. The number of poles and zeros is
(N, M) = (5, 4), and the bandwidth is [ωl , ωh ] = [10−2 , 102 ] rad s−1 . Other alternatives
for implementing x(γ) are possible, yielding directly a real output without using the
operator ℜ[⋅] [5, 27].
Figure 16 depicts the phase portraits and the time-domain trajectories of the au-
tonomous CF-VPO for the initial conditions (x(0), x(γ) (0)) = (0, 1), β = 0.8, and different
values of α and λ. This figure illustrates that, for a given β, the limit cycle of the au-
tonomous CF-VPO is almost insensitive to the other parameters. Such behavior is also
verified by the results in Figure 17, which depict the frequency ω and the amplitude of
the limit cycle xmax versus λ, α, and β.

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Figure 16: The autonomous CF-VPO dynamics for β = 0.8, and different values of α and λ: (a) phase
portraits (x, x (γ) ); (b) time-domain trajectories x.

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Figure 17: The limit cycle of the autonomous CF-VPO for λ ∈ [0, 10], α ∈ [0.5, 1], and β ∈ [0.1, 1]:
(a) frequency; (b) amplitude.
Figure 18: The amplitude Fourier spectra of x for the autonomous CF-VPO output, with λ = 5, α ∈
[0.1, 1], and β ∈ [0.1, 1].
Figure 18 shows the amplitude Fourier spectra of the output x for various λ, α, and β.
It can be noticed that the energy of x is not concentrated only at the fundamental and
integer-odd harmonics, but is distributed also along other frequencies.
In what concerns the forced CF-VPO, Figure 19 illustrates the phase portraits and
the time-domain trajectories for several distinct values of the parameters. The initial

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Figure 19: The forced CF-VPO dynamics for α = β = 0.8, λ = 5, ωf = 7, and A = {3, 10, 42, 70}:
(a) phase portraits (x, x (γ) ); (b) time-domain trajectories x.

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Figure 20: The Poincaré maps of the forced CF-VPO for α = β = 0.8, λ = 5, ωf = 7, and
A = {3, 10, 42, 70}.
conditions are (x(0), x(γ) (0)) = (0, 1), the derivative order is α = β = 0.8, the damp-
ing is set to λ = 5, and the frequency and amplitudes of the exciting function are
ωf = 7 rad s−1 and A = {3, 10, 42, 70}, respectively. Figure 20 represents the cor-
responding Poincaré maps. For A = {10, 42}, the forced RF-VPO exhibits periodic
motion, whereas for A5 and A = 70, it reveals quasi-periodic and chaotic mo-
tions.
Figures 21 and 22 show the bifurcation diagrams for the parameters A, λ, ωf , α,
and β. Just as the classical VPO and the RF-VPO, regions of periodic, quasi-periodic,
and period-locked motion are observed, showing that the fractional orders (α, β) act
as two additional degrees-of-freedom for tuning and control the VPO.
Figures 23 and 24 depict the Fourier spectra of x for the forced CF-VPO, confirming
the results obtained with the bifurcation diagrams.
In conclusion, for the CF-VPO, the results show that the fractional order β influ-
ences the system dynamics, such as:
– both the maximum amplitude and the frequency of the CF-VPO limit cycle depend
on β; nevertheless, they are less sensitive to β than to α;
– the fractional order β can change the dynamics of the forced CF-VPO between pe-
riodic, quasi-periodic, and period-locked motions;
– the energy tends to be more concentrated at lower frequencies when β ≠ 0.

Authenticated
Figure 21: The bifurcation diagrams of the forced CF-VPO: (a) λ = 5, ωf = 7, α = 0.8, β = 0.8,
A ∈ [0, 80]; (b) A = 10, ωf = 7, α = 0.8, β = 0.8, λ ∈ [0, 8]; (c) A = 10, λ = 5, α = 0.8, β = 0.8,
ωf ∈ [1, 10]; (d) A = 10, λ = 5, ωf = 7, β = 0.8, α ∈ [0, 1].
Figure 22: The bifurcation diagrams of the forced CF-VPO versus order β ∈ [0, 1]: (a) λ = 5, A = 10,
ωf = 7, α = 0.8; (b) λ = 5, A = 25, ωf = 7, α = 0.8.
5 Conclusions
In this chapter several implementations of the VPO were reviewed. Such modifica-
tions consisted of the introduction of a fractional time derivatives. The unforced and
forced versions of the integer- and fractional-order VPO were studied in the time and

Authenticated
Figure 23: The Fourier spectra of x for the forced CF-VPO: (a) λ = 5, ωf = 7, α = 0.8, β = 0.8,
A ∈ [0, 80]; (b) A = 10, ωf = 7, α = 0.8, β = 0.8, λ ∈ [0, 8]; (c) A = 10, λ = 5, α = 0.8, β = 0.8,
ωf ∈ [1, 10]; (d) A = 10, λ = 5, ωf = 7, β = 0.8, α ∈ [0, 1].
Figure 24: The Fourier spectra of x for the forced CF-VPO versus order β ∈ [0, 1]: (a) λ = 5, A = 10,
ωf = 7, α = 0.8; (b) λ = 5, A = 25, ωf = 7, α = 0.8.
frequency domains by means of phase portraits, spectral analysis, and bifurcation di-
agrams. The results reveal that fractional-order systems can exhibit a richer dynamics
than classical integer-order formulations. The fractional order acts as a modulation
parameter that may be useful both for modeling and control. The complex-order sys-
tem generalizes further the model and includes an additional parameter, which can
be used to extend the scope in applied sciences of this seminal model.

Authenticated
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Father.
Elijah Cobb to his Son, Elijah Cobb, 2nd

Brewster Septr 12th 1838
Dear Son
The packet did not git to her moorings, to enable us to git the
roller & seed out, untill monday eve”, anticipating it wou’d come, Mr
F. had prepared the upland for the seed, Viz. the peice where yr
wheat was, & the strip, quite down to the ditch, where my oats was;
for the swamp part of that; plouged, equal to any of the upland,
having been well mixed with upland soil, & frequently ploughed,
before—calculation was made, to commence opperations with the
seed & roller, on tuesday morn”, but when the morning came, a
storm had commenced, which still continues, without intermission,
consequently, they were compelled to suspend those opperans for
the time being. They have got in, nearly all the Indian wheat, that is
worth harvesting; that article, turns out slim; Genl Mayo, Mr Crocker,
& Capt Freeman, have abandoned the Idea of harvesting any,
except, for their hogs, in the straw—I have givin mine, (the little strip)
to my pigs, as they required it—they love it dearly, & thrive finely
upon it.—We think there is somthing uncongenial in our atmospere
to that plant.
Since the storm commenced, they have been attending to
threshing wheat &c &c. Mr Freeman had got all the creek stuff,
home, & all the salt hay secured in stack, before the storm
commenced, so that you have nothing exposed to injury, except the
peat, & that is so far made, that the injury to it, will be little, or
nothing. In regard to seed, for the swampy part of your land, we think
a bushel will be sufficient, for what you will be able to seed this fall—I
wish you to understand, that we included, in the 4 Acres of upland,
the strip, east of my orchard, & the whole of the south strip (next Mrs
Snows) down to the main ditch—that strip, has been raised & tilled
so much, that it is susceptable of the same seed, as upland, for this,
you have sent seed already. If you cannot procure foul meadow
seed, I should recommend that you git 3 pecks of red top, & one
peck of herds grass, & mix them, in the same bag—if you can git foul
meadow, ½ bushl of each, that, & red top, & no herds grass.
The Plough I surely wrote you how the swamp ploughed
east of my orchard; that after going round; that they
had to stop the team, & work with hoes, hands &c—there were, an
abundance of large roots & stumps, which required prying out,
hauling away &c; they have carried, somthing like a cord, to your
wood house. The plough, is A 2½, a larger one, no doubt, would do
better, but no plough would turn it over smooth, while coming in
contact, every few feet, with stumps & roots that required the team &
prys to start out of their beds—however, with hoes, elbow greass, &
the plough, it looks as if the rollow & harrow would leave it pritty
smooth; it would add greatly to the benifit of it, if you can git on a
quantity of sand; or soil of some kind before sowing the seed on the
swamp. I hope you will be able to be here, the last of the week, &
see, & act for yourself.
Mr. Freeman says the sheer of the plough, has worn so small,
that anew one is necessary, the present one will not cut a furrow of
any weadth, & under those circomstances, haveing considerable
hard plouging to perform, this fall, & next spring, perhaps it will be
advisable to git a new, & larger one, the present one can be fitted for
light ploughing, and favour the new one.
The print (Nettle)[16] directed to Capt Freeman & myself, was
received, & I annex a list of 8 subscribers, will you order them sent,
with the back numbers, & pay for them, & I will have the money
collected to refund, when you come.
all well.
Father
Subscribers to the Nettle.
| They come so cheap, that no
Geo” Copeland—Jo. Sampson.
Enoch Pratt—Freeman Mayo. | dou[bt][15] 20 or 30 wou’d be
{ taken, in the Tow[n][15] if it was
Benjn Berry—Solon Freeman. |
Freeman Rogers—E. Cobb. known—Copeland, & Docter
| say; they will increase the list.
A Southerly Thursday A. M. 13th

Blow
The wind has got round to the south, & blows a
hurrycane, I have just returned from your young orchard, have been
assisting Mr F. in resecuring some of the trees, which it seemed as if
the wind would take from the ground, roots, stakes, & all—the fruit is
prostrated, nearly all; I beleive there are 8 of those delicious plums,
remain’g on the tree, but those which blew off, were perfectly ripe—if
practicable, they will be kept untill you, & caro” come; I advised Mr F.
to take those from the tree also.
Notwithstanding the weight of your roller, it runs very easy, F. &
Eldridge, after puting it together, could run it about any where, with
ease.
Father
the wife of Elisha Bangs, expired at 7 this morn”.
[1] I conclude the old Admiral, was mistaken here, as the

name, Cobb, is not in her list of passengers, but I did not know it
then—they, probably, came in the next vessell, the Cherub.
[2] Lorient.
[3] La Vendée.
[4] [rowing. Ed.]
[5] [cartile. Probably cartel = an agreement between enemies
for the exchange of prisoners. Ed.]
[6] [General Cobb seems to have had in mind the frigate
Congress. If so, his memory was at fault, for it was in the Essex
that Porter captured the Alert, which was the first British war
vessel taken in the War of 1812. Ed.]
[7] Capt. Isaac Clark, Capt. Joseph Mayo, Capt. David
Nickerson, Godfrey Lincoln (Capt. Warren’s young brother) died in
Africa or on the passage home.
[8] [Elijah Winslow Cobb, a grandson of Elijah Cobb. Ed.]
[9] [“A white linen fabric made in Silesia for export to America.”
Simmonds, Dict. Trade, 1858. Ed.]
[10] MS. damaged.
[11] MS. damaged.
[12] MS. damaged.
[13] MS. damaged.
[14] MS. damaged.
[15] MS. torn.
[16] [A Whig Campaign paper published in Boston. Volume I,
Number 1, appeared September 5, 1838. Ed.]
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELIJAH COBB
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Handbook of Fractional Calculus With Applications Vol 4 Applications in Physics Part A de Gruyter Reference 1st Edition Vasily E. Tarasov (Editor)

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Relaxation in Optimization Theory and Variational

Fractional Calculus and Fractional Processes with

Volume 2: Fractional Differential Equations

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Volume 5: Applications in Physics, Part B

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2 Integer-Order Van der Pol oscillator

ẍ + λ(x2 − 1)ẋ + x = 0, (1)

ẍ + λ(x 2 − 1)ẋ + x = A cos(ωf t). (3)

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Figure 2: The autonomous VPO angular frequency of

Figure 3: The Fourier spectra of the signal

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Figure 7 illustrates chaotic behavior, revealing the existence of period-doubling-

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3 Real fractional-order Van der Pol oscillator

x(α1 ) + λ(x2 − 1)x (α2 ) + x = A cos(ωf t), 0 < α1 , α2 < 2, (4)

x(1+α) + λ(x 2 − 1)x (α) + x = A cos(ωf t), 0 < α < 1. (5)

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4 Complex fractional-order Van der Pol oscillator

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Elijah Cobb to his Son, Elijah Cobb, 2nd

A Southerly Thursday A. M. 13th

[1] I conclude the old Admiral, was mistaken here, as the

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Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

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