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Generalized Barycentric Coordinates
in Computer Graphics
and Computational Mechanics
Generalized Barycentric Coordinates
in Computer Graphics
and Computational Mechanics

edited by
Kai Hormann
N. Sukumar
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hormann, Kai, editor. | Sukumar, N., editor.

Title: Generalized barycentric coordinates in computer graphics and computational mechanics / edited by
Kai Hormann and N. Sukumar.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2017.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016056577 | ISBN 9781498763592 (hardback : alk. paper).
Subjects: LCSH: Barycentric coordinates. | Mechanics. | Computer graphics--Mathematics. | Center of mass.
Classification: LCC QA556 .G284 2017 | DDC 516/.16--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016056577

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Contents

Preface xv

Contributors xix

Section I Theoretical Foundations 1

Chapter 1  Barycentric Coordinates and Their Properties 3

Dmitry Anisimov
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.1.1 Barycentric coordinates for simplices 5
1.1.2 Generalized barycentric coordinates 5
1.2 2D COORDINATES 6
1.2.1 Wachspress coordinates 7
1.2.2 Discrete harmonic coordinates 8
1.2.3 Mean value coordinates 8
1.2.4 Complete family of coordinates 9
1.2.5 Metric coordinates 9
1.2.6 Poisson coordinates 10
1.2.7 Gordon–Wixom coordinates 10
1.2.8 Harmonic coordinates 11
1.2.9 Maximum entropy coordinates 11
1.2.10 Local coordinates 12
1.2.11 Affine coordinates 12
1.2.12 Sibson coordinates 12
1.2.13 Laplace coordinates 13
1.2.14 Hermite coordinates 13
1.2.15 Complex coordinates 14

v
vi  Contents

1.2.16 Comparison 14
1.3 3D COORDINATES 20
1.3.1 Wachspress coordinates 20
1.3.2 Discrete harmonic coordinates 21
1.3.3 Mean value coordinates 21
1.3.4 Complete family of coordinates 22
1.3.5 Other coordinates 22

Chapter 2  Shape Quality for Generalized Barycentric

Interpolation 23
Andrew Gillette and Alexander Rand
2.1 INTRODUCTION 24
2.2 DECONSTRUCTING THE A PRIORI ERROR ESTIMATE 26
2.3 SHAPE QUALITY METRICS FOR SIMPLICES 29
2.4 SHAPE QUALITY METRICS FOR POLYGONS
AND POLYHEDRA 31
2.5 INTERPOLATION ERROR ESTIMATES ON POLYGONS 34
2.5.1 Triangulation coordinates 34
2.5.2 Harmonic coordinates 35
2.5.3 Wachspress coordinates 37
2.5.4 Mean value coordinates 39
2.6 INTERPOLATION ERROR ESTIMATES ON POLYHEDRA AND
POLYTOPES 39
2.6.1 Harmonic coordinates in 3D and higher 40
2.6.2 Wachspress coordinates in 3D and higher 40
2.7 EXTENSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 41

Chapter 3  Transfinite Barycentric Coordinates 43

Alexander G. Belyaev and Pierre-Alain Fayolle
3.1 INTRODUCTION 44
3.2 WEIGHTED MEAN VALUE INTERPOLATION 45
3.2.1 General construction 45
3.2.2 Transfinite three-point coordinates 47
3.2.3 Transfinite Laplace coordinates 48
 Contents  vii

3.2.4 Transfinite Wachspress coordinates 49

3.2.5 Transfinite Laplace and Wachspress coordinates
coincide for a disk 51
3.3 GORDON–WIXOM INTERPOLATION 51
3.3.1 Lagrange-type Gordon–Wixom interpolation 51
3.3.2 Hermite-type Gordon–Wixom interpolation 54
3.3.3 Modified Hermite-type Gordon–Wixom interpolation 55
3.3.4 Modified Gordon–Wixom for polyharmonic
interpolation 56
3.4 GENERALIZED MEAN VALUE POTENTIALS AND DISTANCE
FUNCTION APPROXIMATIONS 57
3.4.1 Generalized mean value potentials for smooth domains 57
3.4.2 Generalized potentials for polygons 61

Chapter 4  Barycentric Mappings 63

Teseo Schneider
4.1 INTRODUCTION 64
4.1.1 Convex polygons 64
4.1.2 Arbitrary polygons 65
4.2 BIJECTIVE BARYCENTRIC MAPPING 66
4.2.1 Perturbed target polygons 66
4.3 BIJECTIVE COMPOSITE BARYCENTRIC MAPPING 68
4.3.1 Limit of composite barycentric mappings 70
4.4 EXTENSIONS 71
4.4.1 Closed planar curves 71
4.4.2 Polyhedra 73
4.5 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 75
4.5.1 Choosing the coordinates 75
4.5.2 Choosing the vertex paths 75

Chapter 5  A Primer on Laplacians 77

Max Wardetzky
5.1 INTRODUCTION 77
5.1.1 Basic properties 78
viii  Contents

5.2 LAPLACIANS ON RIEMANNIAN MANIFOLDS 79

5.2.1 Exterior calculus 79
5.2.2 Hodge decomposition 81
5.2.3 The spectrum 82
5.3 DISCRETE LAPLACIANS 83
5.3.1 Laplacians on graphs 83
5.3.2 The spectrum 84
5.3.3 Laplacians on simplicial manifolds 86
5.3.4 Strongly and weakly defined Laplacians 87
5.3.5 Hodge decomposition 88
5.3.6 The cotan Laplacian and beyond 88
5.3.7 Discrete versus smooth Laplacians 90

Section II Applications in Computer Graphics 95

Chapter 6  Mesh Parameterization 97

Bruno Lévy
6.1 INTRODUCTION 97
6.2 APPLICATIONS OF MESH PARAMETERIZATION 98
6.3 NOTIONS OF TOPOLOGY 100
6.4 TUTTE’S BARYCENTRIC MAPPING THEOREM 102
6.5 SOLVING THE LINEAR SYSTEMS 106
6.6 CHOOSING THE WEIGHTS 108

Chapter 7  Planar Shape Deformation 109

Ofir Weber
7.1 INTRODUCTION 110
7.2 COMPLEX BARYCENTRIC COORDINATES 111
7.2.1 Holomorphic functions 113
7.2.2 General construction of complex barycentric
coordinates 118
7.2.3 Magic coordinates 121
7.3 VARIATIONAL BARYCENTRIC COORDINATES 123
7.3.1 Point-based barycentric maps 123
 Contents  ix

7.3.2 Point-to-point barycentric coordinates 124

7.4 CONFORMAL MAPS 127
7.4.1 Log derivative construction 127
7.4.2 Shape interpolation 130
7.4.3 Variational conformal maps 131
7.5 IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS 132
7.5.1 Visualizing planar maps 132

Chapter 8  Multi-Sided Patches via Barycentric Coordinates 135

Scott Schaefer
8.1 INTRODUCTION 136
8.1.1 Bézier form of curves 136
8.1.2 Evaluation 137
8.1.3 Degree elevation 137
8.2 MULTISIDED BÉZIER PATCHES IN HIGHER DIMENSIONS 138
8.2.1 Indexing for S-patches 139
8.2.2 Evaluation 141
8.2.3 Degree elevation 142
8.3 APPLICATIONS 143
8.3.1 Surface patches 143
8.3.2 Spatial deformation 144

Chapter 9  Generalized Triangulations 147

Pooran Memari
9.1 INTRODUCTION 147
9.2 GENERALIZED PRIMAL-DUAL TRIANGULATIONS 148
9.2.1 Some classical examples 149
9.2.2 Primal-dual triangulations (PDT) 150
9.3 A CHARACTERIZATION THEOREM 151
9.3.1 Combinatorially regular triangulations (CRT) 151
9.3.2 Equivalence between PDT and CRT 152
9.3.3 Parametrization of primal-dual triangulations 152
9.4 DISCRETE REPRESENTATION USING GENERALIZED
TRIANGULATIONS 153
x  Contents

9.4.1 Discrete exterior calculus framework 153

9.4.2 Applications in mesh optimization 154

Chapter 10  Self-Supporting Surfaces 157

Etienne Vouga
10.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 158
10.1.1 What is a masonry structure? 158
10.1.2 Heyman’s safe theorem 159
10.1.3 Gaudí and hanging nets 160
10.1.4 Maxwell’s reciprocal diagrams 161
10.2 SMOOTH THEORY 162
10.2.1 Equilibrium equations 163
10.2.2 Airy stress potential 164
10.2.3 Relative curvatures 164
10.2.4 Curvature interpretation of equilibrium 165
10.3 DISCRETE THEORY 166
10.3.1 Thrust network analysis 166
10.3.2 Thrust networks as block networks 167
10.3.3 Discrete Airy stress potential 167
10.3.4 FEM discretization of Airy stress 169
10.3.5 Discrete curvature interpretation of equilibrium 169
10.4 OPTIMIZING FOR STABILITY 170
10.4.1 Alternating optimization 170
10.4.2 Dual formulation as vertex weights 172
10.4.3 Perfect Laplacian optimization 172
10.4.4 Relative-curvature-based smoothing 173
10.4.5 Steel-glass structures and PQ faces 174
10.4.6 Block layouts from stable surfaces 175
10.5 CONCLUSION AND OPEN PROBLEMS 175
10.5.1 Sensitivity analysis of masonry structures 176
10.5.2 Progressive stable structures 176
 Contents  xi

Section III Applications in Computational Mechanics 177

Chapter 11  Applications of Polyhedral Finite Elements in Solid

Mechanics 179
Joseph E. Bishop
11.1 INTRODUCTION 180
11.2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS OF SOLID MECHANICS 183
11.3 POLYHEDRAL FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION 184
11.3.1 Weak form of governing equations 185
11.3.2 Shape functions 185
11.3.3 Element integration 186
11.4 RAPID ENGINEERING ANALYSIS 187
11.5 FRAGMENTATION MODELING 191
11.5.1 Fracture methodology 192
11.5.2 Random Voronoi meshes 193
11.5.3 Fragmentation 194
11.6 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK 195

Chapter 12  Extremely Large Deformation with Polygonal and

Polyhedral Elements 197
Glaucio H. Paulino, Heng Chi, Cameron Talischi, and Oscar Lopez-Pamies
12.1 INTRODUCTION 198
12.2 FINITE ELASTICITY FORMULATIONS 200
12.2.1 Displacement-based formulation 201
12.2.2 A general two-field mixed variational formulation 201
12.3 POLYGONAL AND POLYHEDRAL APPROXIMATIONS 203
12.3.1 Displacement space on polygons in 2D 203
12.3.2 Displacement space on polyhedra in 3D 204
12.3.3 Pressure space on polygons in 2D 204
12.4 QUADRATURE RULES AND ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS 205
12.5 GRADIENT CORRECTION SCHEME AND ITS PROPERTIES 208
12.5.1 Gradient correction for scalar problems 208
12.5.2 Gradient correction for vectorial problems 212
12.6 CONFORMING GALERKIN APPROXIMATIONS 213
xii  Contents

12.7 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES 214

12.7.1 Displacement-based polygonal and polyhedral elements 214
12.7.2 Two-field mixed polygonal elements 217
12.8 APPLICATION TO THE STUDY OF FILLED ELASTOMERS 221
12.8.1 Results for filled neo-Hookean elastomers 222
12.8.2 Results for a filled silicone elastomer 223

Chapter 13  Maximum-Entropy Meshfree Coordinates in

Computational Mechanics 229
Marino Arroyo
13.1 INTRODUCTION 230
13.2 SELECTING BARYCENTRIC COORDINATES THROUGH
ENTROPY MAXIMIZATION 231
13.3 INTRODUCING LOCALITY: LOCAL MAXIMUM-ENTROPY
APPROXIMANTS 234
13.4 FURTHER EXTENSIONS 238
13.5 APPLICATIONS 240
13.5.1 High-order partial differential equations 240
13.5.2 Manifold approximation 241
13.6 OUTLOOK 243

Chapter 14  BEM-Based FEM 245

Steffen Wei ßer
14.1 INTRODUCTION 246
14.2 HIGH-ORDER BEM-BASED FEM IN 2D 247
14.2.1 Construction of basis functions 248
14.2.2 Finite element method 249
14.2.3 Introduction to boundary element methods 250
14.2.4 Numerical examples 252
14.3 ADAPTIVE BEM-BASED FEM IN 2D 253
14.3.1 Adaptive FEM strategy 254
14.3.2 Residual-based error estimate for polygonal meshes 255
14.3.3 Numerical examples 256
14.4 DEVELOPMENTS AND OUTLOOK 258
 Contents  xiii

14.4.1 Hierarchical construction for 3D problems 259

14.4.2 Convection-adapted basis functions in 3D 261

Chapter 15  Virtual Element Methods for Elliptic Problems

on Polygonal Meshes 263
Andrea Cangiani, Oliver J. Sutton, Vitaliy Gyrya, and Gianmarco Manzini
15.1 INTRODUCTION 264
15.2 VIRTUAL ELEMENT SPACES AND GBC 265
15.2.1 Generalities 265
15.2.2 Lowest order discrete space 265
15.2.3 Generalization to arbitrary order discrete spaces 266
15.2.4 The natural basis 267
15.2.5 A convenient basis 269
15.2.6 A link between the bases 271
15.2.7 Extension to three dimensions 273
15.3 VIRTUAL ELEMENT METHOD FOR ELLIPTIC PDES 273
15.3.1 Model problem 273
15.3.2 Overview of the conforming VEM 274
15.4 CONNECTION WITH OTHER METHODS 276
15.4.1 Polygonal and polyhedral finite element method 276
15.4.2 Nodal MFD method 276
15.4.3 BEM-based FEM 278

Bibliography 281

Index 309
Preface

Interpolating given discrete data with continuous functions in one or more variables
is a fundamental problem in diverse fields of sciences and engineering. Barycentric
coordinates, which were introduced by Möbius [282] in 1827, still provide perhaps
the most convenient way to linearly interpolate data prescribed at the vertices of a
d-dimensional simplex. Barycentric interpolation is widely used in computer graph-
ics, whereas such interpolating (basis) functions are also adopted as trial and test
approximations in finite element and boundary element methods. Starting with
the seminal work published by Wachspress [407] in 1975,∗ the ideas of barycen-
tric coordinates and barycentric interpolation have been extended in recent years
to arbitrary polygons in the plane and general polytopes in higher dimensions,
which in turn has led to novel solutions in applications like mesh parametrization,
image warping, mesh deformation, and finite element and boundary element meth-
ods. This book summarizes the latest developments and applications of generalized
barycentric coordinates in computer graphics and computational mechanics.
The advent of mean value coordinates [144] in 2003 was a turning point in the
sustained interest and further development of generalized barycentric coordinates.
This construction generated renewed attention to Wachspress coordinates, and led
to many new pathways in geometry (polygonal mesh) processing and polygonal
finite element computations. Realizing this trend, we co-organized (together with
Gautam Dasgupta and Eitan Grinspun) a workshop in 2012 that was supported
by the U.S. National Science Foundation, on Barycentric Coordinates in Geometry
Processing and Finite/Boundary Element Methods, which was held at Columbia
University in New York. There was broad participation at the workshop from both
communities to foster synergy between the two fields. This book is envisioned as the
second step in the partnership of researchers from computer graphics and computa-
tional mechanics. We are hopeful that the contents of this book will be beneficial to
both the uninitiated undergraduate or graduate student as well as the experienced
researcher who is well-versed in generalized barycentric coordinates.
This book is divided into three sections: Section I (Chapters 1–5) is on the the-
oretical foundations of generalized barycentric coordinates; and Sections II (Chap-
ters 6–10) and III (Chapters 11–15) are on its applications in computer graphics
and computational mechanics, respectively. There exist many distinct construc-
tions for generalized barycentric coordinates; an overview with comparisons and
contrasts of known generalized barycentric coordinates is presented in Chapter 1.
∗A revised and extended version of this book [406] was published in 2016.

xv
xvi  Preface

The mathematical theory of simplicial finite elements is well-established; however,

for polygons in 2D and polyhedra in 3D, the relationship between the shape of the
polytope and the interpolation properties on them are not yet fully understood.
Theoretical interpolation estimates for these coordinates, with supportive numeri-
cal experiments, are presented in Chapter 2. Besides interpolation within polygonal
domains, realizing continuous linearly precise interpolants over smooth domains—
with so-called transfinite barycentric coordinates (Chapter 3)—is also of broad in-
terest. In many computer graphics applications, bijective mappings between simple
polytopes are needed, and one route to achieve this is through composite bijective
mappings, which are discussed in Chapter 4. The smooth and discrete Laplacian on
manifolds has a rich history in mathematical theory and numerical computations.
The preservation of the properties of the continuous operator on discrete grids is
desirable, which forms the foundation for many numerical discretizations that are
based on discrete exterior calculus and mimetic schemes. A primer on the Laplacian
is provided in Chapter 5.
Applications of generalized barycentric coordinates in computer graphics and
geometry processing are covered in Section II. One of the fundamental concepts
in computer graphics for enhancing the visual quality of a rendered triangle mesh
is texture mapping. This requires us to first compute a suitable mesh parameter-
ization of the 3D mesh over a 2D domain, which can be done efficiently using
generalized barycentric coordinates (Chapter 6). Complex barycentric coordinates
naturally arise from the identification of R2 with the complex plane C and provide
a convenient framework for deforming planar shapes and images intuitively by en-
closing the region of interest with a polygonal cage and moving the cage vertices
(Chapter 7). An alternative approach to shape deformation is given by S-patches
(Chapter 8), which generalize the idea of parametric Bézier surfaces from triangular
and quadrilateral to arbitrary polygonal domains and can be extended to arbitrary
dimensions. Generalized barycentric coordinates further play a key role in the repre-
sentation of primal-dual triangulations, with applications in mesh optimization and
finite element methods (Chapter 9), and in the computational design and analysis
of self-supporting masonry structures (Chapter 10).
New and emerging polyhedral formulations and their applications to second-
and fourth-order elliptic partial differential equations (PDEs) are emphasized in
Section III. In solid mechanics, use of polyhedral finite element formulations is ap-
pealing for pervasive fracture and fragmentation simulations (Chapter 11) and to re-
alize extremely large deformations in numerical simulations (Chapter 12). For such
applications, simulations on polyhedral meshes can outperform existing tetrahedral
finite element simulation capabilities. For scattered sets of points in Rd , there exist
meshfree generalized barycentric coordinates known as maximum-entropy coordi-
nates. The essentials on their construction with applications in solid mechanics and
biomechanical simulations are presented in Chapter 13. In recent years, new com-
putational methods on polygonal and polyhedral meshes have been developed that
do not require the explicit computation of the basis functions in the interior of the
polytope: among these, a boundary element method that uses PDE-aware (Trefftz-
based) basis functions (Chapter 14) and the virtual element method (Chapter 15),
 Preface  xvii

which provides a variational foundation for mimetic finite-difference schemes, are

prominent.
A few words on the notation adopted in this book. To ensure uniformity and to
facilitate understanding, we use common notation for the most frequently used con-
cepts related to generalized barycentric coordinates that appear in computer graph-
ics and computational mechanics. Throughout the book, Ω is a general bounded
domain in Rd , with ∂Ω its boundary and Ω̄ its closure. When Ω is specifically a
bounded polytope in Rd , we use P for the open set, and the vertices of P are
v1 , . . . , vn . A generic point in P̄ is denoted by x, and the i-th generalized barycen-
tric coordinate is φi : P̄ → R. In general, we follow the convention of using bold-
face for vector quantities, to distinguish them from scalar quantities; for example,
x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) ∈ Rd .
Our thanks go to Rick Adams at CRC Press for initiating this book project
and to Jessica Vega and Marcus Fontaine at CRC Press for their assistance during
various stages of the publishing process. Most importantly, we are very grateful to
all contributors, for their time and effort in preparing the chapters with diligence
and in a timely manner. Their contributions have shaped this book.

Kai Hormann
Lugano, Switzerland

N. Sukumar
Davis, CA, USA
Contributors

Dmitry Anisimov Oscar Lopez-Pamies

Università della Svizzera italiana University of Illinois
Lugano, Switzerland Urbana-Champaign, USA

Marino Arroyo Gianmarco Manzini

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Los Alamos National Laboratory
Barcelona, Spain Los Alamos, USA

Alexander G. Belyaev Pooran Memari

Heriot-Watt University LIX, CNRS, École Polytechnique,
Edinburgh, UK Université Paris Saclay
Palaiseau, France
Joseph E. Bishop
Sandia National Laboratories Glaucio H. Paulino
Albuquerque, USA Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, USA
Andrea Cangiani
University of Leicester Alexander Rand
Leicester, UK CD-adapco
Austin, USA
Heng Chi
Georgia Institute of Technology Scott Schaefer
Atlanta, USA Texas A&M University
College Station, USA
Pierre-Alain Fayolle
Teseo Schneider
University of Aizu Università della Svizzera italiana
Aizuwakamatsu, Japan Lugano, Switzerland
Vitaliy Gyrya Oliver J. Sutton
Los Alamos National Laboratory University of Leicester
Los Alamos, USA Leicester, UK
Andrew Gillette Cameron Talischi
University of Arizona McKinsey & Company
Tucson, USA Chicago, USA

Bruno Lévy Etienne Vouga

Inria Nancy Grand Est University of Texas
Villers-lès-Nancy, France Austin, USA

xix
xx  Contributors

Max Wardetzky Ofir Weber

Georg-August-University Bar-Ilan University
Göttingen, Germany Ramat Gan, Israel

Steffen Weißer
Saarland University
Saarbrücken, Germany
 I
Theoretical Foundations

1
 CHAPTER 1

Barycentric Coordinates
and Their Properties
Dmitry Anisimov
Università della Svizzera italiana, Lugano, Switzerland

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1 Barycentric coordinates for simplices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Generalized barycentric coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 2D coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Wachspress coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Discrete harmonic coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Mean value coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.4 Complete family of coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.5 Metric coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.6 Poisson coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.7 Gordon–Wixom coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.8 Harmonic coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.9 Maximum entropy coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.10 Local coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.11 Affine coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.12 Sibson coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.13 Laplace coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.14 Hermite coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.15 Complex coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.16 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 3D coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.1 Wachspress coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.2 Discrete harmonic coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.3 Mean value coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.4 Complete family of coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3.5 Other coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3
4  Generalized Barycentric Coordinates in Graphics and Mechanics

arycentric coordinates are commonly used in computer graphics and

B computational mechanics to represent a point inside a simplex as an affine
combination of the simplex’s vertices. We show how they can be generalized to
arbitrary polytopes and present the most known constructions of these generalized
barycentric coordinates in 2D and 3D.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
It was known since the days of the Peripatetic School and usually attributed to
Archimedes (c. 287 BC–c. 212 BC) [116] that a lever [v1 , v2 ] with two weights w1
and w2 attached to its ends is balanced when a fulcrum is placed at the point
x ∈ [v1 , v2 ] such that
w1 l1 = w2 l2 , (1.1)
where l1 = x − v1 and l2 = v2 − x (see Figure 1.1). Equation (1.1) is called the law
of the lever and the point of balance x is called the center of mass of this lever or
its barycenter (from Ancient Greek βάρος = “weight” and κέντρον = “center”). The
weights w1 and w2 are often called homogeneous, because multiplying them with a
common non-zero scalar α does not change the equation. Rearranging terms, (1.1)
can be written in the form

w1 (v1 − x) + w2 (v2 − x) = 0 (1.2)

and further as
w1 v1 + w2 v2 = W x, W = w1 + w2 .
1
Choosing the scalar α = W , we can define the normalized weights φ1 = αw1 and
φ2 = αw2 and write the barycenter x as an affine combination of the ends of the
lever with these weights,

φ1 + φ2 = 1, (1.3)
φ1 v1 + φ2 v2 = x. (1.4)

The normalized weights φ1 and φ2 are called the barycentric coordinates of the
point x with respect to the segment [v1 , v2 ].
While the problem above is about finding the barycenter x for the given weights,
it is also interesting to study the opposite problem. Given the end points v1 and v2

Figure 1.1 Law of the lever.

 Barycentric Coordinates and Their Properties  5

of an arbitrary segment and some point x along this segment, how do we find the
barycentric coordinates φ1 and φ2 of x with respect to this segment? It turns out
that they are uniquely determined by (1.3) and (1.4) as ratios of lengths,

l2 l1
φ1 = , φ2 = ,
l l
where l = l1 + l2 = v2 − v1 is the length of the segment.

1.1.1 Barycentric coordinates for simplices

In 1827, the German mathematician August Ferdinand Möbius (1790–1868) [282]
considered the problem of finding barycentric coordinates with respect to an arbi-
trary d-simplex in d ∈ N dimensions. For example, a 1-simplex is a line segment in
1D, a 2-simplex is a triangle in 2D, and a 3-simplex is a tetrahedron in 3D.
Given a non-degenerate d-simplex 4 with d + 1 vertices v1 , . . . , vd+1 ∈ Rd , we
search for d+1 functions φ = [φ1 , . . . , φd+1 ] : 4 → Rd+1 , which satisfy the partition
of unity property
d+1
X
φi (x) = 1 ∀x ∈ 4 (1.5)
i=1

and the linear reproduction property

d+1
X
φi (x)vi = x ∀x ∈ 4. (1.6)
i=1

The functions φ1 , . . . , φd+1 are called barycentric coordinates with respect to 4.

Analogously to the one-dimensional case in the previous section, it turns out
that these barycentric coordinates are uniquely determined by (1.5) and (1.6), and
Möbius shows that they are ratios of volumes,

Vi (x)
φi (x) = , i = 1, . . . , d + 1, (1.7)
V
where Vi (x) = Vol[v1 , . . . , vi−1 , x, vi+1 , . . . , vd+1 ] are the volumes of the corre-
sponding d-simplices and V = V1 (x) + · · · + Vd+1 (x) = Vol[v1 , . . . , vd+1 ] is the
volume of 4 and does not depend on x.

1.1.2 Generalized barycentric coordinates

To the best of our knowledge, Kalman [221] was the first to propose a generalization
of barycentric coordinates to convex polyhedra, and in recent years there has been
a growing interest in the problem of finding barycentric coordinates with respect to
arbitrary polytopes. Throughout this book, we consider a non-degenerate polytope
P with n ≥ d + 1 vertices v1 , . . . , vn ∈ Rd , which is viewed as an open set. We
denote the boundary of this polytope by ∂P and its closure by P̄ .
6  Generalized Barycentric Coordinates in Graphics and Mechanics

Definition 1.1. Given the polytope P , the n functions φ = [φ1 , . . . , φn ] : P̄ → Rn

are called generalized barycentric coordinates if they satisfy the partition of unity
property
Xn
φi (x) = 1 ∀x ∈ P̄ (1.8)
i=1
and the linear reproduction property
n
X
φi (x)vi = x ∀x ∈ P̄ . (1.9)
i=1

For n = d + 1, the only functions that satisfy the properties in Definition 1.1 are
the φi in (1.7). For n > d + 1, however, the φi are no longer uniquely determined,
which is the reason for the existence of the different constructions of generalized
barycentric coordinates that we review in the remainder of this chapter.
In addition to the defining properties (1.8) and (1.9), it is often desirable for
the functions φi to have a few extra properties,

• Non-negativity: φi (x) ≥ 0 for any x ∈ P̄ ; (1.10a)

• Lagrange property: φi (vj ) = δij , where δij is the Kronecker delta; (1.10b)
• Linearity on the boundary: φi is linear on each facet of P ; (1.10c)
• Smoothness: φi ∈ C ∞ . (1.10d)

We remark that all these properties are satisfied in the case n = d + 1 for the linear
functions φi in (1.7).
In general, there are two types of generalized barycentric coordinates. On the one
hand, there are coordinates with a closed form. Analogously to (1.2), the closed-form
definition is often based on certain weight functions w = [w1 , . . . , wn ] : P → Rn ,
which satisfy
Xn
wi (x)(vi − x) = 0 ∀x ∈ P. (1.11)
i=1
These weight functions are also called homogeneous coordinates, because normaliz-
ing them gives the generalized barycentric coordinates
n
wi (x) X
φi (x) = , W (x) = wj (x), i = 1, . . . , n. (1.12)
W (x) j=1

On the other hand, there are computational coordinates that can only be obtained
numerically, for example, by solving an optimization problem.

1.2 2D COORDINATES
We first focus on the 2D case and consider a simple polygon P . Without loss of
generality, we assume the vertices vi of this polygon to be given in a counter-
clockwise direction and we treat the vertex indices cyclically, that is, vi+kn = vi
 Barycentric Coordinates and Their Properties  7

for i ∈ {1, . . . , n} and k ∈ Z. Note that all the coordinates in this section, except
for Hermite and complex, are generalized barycentric coordinates in the sense of
Definition 1.1.
The earliest generalizations of barycentric coordinates in 2D were closed-form
constructions and restricted to convex polygons. In this setting, the key objective is
finding smooth and positive weights wi , which satisfy (1.11). It is then known [149]
that the normalized weights φi in (1.12) are well-defined generalized barycentric
coordinates with respect to P and satisfy all properties in (1.10). However, most
of these constructions lead to negative weights wi at certain points inside non-
convex polygons. Even worse, the denominator W may vanish, so that the φi are
not necessarily well-defined for all x ∈ P . So far, no closed-form construction of
positive weights for arbitrary non-convex polygons is known, and even if it exists,
the resulting coordinates would not be more than C 0 at concave corners [10]. We
discuss different closed-form coordinates in Sections 1.2.1–1.2.7.
It was later realized that φi can also be obtained numerically as the solution of
an optimization problem subject to the constraints given by the required properties
of the coordinates. This optimization problem can either be global or local, and we
present different kinds of such computational coordinates in Sections 1.2.8–1.2.10.
If the points vi are not given as vertices of a polygon, but rather as scattered
points, Definition 1.1 and properties (1.10b) and (1.10d) still make sense. In this
setting, we can define generalized barycentric coordinates φi with respect to the
set Π = {v1 , . . . , vn } ∈ R2 of n ≥ 3 scattered points, and we review three different
constructions in Sections 1.2.11–1.2.13.
We also give a short overview of coordinates that generalize Definition 1.1 in
some other way. In particular, we briefly discuss Hermite and complex coordinates
in Sections 1.2.14 and 1.2.15.

1.2.1 Wachspress coordinates

Wachspress [407] was one of the first who suggested a generalization of barycentric
coordinates to a polygon with n > 3 vertices. Later, Meyer et al. [275] propose
a simple local formulation of these Wachspress coordinates, which is given by the
normalization (1.12) of the weight functions

cot γi−1 + cot βi

wi = , i = 1, . . . , n,
ri2

where γi−1 and βi are the angles shown in Figure 1.2 and ri = kvi − xk. These
coordinates are rational functions with numerator and denominator of degrees at
most n − 2 and n − 3, respectively, which are the minimal possible degrees [412].
For strictly convex polygons, it is clear that all wi (x) > 0 for any x ∈ P , so
that Wachspress coordinates are well-defined and satisfy all properties in (1.10).
They are also affine invariant. For non-convex polygons, the coordinates are not
well-defined at some points in the polygon’s interior, because the denominator W
vanishes, but they can be generalized to weakly convex polygons [264].
8  Generalized Barycentric Coordinates in Graphics and Mechanics

Figure 1.2 Notation used for signed angles, distances, and signed areas in a
polygon P .

1.2.2 Discrete harmonic coordinates

Discrete harmonic coordinates [136, 309] arise from the standard piecewise linear
finite element approximation to the Laplace equation and are given by the weight
functions
wi = cot βi−1 + cot γi , i = 1, . . . , n,
where βi−1 and γi are the angles shown in Figure 1.2. Interestingly, it turns out
that for all polygons, whose vertices lie on a common circle, these coordinates are
identical to Wachspress coordinates and therefore possess the same properties [149].
For other strictly convex polygons, they are still well-defined and satisfy all proper-
ties in (1.10), except for non-negativity. For non-convex polygons, the denominator
W of these coordinates vanishes at some points in the polygon’s interior, so that
they are not well-defined.

1.2.3 Mean value coordinates

The derivation of discrete harmonic coordinates suggests that different properties of
harmonic functions can be exploited to derive other generalized barycentric coordi-
nates. Floater [144] considers the circumferential mean value property of a harmonic
function u : P → R, which states that for any disc B = B(x, r) ⊂ P of radius r > 0,
centered at x, with boundary ∂B,
ˆ
1
u(x) = u(y)dy. (1.13)
2πr y∈∂B

He then shows that applying (1.13) to a piecewise linear function leads to mean
value coordinates. These coordinates are given by the weight functions

tan(αi−1 /2) + tan(αi /2)

wi = , i = 1, . . . , n,
ri
where αi−1 and αi are the angles shown in Figure 1.2 and ri = kvi − xk.
Hormann and Floater [200] show that mean value coordinates are well-defined
even for sets of nested simple polygons and everywhere in the plane. They are
positive inside the kernel of a star-shaped polygon and satisfy properties (1.10b)
Another random document with
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Though he was a man of birth and education, he had bound
himself to a woman who possessed neither, and who was
equally deficient in the amiability and goodness of disposition
which might have done much to make amends for a lack of
the rest.

Mrs. Evans was equally vulgar and purse-proud. She did not
hesitate to put her husband in mind of his indebtedness to her
wealth, or even to hint that she might have bestowed it and
herself better than upon him.

Brought up under such a mother, it was scarcely likely that the

girls, Adelaide and Augusta, would be noted for refinement or
delicacy of feeling. Taught to pride themselves on wealth, they
owned no excellence if unaccompanied by it. Consequently,
they only bestowed a contemptuous pity on their cousin,
Joyce Mirlees, who, through adverse circumstances, had been
driven to accept the temporary shelter of The Chase.

It had been grudgingly granted by Mrs. Evans, "until

something could be done with the girl," because there was
absolutely nowhere else for her to go.

Joyce, though the only daughter of Mr. Evans' only sister, was
not likely to be welcomed by a lady who owned that there was
"nothing she detested like poor relations."

True, the girl came from a comparatively poor home, a little

country vicarage, of which and of her father she had been the
light and joy, until death called him and left her alone.

Mrs. Evans said bitter things on the occasion.

"It is monstrous for people of small means to marry when

there is no prospect of their providing for a family. I call it
wicked, and one sees the most of this improvidence where we
ought to look for a better example, amongst the poor clergy.
But I suppose your brother-in-law reckoned on his daughter
being provided for here."

Mrs. Evans said this to her husband, and his reply did not
improve her temper.

"You are mistaken, my dear. Poor Mirlees had saved a few

hundreds, and having noted how rapidly some people
managed to turn hundreds into thousands, he unfortunately
invested them in a bubble company, and lost every penny.
Some of the shareholders were more fortunate. You Will
remember the company," and Mr. Evans named one of which
his wife's father had been a director, and by which he had
netted a large sum.

Mrs. Evans' face flushed, but she answered—

"It requires business men to deal with business matters, and

clergymen ought to content themselves with what they
understand."

"True; poor Mirlees paid with his life for his meddling. But
after all, it is by these poor, foolish, unbusiness-like men that
the clever ones make their money."

"At any rate, we shall be expected to do something for this

girl, though why prudent people should pay for the folly and
rashness of others is more than I can understand. My children
shall not be impoverished for such a purpose. It would not be
scriptural to encourage improvidence, and in a clergyman,
too. I thought that sermon last Sunday on the text, 'If any
provide not for his own house, he hath denied the faith, and is
worse than an infidel,' was thoroughly to the purpose. I never
heard one that touched me more. It was so appropriate to
present circumstances."

Mrs. Evans was like many others who, when wishing to justify
what conscience tells them is wrong, fly to the Bible to see if
they can find a text to justify the course they are taking.

She wanted to cheat conscience into expressing approval, and

thought she had succeeded when she shook her head in pious
horror over Mr. Mirlees' misdoings. She would not see, or at
any rate own, that in the man's very anxiety to do what she
blamed him for not having done, he had lost the poor pittance
hoarded by years of close economy, and his life as well.

When Mr. Evans named these facts, his wife interrupted him
by asking—

"Where was the use of saving and pinching if the man must
throw it all away at last?"

"His was an error of judgment," replied Mr. Evans.

"An error of judgment! If my poor papa had committed such

errors, I wonder where I should be now."

Mrs. Evans said "I," but the look at her husband meant "you,"
and was intended to remind him of his indebtedness.

Mr. Evans' face flushed. Often as he had heard similar words,

he could never become indifferent to such, and winced at each
repetition. Sometimes there would be a scene, or he
occasionally retorted sharply, but Mrs. Evans conquered by
her persistent ill temper, and after days of discomfort,
sullenness, and either taunts or silence, peace would be
made, and last for a little while.

On this occasion, Mr. Evans felt the need for diplomacy. Joyce
Mirlees must come to The Chase with the consent of its
mistress; so he was fain to assent to his wife's praise of her
father's business qualities, to pass over her taunts without
notice; and thus he gained his end—after a fashion. Joyce was
to come until work of some kind could be found for her under
another roof.
The Misses Evans expressed their opinion that Joyce would be
fit for nothing.

"She will not suit for a governess," said Augusta, who was a
brilliant pianist. "Music is an essential, and Joyce can neither
play nor sing fit to be heard."

Adelaide enumerated a number of other accomplishments

which her cousin did not possess, and concluded with, "I
suspect if she once gets a footing here, we shall have her on
our hands altogether."

Mrs. Evans only looked a reply, but it expressed a very

emphatic dissent to this last remark.

"Must we wear mourning? Mr. Mirlees, as papa's brother-in-

law, could hardly be called a relative."

"I fear we must, Augusta. It is very provoking, but society will

demand this of us," said the mother.

"And we have chosen all our spring things."

"This year's fashions are too lovely," sighed Adelaide.

These girls had shed no tears for Mr. Mirlees, none in

sympathy with the young creature whom death had left
desolate. But their tears flowed freely at the thought of the
cruel exigencies of society, which demanded the sacrifice of
becoming gowns and bonnets, since their shapes and styles
would be too old-fashioned for such devotees of the latest
modes to wear again when they would be able to put off "that
odious mourning."

Such were the people to whom and the home to which Joyce
Mirlees came after her father's death.
The girl knew enough of her aunt and cousins to prevent her
from expecting much tenderness or sympathy; but she was
pained, and her uncle annoyed, to find that they were all out
when she arrived at The Chase, though Mrs. Evans knew well
at what time to expect the travellers.

There was, however, one warm heart ready to welcome Joyce.

This was Sarah Keene, once her nurse. This woman had gone,
widowed and childless—having lost her own husband and
babe within a few days of each other—to be foster-mother to
the child of Mrs. Mirlees, she being delicate, and unable to
rear her little one without such help.

All through Joyce's baby days Sarah used to say: "Nobody

knows the blessing this child is to me. When I hold her in my
arms, I almost forget that I have lost my own, or look on her
as having been given me for a while instead of my own little
Katie, who was only a month older."

Some years later, Mr. Mirlees insisted on obtaining a situation

for Sarah at The Chase, Mrs. Evans being willing to give high
wages to one so trustworthy.

Sarah always protested that she was turned out of her old
home. "I'd rather have served Mr. Mirlees and my darling for
nothing. But they turned me out, 'for my good,' they said."

When Joyce arrived at The Chase, Sarah rushed to meet her

foster-child, and whispered, as well as her tears would allow
her—

"I see now what I could never understand before. I could not
believe I was sent here for my good; but I believe it now,
darling. I was sent before, in a little way, like Joseph was, to
do good to them that sold him for a slave. And I can be of use
to you, though I'm only a servant."
To Joyce, the clasp of those loving arms was indescribably
comforting, and she found that Sarah was the only person on
whom she could rely for open, hearty sympathy.

Her uncle wished to show it, but a mark of affection on his

part was sure to call for the opposite on the side of his wife
who seemed resolved that a bare shelter should be all that
Joyce should have under her roof.

The orphan girl was soon weary of her position, and, writhing
under the slights she had received, would have been thankful
to earn her bread by any honest means rather than continue
to receive what was so grudgingly bestowed. She wished to
please Mrs. Evans and to gain the affection of her cousins, but
every effort seemed vain. Had there been young children in
the house, her time would have been occupied, but there were
none. Her cousins desired no such companion as herself; and,
as Mr. Evans' niece, she could not very well be entirely
ignored. But there was a tacit understanding between mother
and daughters that Joyce should be "kept in her place," whilst
Joyce herself, with a sore heart and memories of a happy, if
comparatively humble, home, vainly wished that she had any
definite place to fill and work to do.

CHAPTER II.

"I HAVE not a friend here but you, Sarah. I must leave this
miserable place," said Joyce, between her sobs.

"The master is your friend, darling. He loves you."

"What can he do? He is worse off than I am. How can he bear
my aunt's taunts about money, and all she has brought him?
If I were a man, I would—"

"If you were a married man with a wife and daughters, you
would not find it easy to run away from your home ties,
though they may feel a little tight sometimes. And what could
you do, dearie, if you left The Chase?"

"That is my trouble, Sarah. I would go as a governess, but

they all make game, and sneer at the idea of such a thing. I
am not accomplished, and people seem to advertise only for
ladies who know everything. Servants with clever fingers like
yours are much better off than the half-taught children of
gentlemen. They get good wages, and are so independent.
They generally spend a great deal on clothes, but they are not
obliged to do so. Do you think any one would take me as a
nursemaid? Not to tiny babies; I could not attend to them,
though I should dearly love it, for I have never been amongst
them. But I could look after older children, and I can sew
well."

"What! Go as a servant. Only a servant! Oh, Miss Joyce, if the

master could know!"

Sarah lifted her hands in horror; but Joyce said—

"If he could tell me what course to take, knowing all, he would

say I was doing right; right to take any honest work whereby
I might earn my bread. Right to undertake only what I am
qualified to do."

"Well, then, darling, say nursery governess."

"Sarah, I have looked the papers through for weeks, and I

have read plenty of advertisements of ladies offering to take
such places for nothing but a home. They do not always get
them, for the advertisements are repeated again and again.
Now, I cannot go for nothing, for I need clothes, and I have
not much money. But plenty of people offer good wages for
nurses, so I will go as a nurse, if any one will have me. My
clothes will do for a servant, though they are not nearly so
good as yours, Sarah."

The girl glanced down at her poor, coarse black gown and
burst into tears. It had been bought only as a makeshift, in
the small country town near her old home, and her uncle had
said, "Your aunt will see that you are properly provided as
soon as we reach The Chase. She would not care for Welton
dressmaking or materials."

But this first purchase proved the only one. When Mr. Evans
said that Joyce would need other and better dresses, he was
answered promptly enough.

"Joyce will not be expected to dress like my daughters.

Remember, I have already had double expenses, owing to Mr.
Minces' death having taken place just after I had bought
everything in coloured dresses for the season. So if your niece
wants finery, it will not come out of my pocket."

As to Adelaide and Augusta, they were far too eager for

admiration to be sorry that their young cousin should appear
at a disadvantage, even in the matter of dress material. In
appearance, accomplishments—in fact, in all that could attract
attention—they considered her immeasurably below them.

Thus Joyce was shut out of society, by lack of suitable

clothing, when she had little inclination for it, and when,
during her first days of sorrow, she cared only for quiet and
sympathy. Of the former, she had enough as the months went
by, and for the latter she had to go to Sarah Keene, as on the
present occasion.

"Your uncle would never agree to your taking such a place,

Miss Joyce."
"I shall be twenty-one in a month, Sarah, and my own
mistress. I have money enough to take me to a good distance
from The Chase, for I have not spent a penny that I could
help. My uncle would have given me more, but I could not
take it, since it would have really been out of Mrs. Evans'
pocket. I have already advertised, and I have four answers.
One seems likely to suit, but I shall need a character."

The girl uttered the last word somewhat scornfully, but Sarah,
with her usual good sense, replied—

"Of course you will. What mother would trust her most
precious jewels to a stranger without knowing anything about
her? The nurse comes next to the mother herself with young
children, and she cannot be too particular about the character
of one."

"My pride spoke, Sarah. We were so respected, at Welton,

though we were really poor people," replied Joyce, softly.

"Aye, darling. As Mrs. Evans will not be if she live to a

hundred. I can just think I see you, as you went through the
snow to church only last Christmas morning. You were looking
as glad and happy as possible, for you knew that many a
home would be bright that day, and many a table spread with
plenty through what you had done."

"I had given very little, Sarah. I had not much to give."

"Not in money, dearie. But gold and silver are not everything.
You had put in your little in that way, and a great deal that
was more precious still—time and work. You had walked many
a mile and pleaded for the poor with the rich, and induced
them to give what you could not. And who could withstand
you? Not those you had spent your life amongst."

"Sarah, they were all as willing to give as possible."

"Aye. Their giving was pretty easy work in most cases; they
went without nothing, and would never miss their guineas,
because they cost them no self-denial. There are lots of
people who put their hands into their pockets and think they
do a great deal when they give a gold piece out of a full
purse; but if they had to go without something in order to
spare the guinea, it would not be given. Catch your aunt or
the young ladies going with a pair of gloves the less, to save a
poor creature from starvation. Well, the mistress did me a
kindness in letting me have my holidays at Welton last
Christmas, but then it was because there was no work for me
at The Chase, seeing they were wintering abroad."

"She gave you a whole month, Sarah, and it was delightful to

have you at our house."

"Yes, and it saved the mistress four weeks' board wages she
must have paid me if I had been at The Chase. I can see
round a corner, dearie, though you cannot always. Never
mind, it was a happy, blessed Christmas, and worth more than
a year's wages to be with my own precious nursling."

The tears were streaming down Joyce's cheeks as she thought

of that last Christmas in the one true home of her life.

"I little thought—" she said; then stopped, unable to continue.

"No more did any of us. Well, your father acted for the best,
and you have happy years to look back on—years when you
made poor homes brighter, and cheered downcast souls with
words of love and hope. Now you must think of this. You are
not forgotten at Welton. Every one loves you there; but they
don't know how you are fixed. Depend on it they say, 'What a
good thing it was that Miss Joyce had a grand rich uncle to
take care of her when her father died!' They pray for you, and
look to see you again some day. Better still, God never
forgets. Think of this, my darling, you who cared for God's
poor to the very outside of your power. He will care for you
and repay you. As surely as the harvest follows seed-time, so
surely will you, in His good time, receive full measure back for
what you have meted out to others."

"I know, Sarah, I know; I am wrong to doubt, but everything

is so different here. There is no love for me."

"Yes, darling, there is God's love, and there is your uncle's, I

know, to say nothing of mine. I am only your old nurse, but
you have all the best love of my heart, for who have I
beside?"

"I am wickedly, horribly unthankful, both to God and the one

friend to whom I can open my heart. I might speak to my
uncle, but I do not care to make him feel more troubled on
my account. About my character there will be no difficulty:
Mrs. Caruth, of Fernsclough, will answer all inquiries."

"Is she home, dearie? She was abroad somewhere when your
father was taken."

"Yes; but she returned. I heard from her ten days ago. I have
told her just enough to show her that The Chase will never be
a home for me. She urges me to go to her for a long visit, and
says, that being alone, my presence would cheer her greatly."

"Then why not go, darling?"

"Because this invitation is really an offer of a home, very

delicately made; but I could not again eat the bread of
dependence, Sarah. Besides, fancy my meeting the guests at
Fernsclough in such attire as this."

"But you can have anything, if you will let me get you thirty or
fifty pounds of my savings. You may take all I have, for that
matter, only you would not need that, I know."
Joyce threw her arms round Sarah's neck and kissed her
passionately.

"Bless you, and thank you a thousand times!" she cried. "But I
would not rob you of your hard earnings for the world. Do you
think when the relatives on whom I have a claim care nothing
about my clothes, I could bear to spend on myself what you
have earned by years of toil?"

Sarah warmly returned the embrace, saying as she did so—

"You can have no such claim on any one as on the woman

who nourished you as a baby. I would give my life for you,
and what are a few pounds compared to that?"

"I need no money, Sarah, or I would owe the help to you

sooner than to any one in the world. I have plenty of clothes,
neat and simple, and such as I wore at Welton. They will last
for a couple of years."

"They are not black, dearie."

"No matter. The one mourning suit will do for Sundays, and
light printed gowns will befit a nurse-girl. I have turned one
white muslin into aprons, which will do beautifully over my
two plain cashmere frocks. As to the outside mourning, what
does it mean in many cases? My aunt and cousins are wearing
what they call mourning for my father, gowns of costly
material laden with crape and jet. Did they put it on because
they cared for my father? No, Sarah; and they long to throw it
off as soon as they think society would see them do it without
remark. One day, when my aunt was specially kind, she said:
'These gowns will come in for you, Joyce, when my girls are
done with them.' I should not have minded wearing them, if
only my aunt had offered them in real kindliness. But my
mourning is no matter of outside show. Why should I care
about externals? My Father in heaven knows."
"But stay a while at Fernsclough, darling; Mrs. Caruth was
always fond of you."

"Always most kind. But I cannot go there, of all places in the

world."

These last words were uttered with an emphasis which Sarah

could not help noticing. She looked up from her ironing with
an inquiring expression, but Joyce had turned away her head.
She noted, however, that a crimson flush had spread even
over the fair neck of her nursling, and she wondered, but said
nothing. Joyce, too, remained silently gazing out of the
window; but when she at length turned, Sarah noted traces of
tears on her cheeks, though she began to speak cheerfully
enough and to unfold her plans more fully.

"I have settled about clothes. I have enough money for my

journey, and a little to spare. On the strength of Mrs. Caruth's
recommendation, Mrs. Ross, of Springfield Park, is willing to
engage me as the personal attendant of her two little girls,
aged four and six years. I shall have no menial work, and the
mother regards her children's nurse as of a rank above her
kitchen-maid, and does not insist on caps."

"Oh, Miss Joyce. That I should live to hear you speak like
that!" said Sarah, in a tone of deep distress.

"Be comforted, dear old nurse and kindest of friends. Honest

labour has with it far more of dignity than dependence with
idleness. Earned bread will taste sweet. The dainties here are
always bitter, no matter how delicately flavoured. And now I
shall tell you no more, and when the time comes for
questioning, you can answer truly that you do not know where
I am. This much you shall know. Mrs. Caruth's own maid,
whom you have seen many a time, will meet me when I leave
this house, and accompany me to the station nearest to my
place of service. I will not tell you the name of it, or of the
town next to Springfield Park, but it will comfort you to feel
that the old friend of my parents insists on sending this good
woman to travel with me. When I am at my journey's end,
she will return. Now you know all that I can tell you, and you
may trust me that my uncle shall not be long kept in suspense
as to my safety and whereabouts; Mrs. Caruth has undertaken
to enlighten him. She does blame me for my pride in refusing
to go to her, not for finding dependence unbearable, or for
wishing to earn my own bread. But she cares for me because
I am my father's daughter, and is resolved to shield me from
the possibility of harsh judgments, by providing me with a
temporary attendant."

"I can only say, may God bless and guard you, my darling!
And mind, if you want me, I will come to you at any time,
night or day, for only a word."

CHAPTER III.

JOYCE had always plenty of time to herself, for when aunt and
cousins were out driving or visiting she had to choose
between solitary walks in the grounds or the society of Sarah
Keene and a seat beside her ironing table, her uncle being
often from home.

"The carriage is not comfortable with more than three in it,"

Mrs. Evans would say, when her daughters accompanied her.
If only one of these went, and Mr. Evans suggested that Joyce
should make a third, he was told, "Your niece has not been
used to a carriage. Why spoil her by accustoming her to
luxuries she is not likely to possess in future?"
"How do you know? Joyce may marry well. She is sweet-
looking and a good girl, who would be a treasure worth the
winning to a man who had sense enough to prefer worth to
money."

Mr. Evans made this remark without the slightest intention of

paining his wife, but it called forth derisive words from his
younger daughter, in reference to Joyce, and an angry
response from Mrs. Evans.

"Of course your penniless niece is more charming than my

daughters. But Joyce Mirlees shall be taught to know her
place, and find something better to do than to idle her time in
gossiping with a servant."

"Your niece—my house—my daughters!"

Mr. Evans did not say these words, but as he repeated them to
himself, a picture came to mind, and words from the most
touching of all parables spoke to his heart.

"The forgiving father spoke of the penitent prodigal on his

home-coming as, 'my son who was dead and is alive again,'
and to the elder who had never strayed as, 'thy brother.' But
this last had no thought of tenderness for him who lost all and
had returned hungry, penniless, destitute. It was not 'my
brother' with him, but 'thy son.' Poor Joyce! Homeless,
orphaned, hungering just for love, is nothing to my wife but
'your niece,' when she speaks of her to me. Three days hence
will be her twenty-first birthday, too; she came here in March,
and this is nearly the end of June. I thought that a girl so
sweet in herself must win the good-will of my wife and girls,
but all she has received is a bare shelter, grudgingly permitted
rather than given during three weary months."

When Joyce's birthday morning came there were no costly

gifts for her such as her cousins were accustomed to receive.
Mrs. Evans remarked coldly—
"So it is your birthday, Joyce. Of course, we all wish you many
happy returns of it."

Her cousins echoed "Of course," as they seated themselves at

the breakfast table, and Joyce replied, "Thank you."

"And you are actually twenty-one," said Mrs. Evans. "I

suppose you would expect a present of an ornamental kind,
but, under the circumstances, something useful will be better.
The girls are going to leave off mourning entirely now. Three
months is quite long enough for a mere connection by
marriage, and many people would not wear it more than half
the time."

"Many would not wear it at all, unless—"

Joyce began a sentence but could not finish it, for her heart
was too full to permit her to continue without breaking down
utterly.

"Unless the connection had lived quite near them, and every
one knew of it. Was that what you were going to say?" asked
Mrs. Evans.

"No; I meant something very different, but I will not trouble

you with it now. Only, please do not think I expected any
present. I neither looked nor wished for any."

"But you are going to have one," replied Mrs. Evans, in an

unusually gracious tone. "As I said, my girls are leaving off
their mourning, and I intend you to have their simpler
dresses. Black silks and satins they will not part with. Those
are useful always, but their worst are of beautiful material and
—"

"Quite too good for me," said Joyce.

"No, no. They will look very nice, but not too handsome.
Russell will show you how to alter them and you can sit in her
room so as to be near whilst you are at work. Afterwards, I
have no doubt you will be glad to render a little assistance in
remodelling some of your cousins' gowns which had to be put
aside, in a manner, on your account."

Mrs. Evans thought she had managed a somewhat delicate

matter with great tact and success. She had planned to turn
Joyce's time and good taste to account on behalf of herself
and her daughters, from the first day that the girl, pale and
worn with watching and weeping, arrived at The Chase.

There was a red spot on each of Joyce's cheeks which told of

inward excitement; but she was outwardly calm as she replied
—

"Thank you for offering me these dresses, but I cannot take,

and I shall not need them. Besides, however willing my
cousins might be to spare them, Russell will expect to have
them when done with. When my one black gown is too bad to
wear, I shall use those I had before my—I mean what I
brought with me from Welton."

"But those are coloured. Respect for your relatives and for
society demands that you wear black during at least a year,
for your father. As to your cousins' dresses, they would not go
to Russell whilst nearly as good as new; but I presume your
pride will not let you be seen in them, though you have never
been used to anything so handsome before."

"The dresses are very good," said Joyce; "but you will not see,
and society does not know me. Has not my uncle told you that
I am going to leave The Chase?"

"Going to leave! And pray where are you going? It is just like
your uncle to know of your plans and say nothing, but I
consider it disgraceful of you to act in such an underhand way,
especially after having had such a home as this." And Mrs.
Evans waved her hand, as if to indicate that all around her
had been as much for Joyce's use and comfort as for her own.

"I do not want to seem ungrateful," replied the girl. "I have
been sheltered here, and I have had far more dainty food than
I needed, and been surrounded with many more beautiful
things than my eye was ever accustomed to before. Yet,
forgive me for saying it, I have not been happy. Nobody loves
me, nobody wants me here, and I am very lonely. Perhaps, if
my cousins and I had seen a good deal of each other when we
were children, it would have been different; but I was really
almost a stranger when I came. I hoped they would have liked
me, but being relatives always at a distance from each other
is not like growing up as playfellows and friends. I suppose
people cannot like each other just because they wish to do,
and Adelaide and Augusta have so many friends of their own
without me. So I thought it would be better for me to try and
obtain a situation—and work for my bread. I should like to feel
that I have a place to fill, and something to do; to know that I
am wanted, if only by little children. I have obtained a
situation to which I shall go in two days. My uncle knows
about it, but he only heard the particulars just before he was
called from home so suddenly yesterday, and I suppose he
had not time to tell you. He does not blame me for wishing to
be independent of help and owe my livelihood to my own
exertion. He has always been very good to me."

The girl's voice trembled a little at this allusion to her uncle,

but Mrs. Evans showed no sign of sympathy. She sat and
listened with the frigid manner which she deemed dignified
and becoming, and Joyce continued—

"I once thought of leaving The Chase unknown even to him,

but afterwards I felt sorry and ashamed that I could have
entertained such an idea for a moment. I am sure I should
never have carried it out, though I was going to ask a friend
to tell him at once."

"And pray may I ask how you obtained this situation?"

"By advertising. I had several answers. I needed a

recommendation, and the old true friend of my father and
mother, Mrs. Caruth, of Fernsclough, gave me one, after
having urged me to accept a home with her for an indefinite
period. No one else has had a finger in my arrangements."

For the first time Mrs. Evans manifested something like

interest in Joyce's explanation, and at the mention of Mrs.
Caruth's name significant glances were exchanged between
her and her second daughter—the one who most resembled
her in appearance and disposition.

"I should have thought the fact of your being Mr. Evans' niece
would have been recommendation enough. Pray what kind of
situation have you engaged to fill? I must say, however, that
had you wished to be useful to those who have the first claim
upon you, I have just indicated a way in which you could be
so, and without leaving The Chase."

"I am afraid I shall make a poor assistant to your maid, as I

have not learned dressmaking," replied Joyce, with quivering
lips. "I did not mention my uncle's name or yours in applying
for the situation I am engaged to fill. I am going to attend on
two little children."

"Teach them, I presume you mean?"

"Not exactly. I shall try to teach them, but I shall really be

their maid. You always told me that I was not fit for a
governess, because I was so different from my cousins. A
nursery governess's duties would take in too much, so I
resolved to be 'only a servant.'"
Mrs. Evans' voice rose to a positive shriek as she replied—

"I am thankful, very thankful, you are no relative of mine, and

that though you are my husband's niece you do not bear the
same surname. I wash my hands of you!"

And with a look of combined anger and contempt, Mrs. Evans

swept from the room.

She was not wholly sorry in thinking of the decisive step Joyce
had taken. It would give her a good excuse for severing all
connection with so undesirable a relative. But there was one
drawback to her self-gratulation. If any of her fashionable
neighbours were to hear that Mr. Evans' niece had taken such
a situation, it would be too dreadful. They would not, perhaps,
draw so nice a distinction as she had done, and despite the
fact that the connection was only by marriage, Joyce might be
regarded as her relative also. There was no getting over the
fact that she was first cousin to Adelaide and Augusta.

"If that girl's surname had been the same as ours, I would
have taken steps to assume a different one, at whatever
cost."

"Would you have had us called by your maiden name of

Smittles?" asked Augusta, who had followed her mother from
the morning room. "I like Evans much better."

Mrs. Evans blushed, for that name was doubly objectionable,

and she was most anxious that the fact of her having been
Miss Smittles, the daughter of a notoriously unscrupulous
speculator, should be forgotten. She said no more about
giving up her present surname.

"Do you think," asked Augusta, "that the Mrs. Caruth my

cousin spoke of could be the lady, whom we met with her son
at Mentone last winter! They were delightful people—so
refined, and knew everybody that was worth knowing there,