Running Time of Operations:

 Operations like in and remove take linear time in both implementations (ArrayBag
and LinkedBag) because they involve a sequential search through the collection.
 The remove operation in ArrayBag requires additional work to shift data items in
the array but still operates in linear time. However, the cumulative effect is not
worse than linear.
 Operations like concatenation ( +), string representation ( str), and iteration
(__iter__) are linear, which is expected for any collection.

Let's illustrate these points using the example code:

 In both ArrayBag and LinkedBag, operations like isEmpty, __len__, and clear operate in
constant time (O(1)).
 Adding an item to ArrayBag ( add method) involves accessing a specific index in the
array (self.items.data[self.size] = item ), which is constant time ( O(1)). However, if the array
needs to be resized, it may incur an occasional linear time hit.
  Adding an item to LinkedBag ( add method) involves creating a new node and
updating pointers, which is constant time ( O(1)).
 Removal of an item from ArrayBag ( remove method) involves shifting elements in the
array, which is linear time ( O(n)), where n is the number of elements in the bag.
 Removal of an item from LinkedBag ( remove method) involves updating pointers,
which is also linear time ( O(n)).
 Both implementations exhibit similar memory trade-offs as described in the
paragraph.

Below is the code for the remove method in both ArrayBag and LinkedBag implementations,
along with an explanation of how each operation involves linear time complexity ( O(n)):

In both implementations:

 The remove method takes an item as input and removes it from the bag if it exists.
 In the ArrayBag implementation, we shift elements to the left starting from the
index of the target item.
 In the LinkedBag implementation, we update pointers to skip over the node
containing the target item.

let's break down the code line by line for both the ArrayBag and LinkedBag classes.

ArrayBag Class:

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class ArrayBag : def __init__ ( self ): self.items = [] # Assuming we have an array implementation self.size = 0
 class ArrayBag:: Defines a class named ArrayBag.
 def __init__(self):: Defines the constructor method __init__ for initializing the
ArrayBag objects.
 self.items = [] : Initializes an empty list items which will hold the items in the bag.
 self.size = 0: Initializes the size of the bag to 0.
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def remove ( self, item ): """Removes item from self.""" if item not in self.items: raise ValueError( f"{item} not
in bag" )
  def remove(self, item): : Defines the method remove to remove an item from the bag.
 """Removes item from self.""" : Docstring explaining the purpose of the method.
 if item not in self.items: : Checks if the item is present in the bag's items list.
 raise ValueError(f"{item} not in bag") : Raises a ValueError if the item is not found in
the bag.
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# Find the index of the target item target_index = None for i in range (self.size): if self.items[i] == item:
target_index = i break
 target_index = None : Initializes the target_index variable to None.
 for i in range(self.size): : Iterates over the indices of the items list up to the size of the
bag.
 if self.items[i] == item: : Checks if the current item at index i matches the target item.
 target_index = i : Updates target_index with the index of the target item if found.
 break: Breaks out of the loop once the target item is found.
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# Shift elements to the left starting from the target index for i in range (target_index, self.size - 1 ): self.items[i] =
self.items[i + 1 ]
 This loop shifts elements to the left starting from the index where the target item
was found.
 It iterates from target_index to self.size - 1 (the last valid index).
 Each element at index i is replaced with the element at index i + 1.
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# Decrement logical size self.size -= 1 # Optional: Set the last element to None or remove it self.items[self.size] =
None return item
 self.size -= 1 : Decrements the logical size of the bag.
 self.items[self.size] = None : Optionally sets the last element to None or removes it.
 return item: Returns the removed item from the bag.

LinkedBag Class: The LinkedBag class implements the bag using a linked list. Let's break
down its remove method:

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class Node : def __init__ ( self, data ): self.data = data self. next = None
 Defines a Node class to represent individual nodes in the linked list.
 Each node has data to store the item and next to reference the next node.
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class LinkedBag : def __init__ ( self ): self.head = None self.size = 0
 Defines the LinkedBag class to represent the bag implemented using a linked list.
 Initializes head to None, indicating an empty linked list.
 Initializes size to 0, representing the number of items in the bag.
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def remove ( self, item ): """Removes item from self.""" if self.head is None : raise ValueError( "LinkedBag is
empty" )
 Defines the remove method to remove an item from the bag.
 Checks if the bag is empty by verifying if head is None.
 Raises a ValueError if the bag is empty.
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# Special case: If the target item is at the head if self.head.data == item: self.head = self.head. next self.size -= 1
return item
 Special handling if the target item is at the head of the linked list.
 Updates head to the next node ( self.head.next).
 Decrements the size of the bag.
 Returns the removed item.
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# General case: Traverse the linked structure to find the target item current = self.head prev = None while current
is not None : if current.data == item: prev. next = current. next self.size -= 1 return item prev = current current =
current. next
 Handles the general case where the target item is not at the head.
 Iterates through the linked list to find the target item.
 Updates the next pointer of the previous node to skip the current node.
 Decrements the size of the bag.
 Returns the removed item.
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# If item not found raise ValueError( f"{item} not in bag" )
 Raises a ValueError if the item is not found in the bag after traversing the entire
linked list.

This explanation covers the implementation of the remove method for both ArrayBag and
LinkedBag classes. Each line of code is described along with its purpose within the
method.

In both implementations:

 The remove method takes an item as input and removes it from the bag if it exists.
 In the ArrayBag implementation, we shift elements to the left starting from the
index of the target item.
 In the LinkedBag implementation, we update pointers to skip over the node
containing the target item.
the provided Python script testbag.py and understand its purpose and functionality:

"""
File: testbag.py
Author: Ken Lambert
A tester program for bag implementations.
"""

This section includes comments providing information about the file and its author.

from arraybag import ArrayBag

from linkedbag import LinkedBag

Importing Modules: The code imports the ArrayBag and LinkedBag classes from their
respective modules. These modules contain the implementations of the bag data
structure.

These lines import the ArrayBag and LinkedBag classes from their respective modules
(arraybag.py and linkedbag.py). These classes likely represent implementations of a bag
data structure using arrays and linked lists, respectively.

def test(bagType):

"""Expects a bag type as an argument and runs some tests on objects of that type."""

Definition of the test Function: The test function takes a single argument, bagType,
which represents the type of bag to be tested. It expects this argument to be a class
representing a bag implementation.This function test takes a single argument bagType,
which represents the type of bag implementation to be tested (either ArrayBag or
LinkedBag). The function will run various tests on objects of this type.

print("Testing", bagType)

This line simply prints the type of bag being tested.

lyst = [2013, 61, 1973]

print("The list of items added is:", lyst)

Test Cases:
 Initialization: It initializes a list lyst containing some sample items.
 Creating Bag Objects: It creates a bag object b1 of the specified type ( bagType)
and initializes it with the items from lyst.
 Testing Operations:
 It tests various operations on the bag object b1, such as checking its
length, checking if certain items are present, iterating over the items,
clearing the bag, adding and removing items, and cloning the bag.
 It also performs tests on the equality of two bags ( b1 and b2),
concatenation of bags ( b1 + b2), and removing all items from b1.
 Error Handling: It expects an error (a KeyError) to be raised when attempting to
remove a non-existent item from b2

A list of items lyst is defined, which will be used to initialize the bag objects. This list
contains integer values.

b1 = bagType(lyst)

print("Length, expect 3:", len(b1))

An instance b1 of the bag type is created using the list lyst. The length of b1 is then
printed, which is expected to be 3 since there are three items in lyst.

print("Expect the bag’s string:", b1)

The string representation of b1 is printed, showing the contents of the bag.

print("2013 in bag, expect True:", 2013 in b1)

 print("2012 in bag, expect False:", 2012 in b1)

These lines check if specific items are present in the bag ( b1). It expects 2013 to be
present and 2012 to be absent.

print("Expect the items on separate lines:")

for item in b1:

print(item)

This loop iterates over each item in the bag b1 and prints each item on a separate line.

b1.clear()

print("Clearing the bag, expect {}:", b1)

The clear method is called on b1 to remove all items from the bag. The bag is then
printed, expecting an empty bag {}.

b1.add(25)

b1.remove(25)

print("Adding and then removing 25, expect {}:", b1)

An item 25 is added to the bag b1, and then it is removed. The bag is printed after these
operations, expecting an empty bag {}.

b1 = bagType(lyst)

b2 = bagType(b1)

print("Cloning the bag, expect True for ==:", b1 == b2)

print("Expect False for is:", b1 is b2)

Two new bag objects b1 and b2 are created, where b2 is a clone of b1. It checks whether
b1 and b2 are equal using both == and is operators.

print("+ the two bags, expect two of each item:", b1 + b2)

The bags b1 and b2 are concatenated using the + operator, and the result is printed.
 for item in lyst:

b1.remove(item)

print("Remove all items, expect {}:", b1)

All items from lyst are removed from the bag b1, and the bag is printed, expecting an
empty bag {}.

print("Removing nonexistent item, expect crash with KeyError:")

b2.remove(99)

An attempt is made to remove a nonexistent item ( 99) from b2, which should raise a
KeyError.

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test(ArrayBag) # test(LinkedBag)

The test function is called twice, once with ArrayBag and once with LinkedBag, to test both
bag implementations.

Execution: The test function is called with ArrayBag as the argument, which means it will
test the ArrayBag implementation. You can uncomment the line # test(LinkedBag) to test
the LinkedBag implementation as well.

The purpose of this script is to thoroughly test the functionality of bag implementations,
ensuring that they conform to the expected behavior and meet the requirements of the
bag data structure. It covers various operations such as adding, removing, clearing,
checking membership, cloning, concatenating bags, and handling edge cases like
removing nonexistent items.

That’s the whole point of an interface: it remains the same while the
implementations can change.
 UML
Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a standard notation for modeling
real-world objects as a first step in designing an object-oriented
system.

It's not a programming language — it's a set of rules specifically for drawing diagrams. The
purpose of UML is to provide a simple and common method to visualise a software system's
inherent architectural properties.

Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a general-purpose modeling language. The

main aim of UML is to define a standard way to visualize the way a system has been
designed. It is quite similar to blueprints used in other fields of engineering. UML
is not a programming language, it is rather a visual language.
 We use UML diagrams to portray the behavior and structure of a system.

UML Class Diagram

The class diagram depicts a static view of an application. It represents the types of
objects residing in the system and the relationships between them. A class consists of its
objects, and also it may inherit from other classes. A class diagram is used to visualize,
describe, document various different aspects of the system, and also construct
executable software code.

It shows the attributes, classes, functions, and relationships to give an overview of the
software system. It constitutes class names, attributes, and functions in a separate
compartment that helps in software development. Since it is a collection of classes,
interfaces, associations, collaborations, and constraints, it is termed as a structural
diagram.

EXPLANATION

Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a standardized visual language used to model

software systems, including their structure and behavior. In the context of the Bag
resource, class diagrams are used to represent the relationships among different classes
involved in the implementation.
Let's break down the provided explanation and class diagrams:

Figure 5-1: Class Diagram with Interface and Implementing Classes

In this diagram, there are three main components:

1. Interface: An interface defines a contract for classes that implement it. In this
case, the diagram depicts an interface representing the Bag resource. This
interface likely contains methods such as add, remove, clear, etc., defining the
behavior expected from a Bag implementation.
2. Implementing Classes: The diagram shows two classes that realize or implement
the Bag interface. These classes are ArrayBag and LinkedBag. Both classes provide
concrete implementations of the methods defined in the Bag interface. They may
have different internal data structures and algorithms, but they adhere to the
same interface, allowing them to be used interchangeably wherever a Bag is
expected.

UML Association vs Aggregation vs

Composition
Consider the differences and similarities between the classes of the following
objects: pets, dogs, tails, owners.

We see the following relationships:

 owners feed pets, pets please owners (association)
 a tail is a part of both dogs and cats (aggregation / composition)
 a cat is a kind of pet (inheritance / generalization)

The figure below shows the three types of association connectors: association,
aggregation, and composition. We will go over them in this UML guide.

The figure below shows the three types of association connectors: association,
aggregation, and composition. We will go over them in this UML guide.
Association

If two classes in a model need to communicate with each other, there must be a
link between them, and that can be represented by an association (connector).
Association can be represented by a line between these classes with an arrow
indicating the navigation direction. In case an arrow is on both sides, the
association is known as a bidirectional association.
Association relationship is a structural relationship in which different objects are
linked within the system. It exhibits a binary relationship between the objects
representing an activity. It depicts the relationship between objects, such as a
teacher, can be associated with multiple teachers. It is represented by a line
between the classes followed by an arrow that navigates the direction, and when
the arrow is on both sides, it is then called a bidirectional association. We can
specify the multiplicity of an association by adding the adornments on the line
that will denote the association.

We can indicate the multiplicity of an association by adding multiplicity

adornments to the line denoting the association. The example indicates that a
Student has one or more Instructors:
A single student can associate with multiple teachers:

The example indicates that every Instructor has one or more Students:
We can also indicate the behavior of an object in an association (i.e., the role of an
object) using role names.

Association vs Aggregation vs Composition

The question "What is the difference between association, aggregation, and

composition" has been frequently asked lately.
Aggregation and Composition are subsets of association meaning they
are specific cases of association. In both aggregation and composition object of
one class "owns" object of another class. But there is a subtle difference:
 Aggregation implies a relationship where the child can exist independently of the
parent. Example: Class (parent) and Student (child). Delete the Class and the
Students still exist.
 Composition implies a relationship where the child cannot exist independent of the
parent. Example: House (parent) and Room (child). Rooms don't exist separate to a
House.

Composition Example:

We should be more specific and use the composition link in cases where in addition
to the part-of relationship between Class A and Class B - there's a strong lifecycle
dependency between the two, meaning that when Class A is deleted then Class B is
also deleted as a result

The composition is a part of aggregation, and it portrays the whole-part

relationship. It depicts dependency between a composite (parent) and its parts
(children), which means that if the composite is discarded, so will its parts get
deleted. It exists between similar objects.

As you can see from the example given below, the composition association
relationship connects the Person class with Brain class, Heart class, and Legs class.
If the person is destroyed, the brain, heart, and legs will also get discarded.
Aggregation Example:

It's important to note that the aggregation link doesn't state in any way that
Class A owns Class B nor that there's a parent-child relationship (when parent
deleted all its child's are being deleted as a result) between the two.

Aggregation is a subset of association, is a collection of different things. It

represents has a relationship. It is more specific than an association. It describes a
part-whole or part-of relationship. It is a binary association, i.e., it only involves
two classes. It is a kind of relationship in which the child is independent of its
parent.

For example:

Here we are considering a car and a wheel example. A car cannot move without a
wheel. But the wheel can be independently used with the bike, scooter, cycle, or
any other vehicle. The wheel object can exist without the car object, which proves
to be an aggregation relationship.

Actually, quite the opposite! The aggregation link is usually used to stress the point
that Class A instance is not the exclusive container of Class B instance, as in fact the
same Class B instance has another container/s.
Summing it up -
To sum it up association is a very generic term used to represent when one class
used the functionalities provided by another class. We say it's a composition if one
parent class object owns another child class object and that child class object
cannot meaningfully exist without the parent class object. If it can then it is called
Aggregation.

Figure 5-2: Class Diagram with Aggregation and Composition

Relationships
This diagram extends the previous one by adding two important relationships:

1. Aggregation Relationship: The LinkedBag class aggregates zero or more

instances of the Node class. This relationship indicates that a LinkedBag is
composed of multiple Node objects, but the lifecycle of the nodes is not tied to
the bag. The * symbol near the Node class signifies zero or more instances.
2. Composition Relationship: The ArrayBag class is composed of a single instance
of the Array class. This relationship represents a stronger form of ownership
compared to aggregation. The Array object is an integral part of the ArrayBag,
and its lifecycle is tied to the bag itself.
Informal Explanation of Composition and Aggregation:
 Composition: Think of composition as a "whole-to-part" relationship. In
composition, one class (the whole) owns and contains another class (the part).
For example, an ArrayBag owns and contains an Array object, and the Array object
cannot exist independently of the bag.
 Aggregation: Aggregation is a "one-to-many" relationship where one class (the
whole) contains or is associated with multiple instances of another class (the
parts). In the case of LinkedBag, it contains multiple instances of Node objects, but
the nodes can exist independently and may be shared among multiple bags.

Overall, class diagrams help visualize the structure and relationships among classes in a
software system, facilitating understanding and communication among developers. In
the context of the Bag resource, these diagrams clarify how different classes interact and
fulfill the requirements of the Bag interface.