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Springer Geography

Viacheslav Vasenev
Elvira Dovletyarova
Zhongqi Cheng
Riccardo Valentini
Carlo Calfapietra Editors

Green Technologies
and Infrastructure
to Enhance Urban
Ecosystem Services
Proceedings of the Smart and
Sustainable Cities Conference 2018
Springer Geography
The Springer Geography series seeks to publish a broad portfolio of scientific
books, aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in geographical
research. The series includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, text-
books, and conference proceedings. It covers the major topics in geography and
geographical sciences including, but not limited to; Economic Geography,
Landscape and Urban Planning, Urban Geography, Physical Geography and
Environmental Geography.
Springer Geography – now indexed in Scopus

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10180

Viacheslav Vasenev Elvira Dovletyarova
• •

Zhongqi Cheng Riccardo Valentini

• •

Carlo Calfapietra
Editors

Green Technologies
and Infrastructure to Enhance
Urban Ecosystem Services
Proceedings of the Smart and Sustainable
Cities Conference 2018

123
Editors
Viacheslav Vasenev Elvira Dovletyarova
RUDN University RUDN University
Moscow, Russia Moscow, Russia

Zhongqi Cheng Riccardo Valentini

City University of New York DIBAF
Brooklyn, NY, USA University of Tuscia
Viterbo, Italy

Carlo Calfapietra
National Research Council (CNR)
Institute of Research on Terrestrial
Ecosystems (IRET)
Porano, Terni, Italy

ISSN 2194-315X ISSN 2194-3168 (electronic)

Springer Geography
ISBN 978-3-030-16090-6 ISBN 978-3-030-16091-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16091-3
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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Preface

This volume contains a selection of edited, refereed, and revised papers, which were
presented at the international conference “Smart and Sustainable Cities—2018
(SSC-2018)” entitled “Green technologies and infrastructure to enhance urban
ecosystem services”. This multidisciplinary conference was hosted by RUDN
University, Moscow, Russia, on May 23–26, 2018. SSC-2018 continued the series
of international events focused on urbanization, its environmental consequences,
and possible solutions: Megacities 2050 (2016) and SUITMA 9 (2017). Compared
to the previous events, SSC-2018 gave the main focus on the interdisciplinary
approach and complexity of the urban environment. Particular attention was given
to technological solutions in smart cities, including big data analysis and the
Internet of things. SSC-2018 conference provided an excellent discussion platform
for a broad audience, involving scientific and research community, municipal
services, environmental protection agencies, and stakeholders working in urban
management and greenery. We would like to thank more than 200 participants and
90 speakers who contributed with plenary, oral, and poster presentations,
roundtables, and field excursions. We wish to express our special gratitude to the
authors who contributed to this proceedings. The volume contains an introduction
and 27 research papers, which were selected by the scientific committee with
additional help of external expert reviewers from over 60 submissions. The authors
were asked to consider the reviewers’ comments and have made all necessary edits
to improve the quality of the papers. The conference was organized under the
umbrella of the International Union of Soil Sciences. The organizational and
financial support to SSC-2018 was provided by “RUDN University Program
5-100” and the “Erasmus+ Jean Monnet project “European traditions in gover-
nance, design and environmental management of megacities: search for solutions
(EDEMS)”. We would like to express our gratitude to the many people who put
essential efforts to ensure this successful conference: keynote speakers, members of
organizing and scientific committees, conveners of sessions and roundtables,
reviewers, and technical editors. We wish to express our sincere thanks to
Dr. Michael Leuchner, Publishing Editor, Earth Sciences, Geography and

v
vi Preface

Environment, and Rajan Muthu, Project Coordinator, for their help and
cooperation.
We believe this proceedings will be valuable and informative for researchers,
practitioners, and policy-makers, involved in sustainable urban development.

Viacheslav Vasenev
Elvira Dovletyarova
Zhongqi Cheng
Riccardo Valenitni
Carlo Calfapietra
Organization

Committee

Chief Patron

Vladimir M. Philippov Peoples Friendship University of Russia

(RUDN University), Russia

Scientific Program Chair

Riccardo Valentini Tuscia University, Italy/Peoples Friendship

University of Russia (RUDN University),
Russia

Scientific Program Committee

Jean Louis Morel Université de Lorraine, France

Rattan Lal Ohio State University, USA
Samuilov Konstantin Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Jetse Stoorvogel Wageningen University, Netherlands
Zhongqi Cheng City University of New York, USA
Nikolay S. Kasimov Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
Ivan I. Vasenev Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Christophe Schwartz Université de Lorraine, France

vii
viii Organization

Dovletyarova Elvira Peoples Friendship University of Russia

(RUDN), Russia
Gerd Wessolek Technical University of Berlin, Germany
Ronliang Qiu Sun Yat-sen University, China
Prokofieva Tatiana Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
Abakumov Eugeny Saint Petersburg State University, Russia
Leake Simon SESL, Australia
Chalov Sergey Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
Zhang Ganlin Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
Voskresensky Leonid Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Gould Kenneth City University of New York, USA
Smagin Andrey Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
Calfapietro Carlo National Research Council, Italy
Konstantinov Pavel Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
Nadezhda Ananyeva Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia
Kim Kye-Hoon University of Seoul, Korea

Organizing Chair

Elvira A. Dovletyarova Peoples Friendship University of Russia

(RUDN), Russia

Organizing Co-chair

Viacheslav Vasenev Peoples Friendship University of Russia

(RUDN), Russia

Organizing Committee

Tatiana V. Prokof’eva Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia

Vadim G. Pluyshchikov Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Kristina Ivashchenko Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Alex Yaroslavtsev Russian State Agrarian University
Tatiana A. Fedorova Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Anna Paltseva City University of New York, USA
Organization ix

Sophya Ibatulina Peoples Friendship University of Russia

(RUDN), Russia
Andrey Dolgikh Russia Academy of Sciences, Russia
Olga Romzaykina Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Tatiana Zhukova Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Vlad Pluyshchikov Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Leonid Voskresensky Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Ramilla Hajiaghaeva Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Morgan Williams The University of California, USA
Konstantin Samuilov Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Polina Petrovskaya Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
Pavel Konstantinov Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
Tatiana Morin Urban Soil Institute, New York
Irina Veretelnikova Peoples Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN), Russia
x Organization

Organized by
Contents

Smart and Sustainable Cities: From Environmental Threats

Towards Nature Based Solutions and Sustainable Management . . . . . . 1
Viacheslav Vasenev, E. A. Dovletyarova, I. Veretelnikova, C. Calfapietra,
Z. Cheng, M. Fatiev, and R. Valentini
Assessing Soil Lead Exposure for Gardeners in New York
City – A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Michael T. Schmeltz, Jean A. Grassman, and Zhongqi Cheng
Assessment of Soil Pollution with Heavy Metals in Urban Areas
of the Kola Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Natalya V. Saltan and Ekaterina A. Sviatkovskaya
Soil-Ecological Assessment of the M.I. Kalinin Park Ufa City, Russia . . . 18
A. R. Suleymanov, R. R. Suleymanov, E. V. Abakumov,
A. F. Nigmatullin, and R. A. Khamidullin
The Effect of Sealing on Soil Carbon Stocks in New Moscow . . . . . . . . 29
Olga Romzaykina, Viacheslav Vasenev, Diana Andrianova,
Alexander Neaman, and Dmitriy Gosse
Biological Activity of Sealed Soils of Rostov-on-Don . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
S. N. Gorbov, A. V. Gorovtsov, O. S. Bezuglova, I. S. Aleshukina,
F. D. Ivanov, and P. N. Skpipnikov
Effects of the Road Deicing Practices on Gas Exchange Parameters
in Urban Lawn Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
O. Gavrichkova, R. A. Hajiaghayeva, D. Liberati, E. Pallozzi,
C. Calfapietra, and Viacheslav Vasenev
Influence of Environmental Factors on the Development and Survival
of Toxocara Sp. Eggs in Various Soil Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Viktoria V. Erofeeva and Viacheslav Vasenev

xi
xii Contents

The Condition of Plantations and Significant Harmful Insects

of “Forest Experimental Dacha” RSAU – MAA named
after K.A. Timiryazev in Environment of a Megalopolis . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Sergey Volkov, Tatyana Fedorova, and Varvara Byakhova
Modeling Technology for Assessment of Summer Thermal Comfort
Conditions of Arctic City on Microscale: Application
for City of Apatity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Olga Gommershtadt, Pavel Konstantinov, Mikhail Varentsov,
and Alexander Baklanov
Agrochemical State and Vertical Organization of Alluviated Soils
of Saint Petersburg’s 300th Anniversary Park, Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Ivan Alekseev, Evgeny Abakumov, and Ekaterina Maksimova
Fungal and Bacterial Respiration in Urban Technosols
vs. Natural Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Kristina Ivashchenko, Nadezhda Ananyeva, Sofia Sushko, Anna Paltseva,
Alexandra Seleznyova, Vadim Plushchikov, and Valery Kudeyarov
Mass-Spectrometric Study on Biological and Technogenic
Fractionation of Stable Isotopes of Light Elements in Components
of C3-Plants Grown in Climatic Conditions
of Modern Natural Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
A. Kolesnov, R. Abramovich, M. Zenina, and S. Tsimbalaev
The Use of DNA Barcoding and Metabarcoding for Food
and Environment Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
A. V. Kokina, M. Y. Syromyatnikov, O. V. Savinkova, and V. N. Popov
Soil Electroconductivity as a Proxy to Monitor the Desertification
in the Hungry Steppe (Uzbekistan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Viacheslav Vasenev, Irina Veretelnikova, Inna Brianskaia, Sofiya Demina,
Olga Romzaykina, Bakhtiyor Pulatov, and Alim Pulatov
Assessment of Within-Forest Variability in Albeluvisol Quality
in an Urban Forest Ecosystem for the Northern Part
of the Moscow Megalopolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
I. I. Vasenev, A. A. Avilova, M. V. Tikhonova, and S. J. Ermakov
Noise Reduction Properties of Urban Green Spaces
in Saint-Petersburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Elena Koptseva and Anton Zaytsev
Sustainable Urban Drainage Designing Approach for São Paulo
and Humid Sub-tropical Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Carme Machí Castañer and Paulo Renato Mesquita Pellegrino
Contents xiii

Relict Floodplain Forests as a Refuge for Rare and Protected

Species Within the City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
I. I. Istomina, M. E. Pavlova, A. A. Terekhin, and T. P. Meer
Constructed Wetlands for Watershed Restoration in São Paulo . . . . . . . 173
Carme Machí Castañer and Paulo Renato Mesquita Pellegrino
Restoration of Oil-Contaminated Soils in Mountain Tundra
(Murmansk Region, Russia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Maria V. Korneykova, Vladimir A. Myazin, and Nadezda V. Fokina
Ornamental Plant Cultivation Using Vermiculite-Lizardite
Mining Waste in the Industrial Zone of the Subarctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Liubov’ Ivanova, Marina Slukovskaya, Irina Kremenetskaya,
Svetlana Alekseeva, and Alexander Neaman
City Education: Everything About Playgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Inginitskaya Darya Alexandrovna, Antonov Ignaty Gennadievich,
Belyaeva Larisa Alekseevna, and Zhukova Tatyana Evgenevna
Urban Vegetable Garden Soils and Lay Public Education
on Soil Heavy Metal Exposure Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Salvatore Engel-Di Mauro
Communication Technologies in the Urban Culture of Perm . . . . . . . . . 227
T. B. Stroganova and A. Yu. Chistyakov
Research on the Effectiveness of Environmental Campaign
“Take Action for Green Urban Environment and Sustainability”
in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Thi Chung Thuy Dao and Thu Ha Nguyen
Green and Resilient City: Obligatory Requirements
and Voluntary Actions in Moscow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
M. A. Vakula, T. V. Guseva, I. O. Tikhonova,
Ya. P. Molchanova, and K. A. Schelchkov
Human Capital in the System of Urban Territory Sustainable
Development Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Elena Lazareva, Tatiana Anopchenko, and Anton Murzin
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
 Smart and Sustainable Cities: From
Environmental Threats Towards Nature Based
Solutions and Sustainable Management

Viacheslav Vasenev1(&), E. A. Dovletyarova1, I. Veretelnikova1,2,

C. Calfapietra3, Z. Cheng4, M. Fatiev1, and R. Valentini1,5
1
Department of Landscape Design and Sustainable Ecosystems,
Agrarian-Technological Institute, RUDN University, Moscow, Russia
Vasenev_vi@rudn.university
2
Russian State Agrarian University – Moscow Timiryazev
Agricultural Academy, Moscow, Russia
3
Institute of Research on Terrestrial Ecosystems,
National Research Council, Porano, Italy
4
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences,
Brooklyn College of The City University of New York,
Brooklyn, NY, USA
5
Tuscia University, Viterbo, Italy

Abstract. Sustainable urban development has become an increasingly impor-

tant topic in scientific and political agendas. “Smart and Sustainable Cities -
2018” continues the series of conferences, organized by RUDN University
under the umbrella of Jean Monnet Project EDEMS, to discuss environmental,
technological and socio-economical challenges and perspectives of sustainable
urban development.

Keywords: Urbanization
Ecosystem services
Green technologies

Resilience
Green economy

The beginning of the 21st century is marked by the intensification of global social,
economic and environmental problems. Among them population growth, urbanization
and climate change are of particular importance. According to UN forecasts, the
population of the planet will increase to 9 billion by 2050 with about 80% living in
cities (UN 2018). Megapolis today is characterized by a high concentration of popu-
lation, technology and the associated flows of matter and energy per unit of area, which
has no analogue in natural ecosystems. Sustainable urban development is one of the
priorities of mankind for the near future, reflected in the UN program (UN 2015),
national and regional strategies, international consortia and programs (e.g., C 40
Alliance and U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement). Sustainable urban devel-
opment implies the rational use of urban nature capital and the maximization of urban
ecosystem services (i.e., ecological and socio-economic benefits that people can receive
from urban ecosystems).
A key role in ensuring the sustainable functioning of urban ecosystems is played by
urban green infrastructure (GI). Urban GI, incorporating soils, vegetation and water

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

V. Vasenev et al. (Eds.): SMSC 2018, Springer Geography, pp. 1–3, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16091-3_1
2 V. Vasenev et al.

bodies, helps to reduce volatile organic compounds and fine dust in the air, to form
optimal microclimate, to optimize water balance, to preserve ecological functions of the
soil and to increase biodiversity (Morel et al. 2015; Calfapietra and Cherubini 2018). At
the same time, urban GI is exposed to anthropogenic load which decreases the quality
of urban ecosystems. Polluted and degraded urban soils are an important source of
heavy metals, fine dust particles, and harmful pathogens. Weakened trees are subjected
to windfall, especially during extreme weather events that can put human life and
health at risk. Ecosystem-based approaches and nature based solutions (NBS) are
approaches to achieve sustainable urban development and it is increasingly promoted
by urban planners and policy-makers (Raymond et al. 2017). Creating, maintenance
and management of urban GI are important aspects of adapting NBS approach in cities
and maximizing urban ecosystem services (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016). The inter-
national conference “Smart and Sustainable Cities 2018” provided an international and
interdisciplinary platform to discuss the challenges in urban sustainability and per-
spectives of green technologies and infrastructure to enhance urban ecosystem services.
Smart and Sustainable Cities 2018 (SSC-2018) continues the series of international
events focused on urbanization, its environmental consequences and possible solutions:
Megacities 2050 conference (Vasenev et al. 2018a) and SUITMA 9 Congress (Vasenev
et al. 2018b). This SSC-2018 Proceedings presents the sustainable city concept in
ecological, economic, cultural and social perspectives. The volume includes 27 papers,
organized into four different thematic sections: (1) environmental threats to urban
ecosystems (papers 1 to 8), (2) advanced methods to monitor and assess urban envi-
ronment (papers 9 to 15); (3) nature-based solutions to enhance urban ecosystem
services (papers 16 to 21); and (4) policies and strategies to promote and support
sustainable urban development (papers 22 and 27). Section 1 focuses on the negative
environmental consequences of urbanization, including soil sealing, pollution with
heavy metals and salts. The effects of anthropogenic disturbance on functions and
services of urban ecosystems (e.g., carbon sequestration and microbiological activity)
are illustrated by case studies from cities vary in climate, location, size and history:
New York (USA), Porano (Italy), Moscow, Ufa, Rostov-on-Don and Apatity (Russia).
Various approaches to monitor, assess and model the environmental state and quality of
urban ecosystem components are described in Sect. 2. Spatial patterns and temporal
dynamics of climatic parameters, soil properties and vegetation state in a broad geo-
graphical range from Kola Arctic settlements to arid landscapes of the Hungry Steppe
in Uzbekistan. Special attention is given to proximal sensors, allowing rapid and cost-
effective observations, which is very important for the diverse and highly dynamic
urban environment. Section 3 moves from environmental problems in cities to possible
solutions by promoting several vivid examples of nature-based solutions, including
noise reduction by green zones in Saint-Petersburg, wetland restoration in Moscow and
Sao Paulo and remediation of oil-contaminated soils in Murmansk. Finally, Sect. 4
summarizes different approaches and experiences in policies and practices of sustain-
able urban development. National and local regulations to control anthropogenic load
as well as requirements and initiatives to implement nature-based solutions are dis-
cussed. Special attention is given to educational activities as an effective tool to
communicate the importance of urban sustainable development to a new generation of
citizens.
 Smart and Sustainable Cities 3

The SSC 2018 conference attracted a broad and interdisciplinary audience,

including policy-makers, urban planners, landscape designers and researchers. Sus-
tainable urban development was discussed in different perspective, including envi-
ronmental pollution, climate change, socio-economical and cultural aspects. This
integrated approach will hopefully contribute to improved decision to enhance urban
ecosystem services and secure sustainability of urban development.

Acknowledgments. The conference was organized with the support of Jean Monnet Pro-
ject EDEMS, Capacity Building Project # 586247-EPP-1-2017-1-IT-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP
(TAURUS) and RUDN Project “5-100.”

References
United Nations: World urbanization prospects: the 2018 revision (2018)
United Nations: Sustainable development goals (2015)
Calfapietra, C., Cherubini, L.: Green Infrastructure: Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable and
Resilient Cities (2018)
Raymond, C.M., Frantzeskaki, N., Kabisch, N., Berry, P., Breil, M., Nita, M.R., Geneletti, D.,
Calfapietra, C.: A framework for assessing and implementing the co-benefits of nature-based
solutions in urban areas. Environ. Sci. Policy 77, 15–24 (2017)
Cohen-Shacham, E., Walters, G., Janzen, C., Maginnis, S.: Nature-Based Solutions to Address
Global Societal Challenges IUCN Commission on Ecosystem Management (CEM) and
IUCN. World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), Switzerland (2016)
Morel, J.L., Chenu, C., Lorenz, K.: Ecosystem services provided by soils of urban, industrial,
traffic, mining, and military areas (SUITMAs). J. Soil Sedim. 15, 1659–1666 (2015)
Vasenev, V.I., Cheng, Z., Stoorvogel, J.J., Dovletyarova, E.A., Hajiaghayeva, R.A.,
Plyushchikov, V.G.: MEGACITIES 2050: From Urbanization Risks Towards Sustainable
Urban Development. Springer Geography, Part F4, pp. 3–5. Springer, Heidelberg (2018a)
Vasenev, V.I., Cheng, Z., Dovletyarova, E.A., Morel, J.L., Prokof’eva, T.V., Hajiaghayeva, R.
A., Plyushchikov, V.G.: SUITMA 9: Urbanization as a Challenge and an Opportunity for
Soils Functions and Ecosystem Services. Springer Geography, pp. 3–5. Springer, Heidelberg
(2018b)
 Assessing Soil Lead Exposure for Gardeners
in New York City – A Pilot Study

Michael T. Schmeltz1(&), Jean A. Grassman1,2, and Zhongqi Cheng2

1
School of Public Health-CUNY, 2180 Third Ave, New York, NY 10035, USA
mschmeltz@gc.cuny.edu
2
Brooklyn College-CUNY,
2900 Bedford Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11210-2889, USA

Abstract. Urban gardening has become popular in the past decade. Evidences
suggest that growing and consuming fresh fruits and vegetables has many health
and social benefits. However, urban soils may pose a significant health risk to
the public due to contamination from heavy metals, in particular, lead (Pb).
Much of the soil in urban areas is contaminated by the historic use of Pb based
paints, leaded gasoline, and other industrial activities. This pilot study assesses
Pb concentrations in urban garden soils and the behaviors of urban gardeners in
New York City. Soil samples from 18 gardens were analyzed for Pb using a
field portable XRF Environmental Analyzer. A survey was administered to
individuals who tended the gardens to assess their gardening habits. The soil Pb
concentrations averaged 373 ppm and ranged 109–1317 ppm. Seventy-three
percent of gardeners did not wear any personal protective equipment and half
stated that they ate or drank while gardening. The majority of respondents
indicated that they just “brushed off” and washed their hands when finished
gardening. The findings indicate that these participants work, grow and consume
produce from their gardens without knowledge of soil contamination, nor did
they take appropriate precautions. The elevated Pb levels in combination of
current gardening habits puts the gardening population at risk. Access to soil Pb
screening, public outreach and education are clearly necessary.

Keywords: Urban soil
Lead contamination
Gardening

1 Introduction

Urban gardening has become increasingly popular in the past decade. Numerous evi-
dences also suggest that growing and consuming fruits and vegetables have increased
health and social benefits [1–3]. However, urban soils potentially pose health risk to
gardeners due to contamination from heavy metals. Lead is a toxic metal that is
ubiquitous in the urban environment. Much of the soil in urban areas has been con-
taminated by the historic use of Pb-based paints, leaded gasoline, and other industrial
activities. For example, it has been estimated that by the end of 1986, when leaded
gasoline underwent a rapid phase-out, 5–6 million metric tons of Pb had been used as a
gasoline additive and about 75% of this Pb was released into the atmosphere [4–7]
(Fig. 1).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

V. Vasenev et al. (Eds.): SMSC 2018, Springer Geography, pp. 4–11, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16091-3_2
 Assessing Soil Lead Exposure for Gardeners in New York City 5

Fig. 1. Cross-section of suburban setting demonstrating typical urban soil Pb patterns (modified
from Olszowy et al. 1995) [6].

Soil studies conducted in Maryland, Minnesota and Louisiana showed a consistent

pattern of urban soils having mean Pb concentrations upwards of 10 times greater than
soils in suburban and rural areas [5]. These higher levels of Pb in soil reflect the higher
blood Pb levels that are seen in children and adults in urban areas [8–10]. The adverse
health effects from Pb are worse for children. High levels of Pb damage a child’s
nervous system, delays development, and can contribute to later-life delinquent
behavior [11]. Adult cases of Pb poisoning are not as common as children’s since
adults typically retain less than 10% of the Pb they ingest, whereas children absorb
50% of the Pb they ingest [12]. Adults who have Pb poisoning present symptoms and
illnesses in the peripheral and central nervous systems, the kidneys and it can affect
blood pressure [13].
The main exposure pathway for Pb poisoning is through ingestion [10]. Ingestion
of soil may be involuntary dust ingestion or direct ingestion. For children a large part of
ingestion is due to direct ingestion from “pica behavior” (deliberate ingestion of non-
nutritive substances) via hand-to-mouth activity usually around the ages of 1 to 5 [14].
The greatest exposure to Pb in soil is from soil dust and the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) set a standard for Pb in bare soil in play areas of 400 ppm
and 1,200 ppm in non-play areas. Gardens in urban locations serve both as play and
non-play areas with families using the limited amount of green space for multiple
activities such as gardening, socializing, and recreation [15].
Urban gardening includes recreational gardening and agricultural gardening, the
latter which has become increasingly popular. Part of the ingestion exposure pathway is
related to plants that are grown in Pb contaminated soil. Soil particles can adhere to
vegetable surfaces, and some plants can absorb Pb from the soil though it is dependent
on the species of plant, the chemical composition of the soil and the amount of Pb in
the soil [15]. Although soil ingestion is not the main cause of acute Pb poisoning and
there are a variety of sources from which we are all exposed to Pb such as inhalation
and ingestion of interior dust from lead paint and occupational exposure, urban gar-
dening and consumption of urban grown produce may contribute to the already ele-
vated body burdens of Pb from other sources [16, 17].
6 M. T. Schmeltz et al.

This pilot study investigated Pb concentrations in urban garden soils and the gar-
dening behaviors of urban gardeners in New York City (NYC). This data is needed to
evaluate the potential health hazard related to these activities and help guide the
development of safety and remediation recommendations for urban gardeners. The
study included soil testing for Pb concentration and a questionnaire to establish various
gardening behaviors in urban gardeners in NYC in May 2010.

2 Methods and Materials

Two sets of data were collected. A survey was given to the gardeners to determine
gardening habits and behavior. Soil was collected from each garden and analyzed for
Pb content. Participants were recruited from a local gardening expo and volunteered in
return for having a free test to determine their garden soil Pb concentration.

2.1 Soil Sampling and Questionnaire

Soil was collected from 18 gardens at 13 different homes. Some homes had both a front
yard and backyard garden from which samples were collected. Each garden tested was
used for both growing produce and recreational gardening. Two samples of soil were
taken from each garden from surface to a 6-in. depth. A small trowel was used to
remove approximately 300 g of soil. The soil samples were collected in plastic bags.
The two samples from each garden were mixed together to get an overall assessment of
the level of Pb in the garden.
After the soil samples were collected each participant was asked to fill out a
questionnaire concerning their gardening habits. There were a total of 20 questions
including what seasons participants garden; personal protective equipment used;
number of hours per day participants garden; and how participants washed up after
gardening. There were a total of 11 questionnaires completed, with 2 middle-aged
female participants declining due to time constraints.

2.2 X-ray Fluorescence

Soil Pb concentration was obtained by a field portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF)
instrument (Olympus, Delta Classic). Two reading were taken for each sample and the
average was taken. All statistical analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistical
version 19.

3 Results
3.1 Lead Concentrations in Soil
The average Pb concentration for all 18 soil samples was 372 ppm. This is just below
the US EPA reportable limit of 400 ppm. The lowest concentration was measured at
109 ppm and the highest was 1317 ppm. In total there were four gardens whose soil Pb
levels were above 400 ppm (Fig. 2).
 Assessing Soil Lead Exposure for Gardeners in New York City 7

Fig. 2. Pb concentrations of garden soils

3.2 Questionnaire: Gardener Characteristics and Risk Behaviors

Of the gardeners participating in the study 73% (n = 8) were female and 27% (n = 3)
were male. The average age of the gardeners was 46 years. This demographic infor-
mation is similar to other studies of gardeners [18–21]. More than half of the gardeners
spent at least 5 or more days a week in the garden, though less than 3 h a day
gardening. The majority, 67% (n = 7), gardened in the spring, summer and fall, while
the rest gardened all year round. Gardening activities included yard work – raking/
sweeping; digging and planting; weeding; watering; and recreation activities.
Questions were asked about personal protective equipment, personal hygiene after
gardening and washing of produce from the garden to establish possible pathways of
exposure from contaminated soil. Seventy-three percent (n = 8) of respondents said
they used no personal protective equipment (gloves, safety glasses, apron, etc.) while
gardening. About half of respondents ate or drank while working in the garden. All of
respondents grew produce that was consumed (vegetables and/or herbs) in their gar-
dens. Almost all, 91% (n = 10), reported washing produce by just briefly rinsing with
water. After gardening 82% (n = 9) of respondents washed-up by just washing
hands/face with soap and water while 10% (n = 2) said they showered afterwards and
the remaining said they just brushed themselves off.
New soil was added to 73% (n = 8) of respondents’ gardens at the start of a new
growing season with an average of 3 in. of soil being added to these gardens. Soil was
either bought at a store (36%), brought in from another location (9%) or a combination
of the two (27%).
Questions were asked about recent renovations or construction activities within or
near the gardening areas. About half of the respondents reported some renovation or
construction activity which produced dust in the vicinity of the gardens. Observational
notes of the gardens included front yard gardens being within 3 m of active roadways;
peeling paint from home or fencing adjacent to gardens; past history of concrete
8 M. T. Schmeltz et al.

covering garden area; and if garden was in public area trash was occasionally present.
Only one (8%) respondent had soil tested prior to the current study and knew the level
of Pb in the soil only as being below the ‘standard’ (400 ppm). Thirty-six percent
(n = 4) of respondents had previously had children in their household tested for a blood
Pb level, with no reports of blood Pb levels being elevated (  10 lg/DL blood).

4 Discussion

Given the strong associations between soil and blood Pb concentrations, there is no
doubt that contaminated soil is one of the major sources for Pb exposure [22–24].
Urban gardening provides pathways for such exposure, through incidental ingestion or
involuntarily ingestion and inhalation. Lead bearing soil dust can also invade home by
tracking from shoes, pets, and via resuspension and deposition from wind and other
normal weather patterns. The consumption of produce from contaminated soils can also
be questionable if the fruits or vegetables are not thoroughly washed to remove dirt on
the surface of these produce. With the popularity of urban gardens on the rise, the
possibility of exposure and resulting health risks are also increased. Both the increased
time spent in the garden and the consumption of more produce grown in contaminated
soil can also increase the exposure.
From the results of this pilot study, most of the gardeners do not have the habit of
wearing personal protective equipment. The ‘washing-up’ that was performed often is
not as thorough as needed. This on the other hand indicates that many urban gardeners
may be unaware of the health risk of contaminated soil and that an educational
intervention is needed. Education about soil contamination and proper procedures for
cleaning and remediation of contaminated soil would benefit gardeners and their
families to reduce the amount of soil dust that enters their home.
Soil testing could be an expensive venture for many casual gardeners who are
growing produce to reduce costs in purchasing food. The cost of soil tests might deter
the urban gardener from seeking out such a test, therefore they remain uniformed about
potential risks in the garden. It is not uncommon that some gardeners carry an attitude
of what they do not know can’t hurt them. The Pb screening from this study was
relatively inexpensive though not as thorough as a laboratory assay. The pXRF method
may be a cost effective screening method for gardeners who cannot afford more
expensive laboratory tests, but who are also concerned about soil contamination.
A recent study also argued that a soil extraction method (Mehlich-III) yielded highly
correlated results with the EPA-certified total Pb method [25]. This newer method
along with pXRF can provide a feasible alternative to expensive laboratory soil testing.
The results also show that urban gardens are situated near homes, which may
contain Pb paint on the exterior, and gardens that were in close proximity to roadways,
which historically have been a source of Pb. Previous use of the gardening site was also
an issue. A few of the gardens in this study had previously been covered by concrete or
asphalt which had to be broken apart and removed. In addition, construction is a
constant part of life in NYC and other urban areas, disruption of the exterior and
interior of old homes which may contain contaminants is also a source of Pb that
contaminates garden soils.
 Assessing Soil Lead Exposure for Gardeners in New York City 9

Although there is not a set standard for Pb concentration in garden soils, many
researchers have weighed in on the debate on what concentrations are considered
“safe” to grow produce and which are considered to be “not safe”. Controversial values
as low as 100 ppm have been proposed for growing produce where children are present
and <300 ppm if children are not present [26]. Other studies have indicated limitations
for the type of produce grown, such as not growing leafy green or root vegetables if soil
Pb concentrations are above 400–500 ppm and not to grow anything in the soil if Pb
concentrations are above 1000 ppm [27–29].
European countries, like Norway, have regulations for Pb in soil where children are
present, set at 100 ppm, while California is considering a law to reduce Pb soil con-
centration guidelines to 80 ppm [30, 31]. Continued interest in urban gardening as well
as the threat of Pb poisoning for children will push the research and regulation setting
agencies to consider the effect of Pb soil concentrations as a detriment to human health.
Dr. Mielke, a prominent researcher in soil Pb has consistently and coherently argued
that while Pb-based paint is a high dose source of Pb, Pb in soil is more ubiquitous and
needs to be considered as a significant source of Pb. Regulators and policy makers need
to take into account this information and equal attention should be given to Pb soil
regulations as those given to Pb-based paint regulations [5, 8, 23].

5 Conclusion

Pb is not biodegradable and remains in topsoil once deposited. It will continue to be a

contaminant of concern for the foreseeable future, particularly in urban environments.
It may seem like a daunting task to combat Pb contamination, but it is not insur-
mountable. Lead in garden soil can be mitigated in a number of ways. Raised beds have
shown to effectively reduce the exposure soil Pb contamination. Topsoil can be
removed and replaced with ‘clean’ soil from another location. Hygienic practices such
as washing hands thoroughly after working in the garden or removing shoes before
entering home will also reduce the amount of soil dust that can migrate into the indoor
environment.
Gardening should be an enjoyable and healthy activity for the urban population.
Consuming more fruits and vegetables contributes to better and balanced nutrition, and
gardening is a physical activity that can be part of a healthy life style. More steps
should be taken to encourage urban gardening and with it education on how to do it
safely, especially if there is a threat of health risk from contaminated soil. Using
available resources such as social gardening clubs and the internet is a great way to
spread this information and for people to learn about soil testing and proper gardening
techniques such as using PPE and washing produce thoroughly. The costs of these
minor adjustments are miniscule compared to the cost of treating Pb poisoning in adults
and children.

Acknowledgments. Special appreciation goes to all the volunteer gardeners who participated.
10 M. T. Schmeltz et al.

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 Assessment of Soil Pollution with Heavy Metals
in Urban Areas of the Kola Arctic

Natalya V. Saltan(&) and Ekaterina A. Sviatkovskaya

Polar-Alpine Botanical Garden-Institute of Kola Science Centre of the Russian

Academy of Sciences, Apatity, Russia
saltan.natalya@mail.ru, sviatkovskaya@mail.ru

Abstract. The Murmansk region is an industrially developed area of the

Russian Far North. The largest industrial sector is represented by nonferrous
metallurgy operations that have a significant negative impact on the environ-
ment. The main pollutants of the operations are metals such as Ni and Cu. The
purpose of this study was to analyze soil pollution by heavy metals in the cities
of Murmansk region subjected to various anthropogenic loads (Apatity, Mur-
mansk, Monchegorsk, Nickel Village).
The soil samples were collected from a surface layer of 0–5 cm. The soils
were digested in 5N HNO3, and analysis of metals (Ni, Cu) was conducted using
the atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) method.
The content of the metals in urban soils were greater than that of the back-
ground value. The tree nursery of the Polar-Alpine Botanic Garden and Institute
of the Kola Science Centre was conditionally accepted as a background territory.
The highest, more than 30-fold enrichment of the soil with copper and nickel,
relative to the average Cu and Ni contents in the background territory, was
observed in Nickel Village. In Monchegorsk, the soils were also enriched with
these metals, only much less so. The soil samples of Murmansk and Apatity
were slightly contaminated with Ni and Cu.
Application of maximum permissible concentrations for comparison with the
actual content of the pollutants in the urban soil showed that the soils in Apatity,
Murmansk, and Monchegorsk were classified as soils with a low level of pol-
lution. (The excess was less than 200 maximum permissible concentrations.)
The soils in Nickel Village were classified with a high level of pollution. (The
excess was more than 300.)
The analysis of urban soil pollution with heavy metals showed that Nickel
Village has a tense environmental situation caused by mining and processing
activities. In other towns of the Murmansk region, the environment does not face
serious concerns, but it does require monitoring and control. It is necessary to
implement environmental monitoring of soil conditions, especially in Nickel
Village, and environmental impact mitigation activities.

Keywords: Soil pollution
Heavy metals
Urban areas
Kola arctic

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

V. Vasenev et al. (Eds.): SMSC 2018, Springer Geography, pp. 12–17, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16091-3_3
 Assessment of Soil Pollution with Heavy Metals in Urban Areas 13

1 Introduction

The soil mantle plays an important role in maintaining the urban ecosystem’s sus-
tainable environmental and health conditions. However, urban soils perform their role
differently depending on the degree of soil profile alteration, and their properties
change under the influence of anthropogenic factors. Anthropogenic soil formations
occurring within the urban area are the basic components of the whole urban ecosystem
because the circulation of biogeochemical elements closes here [1–7].
Soil accumulates toxic substances in the biosphere. Heavy metals are considered to
be the strongest toxicants because they can cause various pathologies in living
organisms in certain concentrations [8–13]. The Murmansk region is an industrially
developed area of the Russian Far North located on the Kola Peninsula. The largest
industrial sector is represented by nonferrous metallurgy operations having a significant
negative impact on the environment [14]. The main pollutants of the operations are
metals such as Ni and Cu. Pollutants may cause primary damage, with an identifiable
direct impact on the environment and secondary damage in the form of different
perturbations in the ecosystems over a long time. Sustainable development of the
region requires improvement of northern people’s quality of life by improving their
environment quality. Among others, a duly arranged green planting system enables the
reduction of environmental risks for people. Green planting plays an important
architectural and compositional role in the modern urban landscape and helps create a
comfortable work and rest environment [15, 16].
The purpose of our investigation is to analyze the existing soil pollution with heavy
metals in the towns of Murmansk region subjected to various anthropogenic loads. In
Murmansk, the industries contributing to environmental pollution include marine
transport, fishery, ship repairing, food industry, metal processing, and marine geology.
In Monchegorsk exists one of the largest pollution sources in the Russian North West:
the non-ferrous metallurgy plant Severonickel belonging to the mining and metallur-
gical company Norilsk Nickel. Apart from the plant, the town accommodates the
following active operations: a concrete products plant, a crushed stone plant, repair and
mechanical shops, several consumer goods, and food companies. Nickel Village
accommodates some process shops of the Pechenganickel plants (kiln shop, smelter,
acid shops, and other production support shops) also belonging to Norilsk Nickel. In
Apatity, significant pollution results from the dusty tailing dump of the apatite-
nepheline processing plant of Company Apatit belonging Holding PhosAgro.

2 Objects and Methods

For studies of soil pollution in towns, some squares and streets were selected: Mur-
mansk (the square ‘Pyat Uglov’, Lenina Street), Apatity (territory of Academic
Campus, Fersmana Street), Monchegorsk (the square in the south part of the city,
Metallurgov street), and Nickel Village (the square near the administration building,
Gvardeyskiy Street). The tree nursery of the Polar-Alpine Botanic Garden and the
Institute of the Kola Science Centre was conditionally accepted as a background ter-
ritory (located 1.5 km to the north from Apatity). The studies were conducted from
14 N. V. Saltan and E. A. Sviatkovskaya

August 2013 to August 2015. The soils were collected from a surface layer of 0–5 cm.
This interval was found to be optimal for analysis of heavy metal contents in urban
soils [17]. Heavy metal pollution of urban soils usually have a humus-accumulative
pattern, which mainly results from their air-technogenic disposal, strong adhesion to
biogeochemical adsorption barriers by association with humus soil substances, and
biological accumulation.
The soil samples were digested (ca. 1.0 g dry matter) in 15 ml of 5 N HNO3. The
metal contents (Ni, Cu) were determined through the atomic absorption spectroscopy
method, with the use of the Shimadzu AA-6800 device. Under technogenic pollution
conditions, nitric acid dissolves heavy metals oxides and sulphides, which are the main
components of the pollution produced by metallurgical operations. Chemical analyses
were conducted in the certified Chemical Technology Laboratory of Kola Geological
Information Laboratory Centre.

3 Results and Discussion

The analysis of the experimental data showed different distributions of the contents of
heavy metals in the studied soils (Fig. 1). The average contents of the metals in the
surface layer of soils for background were, respectively, Ni 39 mg/kg and Cu
26 mg/kg. The contents of Ni and Cu in urban soils are higher than the background
value. The highest values were identified in Nickel Village. This can be the result of
contamination of the area during the long-term operating period of the non-ferrous
metallurgy plant and transferring of dust in the wind according to the wind rose. Thus,
Nickel Village has been exposed to significant pollution. In Monchegorsk, the level of
gas and dust emissions from Severonickel plant is much lower. Additionally, the city
itself is not located within the wind rose; therefore, Ni and Cu contents in the soil are
almost one order lower than in Nickel. The lowest metal contents were found in Apatity
soils as only a few pollution sources are present here. Murmansk soils are insignifi-
cantly polluted with toxins. In the soils of Monchegorsk and Nickel Village, the content
of Ni is higher than that of Cu because of its predominance in aerotechnogenic
emissions of metallurgical plants. In the soil of Murmansk, the content of these two
metals is approximately at the same level.
There are certain methodological difficulties in assessing environmental risks
because there are approaches to determining the number of adverse effects of pollution
on soils. In our study, we used standard approaches. We calculated pollution index as
the ratio of metal in the soil to the background. The calculated coefficients of the
accumulation of metals in the soil are shown in Table 1.
The highest, more than 30-fold enrichment of the soil with copper and nickel,
relative to the average Cu and Ni contents in the background territory, was observed in
Nickel Village. Such high values may indicate the contamination of the soil. In
Monchegorsk, soils were also enriched with these metals, only much less so. The soil
samples of Murmansk and Apatity were slightly contaminated with Ni and Cu.
The zonal soils of the Kola Peninsula are characterized mainly by a light granu-
lometric composition. The upper organogenic soil horizon has lower pH values (pH of
the aqueous soil extract is 3.6–5.0) [18]. The background values of metals have been
 Assessment of Soil Pollution with Heavy Metals in Urban Areas 15

1600 1600

1500 1500

1400 1400

1300 1293 1300

1200 1200
1175

Content of Cu in soils, mg/kg

1100 1100
Content of Ni in soils, mg/kg

1000 1000
900 900
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 190 200
100 100 122
46 58 39 59
0 34 26
0
Background
Nickel
Monchegorsk
Murmansk

Background
Nickel
Monchegorsk
Apatity

Murmansk
Apatity

Fig. 1. Statistical parameters of distribution of Ni and Cu contents in urban soils of the

Murmansk region (Note: box – interquartile range (Q1–Q3); horizontal bar – median; error (thin
line) – experimental minimal (lower) and maximum (upper) values, marker (circle in the center)
is the mean value (with the numbers))

Table 1. The pollution index of metals in soils

Location Ni Cu
Apatity 1 1
Murmansk 1 2
Monchegorsk 5 5
Nickel 33 36

slightly exceeded in the soil compared with approximate permissible concentrations (Ni
– 33 mg/kg, Cu – 20 mg/kg, [19]), normalized for soils of populated areas, which may
be the result of permanent local pollution.
Soil contamination can also be assessed using hygienic standards such as a max-
imum permissible concentration (Ni – 4 mg/kg, Cu – 3 mg/kg, [20]). The level of land
contamination in excess of the maximum permissible concentration is presented in
Table 2. The application of this standard for comparison with the actual content of
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