Handbook of Geotechnical Testing:

Basic Theory, Procedures and

Comparison of Standards 1st Edition
Yanrong Li
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-geotechnical-testing-basic-theory-proce
dures-and-comparison-of-standards-1st-edition-yanrong-li/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Healthcare Interoperability Standards Compliance

Handbook Conformance and Testing of Healthcare Data
Exchange Standards 1st Edition Frank Oemig

https://textbookfull.com/product/healthcare-interoperability-
standards-compliance-handbook-conformance-and-testing-of-
healthcare-data-exchange-standards-1st-edition-frank-oemig/

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

https://textbookfull.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-
loucas/

Practice of Bayesian Probability Theory in Geotechnical

Engineering Wan-Huan Zhou

https://textbookfull.com/product/practice-of-bayesian-
probability-theory-in-geotechnical-engineering-wan-huan-zhou/

Theory of Practical Cellular Automaton Xuewei Li

https://textbookfull.com/product/theory-of-practical-cellular-
automaton-xuewei-li/
Probabilistic Methods in Geotechnical Engineering:
Proceedings of the conference, Canberra, 10-12 February
1993 First Edition Li

https://textbookfull.com/product/probabilistic-methods-in-
geotechnical-engineering-proceedings-of-the-conference-
canberra-10-12-february-1993-first-edition-li/

Handbook of Fractional Calculus with Applications Vol 1

Basic Theory De Gruyter Reference 1st Edition Anatoly
Kochubei (Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-fractional-calculus-
with-applications-vol-1-basic-theory-de-gruyter-reference-1st-
edition-anatoly-kochubei-editor/

M100 Performance Standards for Antimicrobial

Susceptibility Testing 30th Edition Clsi

https://textbookfull.com/product/m100-performance-standards-for-
antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing-30th-edition-clsi/

Learning and Memory Basic Principles Processes and

Procedures 6th Edition W. Scott Terry

https://textbookfull.com/product/learning-and-memory-basic-
principles-processes-and-procedures-6th-edition-w-scott-terry/

Privacy Computing: Theory and Technology Li

https://textbookfull.com/product/privacy-computing-theory-and-
technology-li/
Handbook of Geotechnical Testing
Handbook of Geotechnical
Testing

Basic Theory, Procedures and Comparison

of Standards

Yanrong Li
Department of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Taiyuan University
of Technology, Taiyuan, China
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by Apex CoVantage, LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior
permission from the publisher.
Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the
information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any
damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/
or the information contained herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Li,Yanrong (Writer on geology), author.
Title: Handbook of geotechnical testing : basic theory, procedures and comparison
of standards / Yanrong Li, Department of Earth Sciences, Taiyuan University, Taiyuan, China.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, [2020] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019043589 (print) | LCCN 2019043590 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367340643 (hardcover) | ISBN 9780429323744 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Geotechnical engineering—Materials—Testing—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC TA706.5 .L525 2020 (print) | LCC TA706.5 (ebook) |
DDC 624.1/510287—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019043589
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019043590
Published by: CRC Press/Balkema
Schipholweg 107C, 2316 XC Leiden, The Netherlands
e-mail: Pub.NL@taylorandfrancis.com
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com
ISBN: 978-0-367-34064-3 (Hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-32374-4 (eBook)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429323744
Contents

List of figuresxiii
List of tablesxix
Biographyxxv
Forewordxxvii
Prefacexxix

PART I
Theory of geotechnical testing 1
1 Characteristics of soils 3
1.1 Basic properties and engineering classification 3
1.1.1 Physical indices 4
1.1.2 Particle size distribution 7
1.1.3 Relative density of cohesionless soils 8
1.1.4 Consistency of cohesive soils 9
1.1.5 Thixotropy of soils 10
1.1.6 Soil compaction 11
1.1.7 Swelling and shrinkage of cohesive soils 13
1.1.8 Loess collapsibility 14
1.1.9 California Bearing Ratio 15
1.1.10 Soil permeability 16
1.1.11 Engineering classification of soils 17
1.2 Stress in soil 18
1.2.1 Three-dimensional stress state 18
1.2.2 Two-dimensional stress state 22
1.2.3 Stress in soil 24
1.3 Compressibility and consolidation 25
1.3.1 Compressibility 26
1.3.2 Consolidation 29
1.4 Strength of soils 33
1.4.1 Coulomb’s theory 33
1.4.2 Mohr-Coulomb criterion 34
vi Contents

1.4.3 Determination of soil shear strength 36

1.4.4 Effective factors on soil shear strength 38
1.4.5 Residual shear strength 39

2 Characteristics of rocks 41
2.1 Physical properties 41
2.1.1 Porosity 41
2.1.2 Density 42
2.1.3 Hydraulic properties 43
2.1.4 Rock description 46
2.2 Deformability of rocks 48
2.2.1 Stress–strain relationship 48
2.2.2 Application of stress–strain curves 50
2.2.3 Rock deformability 52
2.3 Rock strengths 54
2.3.1 Uniaxial compressive strength 54
2.3.2 Point load strength 55
2.3.3 Tensile strength 55
2.3.4 Shear strength 56
2.4 Theory of rock strength 56
2.4.1 Mohr criterion 58
2.4.2 Griffith theory 61

3 Characteristics of rock mass 65

3.1 Discontinuities in rock mass 65
3.2 Description of rock mass 68
3.2.1 Structure of rock mass 68
3.2.2 Characteristics of structural plane 68
3.3 Engineering classification of rock mass 71
3.3.1 RMR system 71
3.3.2 Q system 73
3.4 Strength theory of rock mass 76
3.4.1 JRC-JCS model 76
3.4.2 Hoek-Brown criterion 79

PART 2
Test methods for soils and rocks 85
4 International standard systems 87
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 International standards 88
4.2.1 China’s standards 88
 Contents vii

4.2.2 ASTM standards 88

4.2.3 BSI standards 97
4.2.4 ISRM suggested methods 99
4.2.5 Hong Kong’s standards 102
4.2.6 Australia’s standards 102
4.2.7 Japan’s standards 108
4.2.8 South Africa’s standards 110
4.2.9 Singapore’s standards 111

5 Test preparation 115

5.1 Application scopes and parameters to be measured 115
5.2 Apparatus and reagent 115
5.2.1 Soil tests 115
5.2.2 Rock tests 152

6 Procedures of tests on soils 159

6.1 Specimen preparation 159
6.1.1 Preparation 159
6.1.2 Saturation 161
6.2 Tests for physical properties 163
6.2.1 Water content 163
6.2.2 Density 164
6.2.3 Specific gravity of soil solids 167
6.2.4 Particle size distribution 169
6.2.5 Atterberg limits 174
6.2.6 Relative density of cohesionless soils 178
6.3 Tests for mechanical properties 181
6.3.1 California Bearing Ratio 181
6.3.2 Modulus of resilience 183
6.3.3 Penetration test 185
6.3.4 Consolidation 190
6.3.5 Loess collapsibility 192
6.3.6 Triaxial compression 198
6.3.7 Unconfined compression 206
6.3.8 Compaction test 210
6.3.9 Direct shear test under consolidated-drained conditions 212
6.3.10 Reversal direct shear test 215
6.3.11 Tensile strength 215
6.3.12 Shrinkage test 219
6.3.13 Free swelling of clay 219
6.3.14 Swelling ratio 222
6.3.15 Swelling pressure 225
viii Contents

6.4 Tests for chemical properties 225

6.4.1 pH value 225
6.4.2 Content of soluble salt 228
6.4.3 Organic matter 239

7 Procedures of tests on rocks 243

7.1 Requirements of specimen 243
7.1.1 Water content 243
7.1.2 Determination of grain density 243
7.1.3 Density 243
7.1.4 Water absorption 244
7.1.5 Slake durability 244
7.1.6 Swelling properties 244
7.1.7 Uniaxial compressive strength 244
7.1.8 Strength in triaxial compression 245
7.1.9 Indirect tensile strength by Brazilian test 245
7.1.10 Shear strength of rock joints 245
7.1.11 Point load strength 245
7.1.12 Wave velocity by ultrasonic pulse transmission technique 245
7.2 Description of specimens 246
7.2.1 Water content 246
7.2.2 Grain density 246
7.2.3 Density and water absorption 246
7.2.4 Slake durability 246
7.2.5 Swelling properties 246
7.2.6 Uniaxial compressive strength 246
7.2.7 Shear strength of rock joints 247
7.2.8 Point load strength 247
7.2.9 Wave velocity by ultrasonic pulse transmission 247
7.3 Physical tests 247
7.3.1 Water content 247
7.3.2 Grain density 248
7.3.3 Density 250
7.3.4 Water absorption 253
7.3.5 Slake durability 254
7.4 Mechanical tests 256
7.4.1 Swelling properties 256
7.4.2 Uniaxial compressive strength 259
7.4.3 Durability under freezing and thawing conditions 261
7.4.4 Deformability in uniaxial compression 262
7.4.5 Strength in triaxial compression 264
7.4.6 Indirect tensile strength by Brazilian test 266
 Contents ix

7.4.7 Shear strength of rock joints 268

7.4.8 Point load strength 270
7.4.9 Wave velocity by ultrasonic pulse transmission 271
7.4.10 Rebound hardness 272

8 Data analysis and documentation of geotechnical testing 275

8.1 Physical tests on soils 275
8.1.1 Water content 275
8.1.2 Density 276
8.1.3 Specific gravity of soil solids 276
8.1.4 Particle size distribution 277
8.1.5 Atterberg limits 278
8.1.6 Relative density of cohesionless soils 282
8.2 Mechanical tests on soils 282
8.2.1 California Bearing Ratio 282
8.2.2 Modulus of resilience 283
8.2.3 Penetration test 284
8.2.4 Consolidation 285
8.2.5 Loess collapsibility 288
8.2.6 Triaxial compression 288
8.2.7 Unconfined compression 295
8.2.8 Compaction 295
8.2.9 Consolidated-drained direct shear test 297
8.2.10 Reversal direct shear test 297
8.2.11 Tensile strength 299
8.2.12 Free swelling test of clay 299
8.2.13 Swelling ratio 299
8.2.14 Swelling pressure 299
8.2.15 Shrinkage 300
8.3 Chemical tests on soils 301
8.3.1 Content of soluble salt 301
8.3.2 Content of organic matter 305
8.4 Physical tests on rocks 305
8.4.1 Water content 305
8.4.2 Grain density 305
8.4.3 Density 306
8.4.4 Water absorption 306
8.4.5 Slake durability 307
8.5 Mechanical tests on rocks 307
8.5.1 Swelling properties 307
8.5.2 Uniaxial compressive strength 307
8.5.3 Durability under freezing and thawing conditions 308
x Contents

8.5.4 Deformability in uniaxial compression 308

8.5.5 Strength in triaxial compression 308
8.5.6 Indirect tensile strength by Brazilian test 310
8.5.7 Shear strength of rock joints 310
8.5.8 Point load test 310
8.5.9 Wave velocity by ultrasonic pulse transmission 311
8.5.10 Rebound hardness 313

PART 3
Comparison of test standards 317
9 Comparison of test methods for soil 319
9.1 Chemical tests 319
9.1.1 pH value 319
9.1.2 Content of soluble salt 320
9.1.3 Organic matter 320
9.2 Physical tests 320
9.2.1 Water content 320
9.2.2 Density 335
9.2.3 Specific gravity of soil solids 335
9.2.4 Particle size distribution 338
9.2.5 Atterberg limits of soil 343
9.2.6 Relative density of cohesionless soil 346
9.3 Mechanical tests 348
9.3.1 Permeability test 348
9.3.2 Compaction test 360
9.3.3 Swelling ratio and swelling pressure of cohesive soil 360
9.3.4 California Bearing Ratio 364
9.3.5 Consolidation 364
9.3.6 Direct shear test 364
9.3.7 Reversal direct shear test 370
9.3.8 Unconfined compressive 377
9.3.9 Undrained shear strength in triaxial compression 377

10 Comparison of rock tests 391

10.1 Physical tests on rocks 391
10.1.1 Water content 391
10.1.2 Grain density 391
10.1.3 Dry density 391
10.1.4 Absorption 393
10.1.5 Slake durability 396
10.2 Mechanical tests on rocks 396
10.2.1 Swelling properties 396
 Contents xi

10.2.2 Uniaxial compressive strength 396

10.2.3 Durability under freezing and thawing conditions 404
10.2.4 Deformability in uniaxial compression 404
10.2.5 The strength in triaxial compression 404
10.2.6 Splitting tensile strength 404
10.2.7 Point load strength 404
10.2.8 The sound velocity by ultrasonic pulse transmission technique 412
10.2.9 Rebound hardness 412

PART 4
Appendices 415
Appendix I Reference value of basic parameters of soil 417
1.1 Engineering classification of soils 419
1.2 The state division of soil 421
1.3 Physical and mechanical parameters of soil 424
1.4 Chemical parameters of soil 432

Appendix II Reference value of basic parameters of rock 434

2.1 Engineering classification of rock 435
2.2 Physical and mechanical parameters of rock 437
2.3 Dynamic parameter 441

Appendix III Basic geotechnical engineering terms 443

3.1 Physical index 443
3.2 Mechanical index 446
3.3 Thermal index 451
3.4 Chemical index 451

Appendix IV Common physical quantities and unit

conversion for geotechnical testing 452

Index 467
Figures

1.1 Phase diagram of soil 4

1.2 Grain size distribution curve[3]8
1.3 Dry density–moisture content relationship of fine-grained
soils under different compaction efforts 12
1.4 Compaction curve of coarse-grained soils 13
1.5 Relationship between linear shrinkage rate and water content[9]14
1.6 Internal force and stress 19
1.7 Stress is decomposed into normal stress and shear stress[13]19
1.8 Stress state of a point (three-dimensional state)[14]20
1.9 Principal stress state of a point[14]20
1.10 Mohr circle in three-dimensional state[15]21
1.11 Plane stress problem[16]22
1.12 Stress state of a point (planar state)[14]23
1.13 Mohr circle in two-dimensional state 23
1.14 Soil compression curve[3]26
1.15 Curve of soil rebound versus recompression[4]29
1.16 Consolidation model of saturated soil[4]30
1.17 Typical stress distribution[4]32
1.18 Relationship between average degree of
consolidation U and time factor Tv[12, 18]33
1.19 Shear strength envelop of soil[19]34
1.20 Limit stress state of soil 35
1.21 Change of stress state of a point in soil 35
1.22 Movement of Mohr circle because of the change of porewater pressure 36
1.23 Peak and residual strengths of soil[4]39
2.1 Typical curve of stress vs. strain of rock[5]49
2.2 Typical rock stress–strain curve before peak strength 50
2.3 Full stress–strain curve used for predicting rock burst[5]51
2.4 Full stress–strain curve for predicting creep damage[2, 6]51
2.5 Full stress–strain curve predicts failure under cyclic loading conditions[5]52
2.6 Initial, tangent and secant moduli 53
2.7 Failure states in uniaxial compression test[5]54
2.8 Strength envelope 56
2.9 Determination of material failure with Mohr envelope
1 – unbroken; 2 – critical; 3 – failed; and 4 – strength envelope. 58
xiv Figures

2.10 Mohr-Coulomb strength 59

2.11 Hyperbolic strength[6]60
2.12 Quadratic parabolic strength 61
2.13 Stresses on the periphery of a unit with a crack
inclined at an angle β to the maximum principal stress[3]62
2.14 Fissure propagation during uniaxial tension 62
3.1 Relationship between JCS, Schmidt hardness and rock density[2]77
3.2 Standard joint profiles and the JRC values[4]78
3.3 Fractal method for measuring joint[4]79
4.1 Flowchart for setting up the ASTM Standard 97
4.2 Flowchart for development of BS 99
4.3 Flowchart of setting up an ISRM suggested method 104
4.4 Flowchart of standardization in Japan 110
4.5 Flowchart for establishing test standards in South Africa 112
4.6 Flowchart for establishing a standard in Singapore 113
5.1 Drying oven 122
5.2 Balance 122
5.3 Cutting ring 123
5.4 Pycnometer 123
5.5 Water bath 124
5.6 Sand bath 124
5.7 Electronic balance 124
5.8 Test sieves 125
5.9 Mechanical sieve shaker 125
5.10 Hydrometer 126
5.11 Measuring cylinder 126
5.12 4%(NaPO3)6 solution 127
5.13 5% acidic silver nitrate solution 128
5.14 5% acid barium chloride solution 128
5.15 Cone Penetrometer 129
5.16 Cone 129
5.17 Long-stem funnel 130
5.18 Conical stopper 130
5.19 Blade 131
5.20 Cylindrical metal mold 131
5.21 Vibrating fork 131
5.22 Hammer 132
5.23 Compaction modular 132
5.24 Hammer 132
5.25 Extruder 133
5.26 Mold 134
5.27 Swell measurement device 134
5.28 Perforated swell plate 134
5.29 Loading machine 135
5.30 Penetration piston 135
5.31 Deformation measuring device 136
5.32 Annular surcharge weights 136
 Figures xv

5.33 Soaking tank 136

5.34 Lever pressure device 137
5.35 Constant head permeability device 138
5.36 Variable head permeability device 138
5.37 Loading device 139
5.38 Strain-controlled triaxial apparatus 140
5.39 Strain-controlled unconfined compression apparatus 141
5.40 Strain-controlled direct shear apparatus 142
5.41 Universal testing machine 143
5.42 Wire cutting machine 143
5.43 pH meter 145
5.44 Electric magnetic stirrer 145
5.45 Electric oscillator 146
5.46 Slake durability apparatus 153
5.47 Drilling machine 154
5.48 Cutting machine 154
5.49 Stone mill 155
5.50 Lathe 155
5.51 Point load apparatus 157
5.52 Vernier caliper 157
6.1 Determination of water content of soil 163
6.2 Determination of soil density (cutting-ring method) 165
6.3 Determination of soil density (wax-sealing method) 166
6.4 Determination of specific gravity of soil particle (pycnometer method) 168
6.5 Determination of particle size distribution of soil (sieving method) 170
6.6 Determination of particle size distribution of soil (hydrometer method) 171
6.7 Determination of Atterberg limits of soil (cone penetrometer method) 175
6.8 Determination of Atterberg limits of soil (rolling method) 176
6.9 Determination of the relative density of cohesionless soils
(minimum dry density) 179
6.10 Determination of the relative density of cohesionless
soils (maximum dry density) 180
6.11 Determination of California bearing ratio of laboratory-compacted soil 182
6.12 Determine of modulus of resilience of soil 184
6.13 Determination of permeability of soil (constant-head method) 186
6.14 Determination of permeability of soil (variable-head method) 187
6.15 Determination of consolidation properties of soil 191
6.16 Collapse characteristics of loess (coefficient of collapsibility) 193
6.17 Collapse characteristics of loess (coefficient
of deformation because of leaching) 194
6.18 Collapse characteristics of loess (coefficient of self-weight collapsibility) 195
6.19 Collapse characteristics of loess (initial pressure of collapsibility) 196
6.20 Determination of unconsolidated-undrained triaxial compression of soil 202
6.21 Determination of consolidated undrained triaxial compression of soil 204
6.22 Determination of multi-stage loading of soil. a)
Unconsolidated-undrained triaxial compression. b)
Consolidated undrained triaxial compression 207
xvi Figures

6.23 Determination of unconfined compressive strength of soil 209

6.24 Determination of compaction characteristics of soil 211
6.25 Determination of direct shear of soil under consolidated-drained conditions 213
6.26 Determination of residual shear strength of soil 216
6.27 Determination of tensile strength of soil 217
6.28 Determination of soil shrinkage 220
6.29 Determination of free swelling of clay 221
6.30 Determination of no-load swelling ratio of soil 223
6.31 Determination of load swelling ratio of soil 224
6.32 Determination of swelling pressure of soil 226
6.33 Determination of the pH value of soil 227
6.34 Preparation of leaching solution 229
6.35 Determination of the total mass of soluble salt 231
6.36 Determination of CO32- and HCO3-232
6.37 Determination of Cl-233
6.38 Determination of SO42-235
6.39 Determination of Ca2+237
6.40 Determination of Mg2+238
6.41 Determination of Na+ and K+240
6.42 Determination of the organic matter of soil 241
7.1 Flowchart of determining water content 248
7.2 Flowchart of determining grain density 249
7.3 Flowchart of determining rock density (direct measurement) 251
7.4 Flowchart of determining rock density (water displacement) 252
7.5 Flowchart of determining water absorption 253
7.6 Flowchart of determining slake durability 255
7.7 Flowchart of determining the free swelling strain of unconfined specimen 256
7.8 Flowchart of determining the swelling strain index of confined specimen 258
7.9 Flowchart for determining the swelling pressure 259
7.10 Flowchart for determining uniaxial compressive strength 260
7.11 Flowchart for determining slake durability under
freezing and thawing conditions 261
7.12 Flowchart for determining the deformability in uniaxial compression 263
7.13 Flowchart for determining the rock strength in triaxial compression 265
7.14 Flowchart for determining the indirect tensile strength (Brazilian test) 267
7.15 Flowchart for determining the shear strength of rock joints 269
7.16 Flowchart for determining point load strength 270
7.17 Flowchart for determining the wave velocity
(ultrasonic pulse transmission) 272
7.18 Flowchart for determining the rebound hardness of rocks 273
8.1 Particle size distribution (sieving method) 277
8.2 Particle size distribution (Hydrometer method) 279
8.3 Particle size distribution (Joint analysis) 279
8.4 Relationship between cone penetration and water content 281
8.5 Relationship between cone penetration and water content 281
8.6 Curve of stress vs. penetration 283
8.7 Curve of stress vs. rebound deformation 284
 Figures xvii

8.8 e – p curve 286

8.9 e – log p curve 287
8.10 Time square root scale for t90287
8.11 Time logarithm scale for t50288
8.12 Relationship between pressure and coefficient of collapsibility 289
8.13 Deviator stress – axial strain curve 291
8.14 Deviator stress – axial strain curve 291
8.15 Mohr circles at failure and the corresponding failure envelopes 292
8.16 Effective stress ratio against axial strain. 292
8.17 Pore pressure against axial strain 292
8.18 Effective stress path 293
8.19 Envelope of consolidated-undrained shear strength 293
8.20 Curve of lateral strain and axial strain 294
8.21 Relationship between the principal stress difference
and the axial strain of unconsolidated-undrained shear 294
8.22 Typical relationship between axial stress and strain 295
8.23 Relationship of dry density and water content 296
8.24 Typical curves of shear stress vs. shear displacement 297
8.25 A Mohr-coulomb envelope 298
8.26 Typical curves of shear stress vs. shear displacement 298
8.27 Relationship between shear strength and normal stress 298
8.28 The curve between linear shrinkage and water content 300
8.29 Mohr-Coulomb criterion 309
8.30 σ1 – σ3 curve 309
8.31 P – D e2 curve 311
8.32 The direction of α 313
9.1 (a) Process of sieving method in GB, and
(b) Sieving of fine-grained fractions in GB 347
9.2 Procedures of sieving method in BS 348
9.3 Procedures of sieving method in ASTM 349
9.4 Membrane correction in BS 390
10.1 Correct loading to test the anisotropy of point load strength 412
Tables

1.1 Common physical property index of soil and basic conversion formula 5
1.2 Fraction classification in Chinese, British
and American standards (grain size (mm)) 7
1.3 Classification of hardness of clayey soil[4]10
2.1 Classification of rock strengths 47
2.2 Failure modes of rock under triaxial compression[6]57
2.3 Comparison of the theories of rock strength 57
3.1 Classification of structural planes in rock mass[2]66
3.2 Description of spacing between structural planes[7]69
3.3 Classification of aperture 70
3.4 Rating of rock strength in RMR 71
3.5 RQD ratings 71
3.6 RMR rankings of joint spacing (most influential set) 71
3.7 Ratings of joints in RMR 72
3.8 Rating of groundwater condition in RMR 72
3.9 Modification of RMR values for joint orientations 72
3.10 RMR classification of rock mass 72
3.11 Values of Jn[10]73
3.12 Values of Jr[10]73
3.13 Values of Ja[10]74
3.14 Value of Jw[10]74
3.15 Value of SRF[10]75
3.16 Rock mass classification in Q system[10]76
3.17 GSI[14]80
3.18 Values of mi of various rocks[14]81
3.19 Values of D[15]82
4.1 China’s standards for geotechnical testing 89
4.2 Geotechnical test standards in ASTM 94
4.3 Geotechnical test standards in BSI 98
4.4 Classification of geotechnical tests in BS 100
4.5 ISRM suggested methods for rock tests 103
4.6 Geotechnical test methods in AS 105
4.7 Japanese geotechnical test standards 109
4.8 Geotechnical test standards in South Africa 111
5.1 Laboratory tests for soils 116
xx Tables

5.2 Tests on rocks 120

5.3 Required features of rammer and mold 133
6.1 Test sampling numbers (quantity) and soil sieving standards 160
6.2 Mass requirement for specimen 172
6.3 Allowable maximum particle size of specimen (mm) 199
6.4 the estimating methods of SO42-236
8.1 Data analysis in test for water content 275
8.2 Data analysis in test for soil density 276
8.3 Data analysis in test for specific gravity of soil solids 276
8.4 Data analysis in test for particle size distribution (sieving method) 277
8.5 Data analysis in test for particle size distribution (hydrometer method) 278
8.6 Correction coefficient of specific gravity of soil 279
8.7 Correction of suspension temperature 280
8.8 Data analysis in test for Atterberg limits 282
8.9 Data analysis in test for relative density of sand 282
8.10 Data analysis in CBR test 283
8.11 Data analysis in test for resilience modulus 284
8.12 Data analysis in penetration test 284
8.13 Data analysis in consolidation test 285
8.14 Data analysis in test for loess collapsibility 289
8.15 Data analysis in triaxial compression test 290
8.16 Data analysis in unconfined compression test 295
8.17 Data analysis in compaction test 296
8.18 Data analysis in direct shear test 297
8.19 Data analysis in reversal direct shear test 298
8.20 Data analysis in test for tensile strength 299
8.21 Data analysis in free swelling test of clay 299
8.22 Data analysis in swelling ratio test 299
8.23 Data analysis in swelling pressure test 299
8.24 Data analysis in shrinkage test 300
8.25 Data analysis in test for total soluble salt content 301
8.26 Data analysis in test for carbonate and bicarbonate content 301
8.27 Data analysis in test for chloride content 302
8.28 Data analysis in test for sulfate content (EDTA Method) 303
8.29 Data analysis in test for calcium ion content 303
8.30 Data analysis in test for magnesium ion content 304
8.31 Data analysis in test for sodium and potassium ion content 304
8.32 Data analysis in test for organic matter content 305
8.33 Data analysis in test for water content of rock 305
8.34 Data analysis in test for density of rock grains 305
8.35 Data analysis in density test (Direct measurement method) 306
8.36 Data analysis in density test (Water displacement method) 306
8.37 Conversion between wet and dry densities of rock 306
8.38 Data analysis in test for water absorption 306
8.39 Data analysis in test for slake-durability of rock 307
8.40 Data analysis in test for rock swelling property 307
8.41 Data analysis in test for uniaxial compressive strength 307
 Tables xxi

8.42 Data analysis in test for durability under

freezing and thawing conditions 308
8.43 Data analysis in uniaxial compression test for deformability 308
8.44 Data analysis in test for strength in triaxial compression 308
8.45 Data analysis in Brazilian test for indirect tensile strength 310
8.46 Data analysis in test for shear strength of rock joints 310
8.47 Data analysis in point load test 310
8.48 Data analysis in test for wave velocity 311
8.49 Data analysis in test for rebound hardness 313
8.50 Correction of rebound value when the angle between the
axis of the rebounder and the horizontal direction is α 313
9.1 Comparison of determination of the pH value 321
9.2 Comparison of determination of total soluble salt 323
9.3 Determination of chloride ions 325
9.4 Determination of sulfate ions 327
9.5 Comparison of determinations of the organic matter of soils 332
9.6 Drying Method for determining water content of soil 336
9.7 Specimen size and balance in ASTM 338
9.8 Comparison of direct measurement methods of density of soil 339
9.9 Comparison of wax-sealing methods for density of specimens 341
9.10 Scope of methods for determination of specific gravity of soil particle 343
9.11 Comparison of pycnometer methods in different standards 344
9.12 Required amount of specimen in ASTM for pycnometer test 346
9.13 Limiting particle sizes (mm) in different standards 346
9.14 Comparison of sieving methods 350
9.15 Mass requirement for specimen in GB sieve analysis 352
9.16 Mass requirement for specimens in ASTM sieve analysis 352
9.17 Mass requirement for specimens in BS sieve analysis 352
9.18 Differences in particle size distribution analysis of different standards 353
9.19 Methods for determining Atterberg limits 356
9.20 Comparison of cone penetrometer 356
9.21 Correction coefficient for calculating the liquid
limit for BS cone penetrometer method 357
9.22 Comparison of Casagrande method in GB, ASTM and BS 357
9.23 Correct coefficient for liquid limit test in ASTM (Casagrande method) 358
9.24 Correct coefficient for liquid limit test in BS (Casagrande method) 359
9.25 Comparison of rolling method 359
9.26 Comparison of the shrinking dish method 360
9.27 Determination of minimum dry density 361
9.28 Required mass of specimen in ASTM 361
9.29 Comparison of maximum dry density test 362
9.30 Required mass of specimen in ASTM for maximum dry density 362
9.31 Comparison of determination of permeability of soils 363
9.32 Basic requirements of compaction in different standards 365
9.33 Comparison of compaction tests 366
9.34 Requirement of samples in BS 367
9.35 Requirement of static time of specimen in ASTM 367
xxii Tables

9.36 Comparison of swelling ratio in different standards 367

9.37 Comparison of swelling pressure tests in different standards 368
9.38 Comparison of CBR between GB, ASTM and BS 369
9.39 Consolidation test contrast 371
9.40 Comparison of direct shear test in different standards 374
9.41 Reversal direct shears test comparison 376
9.42 Comparison of unconfined compressive
strength test in different standards 378
9.43 Comparison of unconsolidated-undrained test 380
9.44 Comparison of consolidated undrained triaxial test 384
9.45 Drain correction in BS 390
10.1 Comparison of water content tests 392
10.2 Comparison of grain density tests 393
10.3 Comparison of dry density tests 394
10.4 Comparison of absorption tests 397
10.5 Comparison of slake durability tests 399
10.6 Comparison of determining the swelling strain
developed in an unconfined rock specimen 400
10.7 Comparison of determining the swelling strain index for
a radially confined rock specimen with axial surcharge 401
10.8 Comparison of determining the swelling pressure
index under conditions of zero volume change 402
10.9 Comparison of uniaxial compressive strength tests 403
10.10 Comparison of determining the durability
under freezing and thawing conditions 405
10.11 Comparison of determining the deformability
in uniaxial compression 406
10.12 Comparison of determining the strength in triaxial compression 408
10.13 Comparison of splitting tensile strength tests 409
10.14 Comparison of point load strength tests 410
10.15 K values in ASTM 412
10.16 Comparison of determining the sound velocity
by ultrasonic pulse transmission technique 413
10.17 ISRM requirements for specimens of different shapes 414
10.18 Comparison of rebound hardness tests 414
I.1 Soil classification by particle size distribution[1–4]419
I.2 Unified soil classification system[3][5][6]419
I.3 Soil classification by plasticity index[5]421
I.4 Classification of clays by sensitivity[7]421
I.5 Soil activity related to swelling[8]421
I.6 Soil classification by compressibility[5]422
I.7 Soil classification by overconsolidation ratio[5]422
I.8 Soil hardness classification by undrained shear
strength and pre-consolidation pressure[9,10]422
I.9 Classification of frost heave capacity of soil[11]422
I.10 Degree of saturation of sand in various state[29]422
 Tables xxiii

I.11 Compactness classification of sand by standard

penetration number and relative density[6,12]422
I.12 Compactness classification of sand by void ratio (e)[6,12]422
I.13 Compactness classification of gravelly soil
by number of cone compaction[6]423
I.14 Classification of cohesive soil by activity number[12]423
I.15 Consistency of cohesive soil[12]423
I.16 Sensitivity of saturated cohesive soil[5]423
I.17 Compressibility of cohesive soil[12]423
I.18 Consistency of clay in terms of unconfined compressive strength[12]423
I.19 Compactness of silt by void ratio (e)[6]424
I.20 Humidity condition of silt[6]424
I.21 Classification of collapsibility of loess[5,12]424
I.22 Expansion potential of swelling soil[12]424
I.23 Classification of frozen area by frozen index[13]424
I.24 Classification of frozen soil by thawing compressibility[12]424
I.25 Typical values of basic physical parameters of soil[5,14–18]424
I.26 Physical and mechanical parameters range of soil[12,14,16,19]425
I.27 The average physical and mechanical parameters value of soil[12]425
I.28 Reference range of consistency of soil foundation in dry and wet state[13]426
I.29 Reference value of coefficient of earth pressure at rest[11,17,20]427
I.30 Reference value of coefficient of lateral pressure and Poisson’s ratio[5,15]427
I.31 Reference range of coefficient of permeability of various soil[4,7,12,15,16,21,22]427
I.32 Viscosity of water, η (mPa·s)[5]428
I.33 Pore pressure coefficient, A[4][5]428
I.34 Pore pressure coefficient, B[23]428
I.35 Reference ranges of void ratio, porosity and dry weight of common
sandy and gravel soils[4,10]429
I.36 Reference ranges of elastic modulus of sand[4]429
I.37 Typical values of maximum and minimum porosities of soils consisting
of nonclay minerals[12]429
I.38 Typical values of porosity and void ratio of soils consisting of various
shapes of particles[12]429
I.39 Typical values of angle of internal friction of some minerals[12]430
I.40 Allowable bearing capacity of gravelly soil, [σ0] (kPa)[12]430
I.41 Physical index of common clay minerals[4,24,25]430
I.42 Modulus of resilience of clay[26]430
1.43 Physical parameters of silt[5,14,15]431
I.44 Shear strength parameters of loess[12]431
I.45 Basic value of Q3, Q41 collapsible loess bearing capacity, f0[12]431
I.46 Parameter ranges of swelling soil[14]431
I.47 Parameter ranges of frozen soil[27,28]432
I.48 Coefficient of soil type on freezing depth[11]432
I.49 Reference range of organic matter[5]432
I.50 Classification of saline soil by salt content[12]432
I.51 Classification of saline soil by chemical composition[12]432
xxiv Tables

I.52 Solubility of soluble and medium salts in water[12]433

II.1 Classification of rock material strength[6]435
II.2 Relation between in situ rock quality and RQD[29]435
II.3 Classification of integrality of rock mass[6]435
II.4 Classification of rocks mass weathering zones[12]435
II.5 Gamble’s slake durability classification[30]436
II.6 Reference range of general physical parameters in rock[12,30–42]437
II.7 Reference range of coefficient of permeability in rock[33,34,43,44]438
II.8 Reference range of strength structural parameters in rock[12,34,36,39,41,45–47]438
II.9 Reference range of unconfined compressive strength in rock[41,47]439
II.10 Reference range of point load strength index in rock[48]439
II.11 Reference range of structural plane shear strength parameters[34][36]440
II.12 Reference range of shear strength of various rock masses[34]440
II.13 Allowable bearing pressure in rock [σ0] (kPa)[12]441
II.14 Reference range of elastic wave velocity and
dynamic elastic parameters in rock[12,31,34,45,47,49]441
IV.1 Common physical quantity units 453
IV.2 Length conversion between units 454
IV.3 Area conversion between units 455
IV.4 Volume conversion between units 456
IV.5 Mass conversion between units 456
IV.6 Force conversion between units 456
IV.7 Time conversion between units 456
IV.8 Density conversion between units 456
IV.9 Dynamic viscosity conversion between units 457
IV.10 Kinematic viscosity conversion between units 457
IV.11 Velocity conversion between units 458
IV.12 Temperature conversion between units 458
IV.13 Pressure conversion between units 459
IV.14 Volume flow rate conversion between units 460
IV.15 Work conversion between units 461
IV.16 Power conversion between units 461
IV.17 Mass heat capacity conversion between units 461
IV.18 Thermal conductivity conversion between units 462
IV.19 Coefficient of Heat Transfer conversion between units 463
Biography

Yanrong Li was born in 1978 in Shanxi Province,

China. He received a BEng in hydrogeology and
engineering geology from Taiyuan University of
Technology in 2000, an MSc in geological engineering
from Chengdu University of Technology in 2003, and
a PhD in engineering geology from the University
of Hong Kong in 2009. He is now a full professor
of engineering geology at Taiyuan University of
Technology, where he is also a founding director of
the Collaborative Innovation Center for Geohazard
Process and Prevention. He worked for ten years as a
practicing engineer and field geologist in Hong Kong,
Australia and China before turning to be a professor.
He served as an associate editor of the KSCE Journal
of Civil Engineering from 2012 to 2014 and now
serves as an editorial board member of the Bulletin
of Engineering Geology and the Environment. He
is a Chartered Geologist (CGeol) of the Geological
Society of London and a Professional Member (MIMMM) of The Institute of Materials,
Minerals and Mining. His research interests include loess geology and surface processes,
engineering properties of soils and rocks, and geohazard investigation and mitigation.
Foreword

Standardization is a fundamental process for all human endeavors that are to be repeated
and require comparable outcomes. Activities carried out and products manufactured using
standardized methods can be trusted to have the same quality. Standardization is particularly
important for testing as it allows the results to be attributed only to the relevant properties of
the tested material or medium. Consequently, tests conducted by different laboratories on the
same material/medium are expected to yield identical results, which in turn provide a basis
for development of extensive databases for the properties determined. More importantly, test
results are often used in design of structures and decision making, which requires familiarity
with and confidence in the methods used to produce them.
It is therefore not surprising to see numerous national standards: however, many test meth-
ods in these standards involve significant variations. Combined with a language barrier, such
variations can lead to notably dissimilar results. In this context, I am delighted to see that Dr.
Yanrong Li’s long and intense efforts have led to a comprehensive test manual: Handbook of
Geotechnical Testing: Basic Theory, Procedures and Comparison of Standards. This book pres-
ents the basic theories of soil and rock mechanics and geotechnical laboratory testing methods
in an easily comprehensible form, and integrates the testing methods recommended by Chinese
and international standards. It also includes a detailed summary of the international industry
standard system, history of its development and of the Chinese and other widely used national
standards, including those of the United Kingdom, the United States, Singapore, South Africa,
Australia and Japan. The flow charts and tables make this book highly accessible. Highlighting
differences and similarities among the national standards around the world will be particularly
helpful when comparing the test results obtained with different standards. Similarly, the appen-
dices provided in this book are of great value; summary of geotechnical parameters and the pairs
of Chinese-English definitions for all relevant terms may be a vital source for the Chinese users.
This book will no doubt help raise the awareness of the differences between the stan-
dards and make the comparisons easier and more accurate. In this sense, it has the content
and presentation style to play the vital role of a catalyzer in improving Chinese national
standards in geotechnical testing. I highly recommend this book as a reference manual for
soil and rock mechanics laboratories, libraries, and the researchers and engineers, specifi-
cally those using multiple standards in their projects.

Adnan Aydin
Professor
The University of Mississippi
February 2019
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “Study your spelling, Charlie.”
“Charlie, come up here and stand by my desk.”
And so throughout the year, Miss Marlowe ignored the facts that
ought to have led to a reformation of this little boy’s habits.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

When a child shows he has not been given careful teaching relative
to sex hygiene, go to his mother and advise her to take the child to a
physician. Explain the physical as well as the moral and mental help
it may be to the child to have one of two very slight operations
performed, after which, with proper diet and bathing, the boy may
easily forget his wrong habits.

COMMENTS

Children can best be taught at home on matters of sex hygiene.

This is especially true of children in the lower grades. Mothers, as a
rule, gladly respond to a teacher’s or physician’s suggestions for
improving the health of their children.

ILLUSTRATION (FOURTH GRADE)

Miss Morris, a fourth grade teacher, School Nurse

called together the mothers of her pupils Instructs
and asked a trained nurse who lived in the village to address them on
sex hygiene. After the talk, Miss Morris said: “The subject just
discussed is a most important one. I shall be very glad, indeed, to
make reports to any mothers whose children, in my judgment, need
attention relative to this subject, if it is the wish of the mothers here
present for me to do so.”
A vote was taken and the mothers thus expressed their desire to
have such help as the teacher could render. Thereafter she felt
perfectly free to go to them whenever it seemed necessary to discuss
this great subject, so pertinent to a child’s welfare.
CASE 153 (FOURTH GRADE)

Miss Vane saw a note fall upon Mary Pratt’s desk. She said,
“Mary, bring that note to me.”
The child, she knew had not yet read the note. Greatly
embarrassed, Mary looked questioningly at Clyde Mitchel before
starting toward Miss Vane.
Contrary to the courtesy which teachers Improper Notes
admonish pupils to show, Miss Vane stood
up, opened the note and perused it in the presence of the school.
While she was looking at the note, Clyde Mitchel buried his scarlet
face in his book.
“You wrote this note, didn’t you, Clyde?” asked Miss Vane.
Clyde only nodded “Yes,” and burrowed even deeper into his book.
“This is a shameful note,” said Miss Vane. “It contains words that
no child should ever write or speak. You may stay after school,
Clyde.”
The boys waited at the second corner from the school house for
Clyde after school.
In about ten minutes Clyde came running toward them.
“What did she do, Clyde?” they asked.
“Aw, nothing; she just preached a little and gave me a few licks
that wouldn’t hurt a baby.”
“What was in the note, anyway?”
He told them exactly what was in the note, and a loud “Hurray!”
went up from the group of listeners. The subject of conversation
among these boys as they went on down the street was as full of
unclean words and suggestions as the worst boys in the group could
think up.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

If you can not deal with sex subjects privately, with pupils in the
lower grades, do not deal with them at all. Miss Vane made a mistake
in reading or referring to the note in the presence of others. In her
efforts to suppress such foul communications she occasioned a talk
upon the unnamable topics by all of her own room and many in other
rooms as well.

COMMENTS

Public punishment of culprits who offend by talking or writing on

sex subjects only occasions more such talk. It is like trying to quench
fire by brandishing a fire-brand which emits live sparks in every
direction, each one of which starts a conflagration.

ILLUSTRATION (THIRD GRADE)

When Sadie Moore picked up a note from Avoid Spreading

the floor and handed it to Miss Dietz, who Harm
taught the third grade, the teacher allowed no one to see her when
she read the note. She said privately to Sadie: “I desire that you say
nothing to any one about that note. That is the best way to help me in
this matter.” She studied the handwriting and note paper and fixed
the blame to a certainty upon Conrad James. She resolved at once to
keep sharp eyes on that boy, unknown to him, and to see that he had
no chance to have unrestricted conservation with other pupils for a
while. She supervised all play periods and thereby assured herself
that no harm should come to any one of her pupils through
association with him.

CASE 154 (SEVENTH GRADE)

Pearl Goodwin’s mother was a widow of Morbid Sex-

ill-repute in the village. The eighth grade consciousness
girls slighted Pearl hourly. They avoided sitting with her whenever
possible; they gave her too wide a space at the blackboard while the
rest of them stood so close together as to crowd their work; she went
sadly to and from school, walking alone, for none of the others would
walk with her.
 The teacher, Miss Terman, herself a native of the village,
understood, and made no effort to change the situation.
One day Pearl brought a shameful note to Miss Terman, saying
that she found it on her desk. Miss Terman was shocked and made
public inquiry as to where the note came from. Some of the girls felt
sorry for Pearl and showed it by their attitude toward her. The writer
was not discovered. Every day, thereafter, for a week, Pearl showed a
similar note to Miss Terman, and the mystery grew and with it
sympathy for Pearl. Daily Miss Terman made a speech about the
notes and asked help in finding out the writer.
Finally, in despair, she consulted the superintendent of the school.
When he heard the history of the case he said:
“I believe that Pearl herself is the writer of those notes. Her mind
has been poisoned on the sex subject by taunts. I believe she is the
only one in your room who would write such notes.”
With this thought in mind, Miss Terman sought evidence of Pearl’s
guilt. She was not long in finding the half leaves in Pearl’s tablet from
which the paper for the notes had been torn. She even found Pearl
writing a note, and got her pitiful confession of taking this way to call
attention and sympathy to herself.
Miss Terman sentenced Pearl to isolation for the remainder of the
school year (about two months). She was compelled to take her seat
as soon as she arrived at school in the morning and at noon, to have
a separate recess from the others, and remain in her seat after school
closed until the other children had time to reach their homes.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Miss Terman should have drawn Pearl into the games of the other
girls early in the year. She should have said to the leader among the
girls, in private. “You have it in your hands to make a classmate
happy or miserable. You, yourself, will enjoy school better if no girl is
made sad and lonely. I know that the other girls will follow your lead
and, therefore, I desire that you invite Pearl Goodwin into your
school games and give her an opportunity to know and like good
company.”
COMMENTS

Miss Terman, by allowing the note-writing to be publicly known,

caused an epidemic of undesirable talk in her school. She kept this in
mind daily by her isolation program for Pearl. It is only when all are
concerned in a question of this kind that a public talk should be
made on questions of sex.

ILLUSTRATION (EIGHTH GRADE)

Enoch Fites found the disgraceful Hygienic Toilet

condition of the toilet rooms belonging to Rooms
his school to be a source of great temptation and danger to his
pupils. He first solved the general problem of winning his pupils’
confidence. He was a master in quietly introducing improvements in
the school. For example, he secured funds for a splendid clock, which
was connected with the Western Union Telegraph wires and was
corrected every hour. He established a manual training department
and set every boy in high school and in the eighth grade at a bench.
He opened up a domestic science department. He organized tennis
teams and put through a large number of important measures.
When the appropriate time came, he found no difficulty in putting
the toilet rooms for boys in a sanitary condition and keeping them
so. He remarked to a visitor,
“I have not inspected those rooms for two months, but I know just
how they are kept.”
“How in the world do you manage it?”
“I put it up to my boys. I made the toilet rooms entirely adequate
for their needs and then put it up to my boys to keep them clean.
They have never disappointed me.”
3. Meeting the Boy and Girl Question

CASE 155 (HIGH SCHOOL)

 When Mr. Harley went to take up his work as superintendent of
the Jamesville High School, he said to a teacher who had served
there the year before: “I believe in preparedness—what was your
greatest disciplinary problem last year?”
“Parties, without a doubt,” she replied. High School
“The last party or the coming party Parties
occupied the minds of the students to the exclusion of their studies.
They were out late at night and consequently did mediocre work,
even the brightest of them.”
“Was nothing done to stop party going?”
“Well, you see, many of the parents upheld the pupils in what they
called their social education, so Mr. Turner (the former
superintendent) didn’t try to prohibit parties.”
“I’m glad to have this information,” replied Mr. Harley.
Later, when the pupils were known to be planning a hallowe’en
party, Mr. Harley announced that he would suspend every pupil who
attended any party at any time during the school year, without first
securing his permission, and that such permission would be given
only very rarely.
A storm of protest from the pupils was seconded by several
mothers, who called upon Mr. Harley to discuss the social aspect of
education.
When, after a nerve-racking day, he told Mrs. Hines, the leading
society woman of the village, that he must carry out his own plans
unaided by the parents, he unwisely aroused the opposition of so
many of his patrons that his work in Jamesville was very seriously
handicapped and he resigned at the end of his first year there.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

A Parent-Teachers’ Club should be organized in every school. Early

in the year a meeting of the club should be devoted to the discussion
of out-of-school-hour entertainments. The superintendent should
have the pros and cons presented before the club by both parents
and teachers. The teacher who upholds parties should advise
mothers to talk often with their children upon the subject of
desirable companions; to forego all teasing of the sons and daughters
about “girls” and “beaux”; and to see to it that the young people have
wise chaperons.

COMMENTS

Much of the mischief that arises from parties is due to parents.

Realizing this to be the case, teachers should find a way to talk to
mothers about how to win and hold the confidence of their children
during the trying high school period. The girls should also be
admonished by their teachers to talk to their mothers freely about
their social affairs.

ILLUSTRATION 1 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Miss Fanson was a high school teacher who was justly admired by
the girls under her care. She had talked to the girls about the
deference and homage which they should show to their parents in
social matters. Alice Grant believed that Miss Fanson was exactly
right, hence was willing to act upon her teacher’s advice.
Since she had entered high school, boys had suddenly become very
interesting to Alice. She blushed one afternoon as she plucked up her
courage to reveal certain developments to her mother.
“Mother, the Freshmen are going to give a party, and a boy in my
German class has asked me to go. May I?” Her voice affected
indifference.
But Mrs. Grant knew her young daughter Retaining
and saw through that coolness. Her Alice Control
was excited and flushed and happy over a boy! And she stared
blankly for a moment as the realization forced its way. Then a
tempestuous refusal from a heart that resented her little girl’s
growing up sprang swiftly to her lips, but she kept back the words. It
did, indeed, hurt to have Alice begin to be a young lady, but could
even she, the most adoring of mothers, restrain time and the youth
that was blossoming in her child?
“I’ll have to think it over, Alice. I’ll tell you in the morning.”
 And Alice went to her studying, confident that, whatever her
mother decided, she would be just and allow only big reasons to
weigh with her.
Mrs. Grant thought it over and that night talked it over with her
husband.
“She’s absurdly young—only fifteen,” he objected.
“Yes, but absurdly natural, too, and strong in her desires. I fear, if I
refuse, it may only surround boys with a mysterious glamour for her,
and she might then be tempted to associate with them in spite of me,
and any secrecy or deceit just now is dangerous. And you know our
Alice is growing pretty.”
Mr. Grant regretted and bemoaned the loss of his little girl, but
agreed. “But who is this boy?” he demanded. “Do you know him?”
“No. But I’m going to know all her friends from now on.”
And next morning, when Alice, pink-cheeked and eager-eyed,
sought her mother’s decision, she welcomed the “Yes” with a little
squeal of delight.
“But I’ve been thinking, Alice,” her mother added, “that I’d like to
know the boys and girls you’re going with. Wouldn’t you like to ask
some of them over here some evening before the party?”
“Would I? Well, rather! Mother, you’re a dear.”
“And what about a dress. I suppose you’d like a new one?” Further
question was stifled by an enthusiastic hug.
So they talked of the party and the dress, and then it was not far to
“the boys” and Alice’s new feeling for them. And Mrs. Grant felt that
the sweet intimacy she was entering with this new daughter more
than compensated for the loss of the little girl, who had suddenly
become a young woman.
When Alice returned from the party her mother showed interest in
each detail that her daughter related. She remarked: “You must have
had loads of fun—what did you have to eat? What did you especially
like in the conduct of your classmates?” It is while such concrete
subjects are being discussed that much guidance can be given the
daughter in her formation of opinions as to what is proper or
improper conduct. A teacher who brings about such intimacy as this
incident illustrates has done much for both mother and daughter.
ILLUSTRATION 2 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Miss Canfield took hold of her work with genuine interest as

science teacher in the James Fisk High School. Her knowledge of girl
nature was sufficient to save her from many blunders. Mary Turner
was her problem. A giddy set was overturning nearly all of the
constructive work done for her by her teachers.
Miss Canfield decided to go over matters with Mrs. Turner, Mary’s
mother. In the conversation, Mrs. Turner saw where she must take a
hand in Mary’s affairs.
There was no doubt but what Cecily Overcoming
Gregg, a classmate, was having a bad Undesirable
influence on Mary. Mrs. Turner rocked Influences
fitfully between stitches and remembered how sweet and natural
Mary had been before she got so intimate with Cecily. But now she
was catching some of that young lady’s affected ways, and, Mrs.
Turner feared, some of her lack of modesty with boy companions.
Cecily was seventeen, and Mary, a year younger, respected her
opinions greatly, and gloated over her popularity with certain
overdressed and rather sporty youths who took her about to picture
shows and ice cream parlors. Cecily was slowly convincing Mary that
theirs was the type to admire.
And Mrs. Turner had unwittingly let Mary drift so far from her
influence of late, that she felt helpless. She dared say nothing openly
against Cecily. Mary would only flare up in defense and stand more
staunchly for her friend. If she laid down rules, Mary might secretly
break them, and if she tried to make subtle suggestions, the girl was
certain to pounce on her meaning and resent it.
Mary came home from school that day full of plans for her
birthday party.
“Cecily says I must get some new dance records for the victrola.
Ours are all passé. And I’m going to make little crepe paper favors, by
a cute pattern that Cecily knows. And she wants me to ask Cousin
Ralph. Do you think he’d think us too young for him, since he’s
finished college? I’m crazy to have him meet Cecily! He’ll be ‘dippy’
about her.”
 While Mary chattered, a thought lodged by Miss Canfield came to
Mrs. Turner. If she couldn’t influence her daughter herself, unaided,
she must reach her through others.
She answered: “Why, I think it would be lovely to ask him, and I’m
sure he’d like to come.”
And so Mary wrote a cordial invitation to Cousin Ralph and her
mother quietly added a postscript that night—a postscript that grew
into an epistle as she told her nephew, a clean-souled and manly
young fellow, of her problem about Mary.
“Can you help me?” she wrote. “A word from you would weigh
much with her. You’re her ideal of young manhood. Let her see that
you are not fascinated by Cecily; she believes her irresistible. Say no
more than you can judge by seeing her at the party, though. That will
be enough.”
His answer to Mary, his “sweet little cousin,” was frank and warm.
His answer to Mrs. Turner was earnest and sympathetic. He would
try.
The great evening came, and with it a gay and brightly dressed
bevy of Mary’s friends. Some were rollicking; some were bashful; but
Mrs. Turner fancied she saw the Cecily stamp on all of them. On all
except Evelyn Lewis, a simple, attractive girl with fine manners. If
Mary would only prefer her to Cecily!
Cousin Ralph arrived late and created a sensation, for he was tall
and good-looking and possessed of polish and charm. He led all the
fun after that and Mrs. Turner saw Mary’s eyes sparkling with pride
in him.
At a late hour the guests took their leave. But Ralph, lingering after
the others had left, talked over the party with Mary and her mother,
for the former was too excited to want the evening to end.
“How did you like the girls?” Mary inquired, eagerly. And just then
Mrs. Turner found an excuse to leave the room.
“Very much, little cousin. They’re a jolly lot of youngsters. And I’m
quite struck with one of them.”
“Oh, I knew you would be. Cecily, of course!”
“Cecily! O, no!” His emphasis was expressive.
“Not Cecily?” Mary was bewildered.
 “That would-be chorus girl with come-hither eyes?” he demanded,
and then, seeing her stricken face, added hurriedly, “But maybe she’s
a special friend of yours.”
“Oh, no,—that is,—not so very. But she’s awfully popular.”
“With only one kind of boys, then, and that’s not the sort I’d like to
see you running round with, cousin mine. The girl that took my eye
was—her name was—Evelyn. She’s a peach. Ask me over some time
again when she’s here, will you?”
Mary nodded a little uncertainly, and then promised.
“Mother,” she said, wonderingly, as Mrs. Turner entered the room,
“Ralph likes Evelyn. And she certainly did look pretty tonight. I’m—
crazy about her myself!”
And as Mrs. Turner squeezed her nephew’s hand, she felt
somehow that a new name was about to be substituted for “Cecily” in
Mary’s vocabulary.
Miss Canfield listened attentively to the mother’s report of the
party and of Mary’s drift into better companionship and naturally
lent aid to the scheme in a dozen little ways—assignments of team
work, comments to Mary on certain lovely qualities in Evelyn and
her type of girl, recommendation of books and magazine articles, etc.
Mother and teacher accomplished an important piece of work by
this campaign in which they substituted, in the unformed mind of a
school girl, a correct model of young womanhood in place of a
degraded type.
4. Falling in Love with the Teacher
When pupils fall in love with their teachers, the problem is not
nearly so serious as the same event would be out of school, for the
reason that every normal tradition of school relations is against such
a state of affairs. The teacher stands, as is said so often, in loco
parentis; and if teachers are fit to bear this relation to their pupils,
they can, and will, easily handle any tendencies toward too intimate
relations with their pupils. The treatment for a pupil who develops
too ardent an admiration for a teacher is based upon the process of
de-personalizing the relations between them; for almost always it
will be found that when pupils have fallen in love with their teachers,
it is because, purposely or unconsciously, the relations have been too
personal.
 There are two typical cases—that of young girls who fall in love
with an attractive young man teacher, whom usually they hope to
captivate and marry; and that of boys, relatively less mature, who
rarely reach the ridiculousness of such plans, but shower such
attentions as they may upon the object of their affections, and go to
any length to please her. Most young women teachers have the tact
and good sense to manage such cases wisely, keeping the boys within
the bounds of a normal and fairly platonic regard, and often using
their power to bring about the development of a fine idealism and
many manly virtues in their admirers. But the vain young woman
who likes this kind of popularity is not unknown in schools; she is a
nuisance, doing more harm by her vanity than a dozen sensible
colleagues can undo through every means known to good pedagogy.
The teacher is to blame, as a rule, when either of these conditions
develops. Being older and more experienced, he has the upper hand
and can cure the malady, if he will, especially as he has every sane
tradition on his side. The elimination of the dangerous personal
attitude, of opportunities for the expression of regard, of the
personal appeal, and of subtle suggestions of a sentimental nature,
are all in the power of the teacher. It is just a question of whether he
cares to exercise his will and his ingenuity in the interest of a healthy
relation, or whether he chooses rather to have his vanity flattered by
attentions and popularity.

CASE 156 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Annabel Kingsley was an English teacher Appeals to Vanity

in a small, prosperous town. She was a tiny,
sharp-faced girl of about twenty-five, keenly intelligent, clever and
selfseeking. She dressed well; she sought social opportunities; she
made the most of her friends. Before she had been teaching a month
she had won the devoted admiration of all the boys and most of the
girls in her classes and by Thanksgiving the other women teachers
would hardly speak to her, regarding her with that silent scorn which
intelligent women have for their sisters who will not play fair. The
superintendent was divided between amusement and contempt.
 Miss Sperry, the mathematics teacher, went to Miss Bulwer, who
had had the Latin and German for years, and had a talk with her.
“My boys and girls come day after day with their algebra only half
learned,” she complained. “They say they don’t have time for it, and
they are losing all their interest, too. But they write great long
compositions for Miss Kingsley that must take hours to do, and now
she talks of getting up a play to be given at Christmas. She seems to
have captured them completely. How does she do it?”
“When you’ve seen as much of teachers as I have you’ll know,”
Miss Bulwer replied, grimly. “I haven’t heard her talk to them, but I
can tell you just how she goes about it. She makes every one of them
think he’s the budding genius of the century. She has Verne Gibbs
reading Ibsen and planning to write a tragedy. I’ll be bound! She has
persuaded Morris Talbot that he can write short stories. Warren
Hughes thinks he’s very remarkable because she told him he could
appreciate Francis Thompson. Maybe he can, but he can also
appreciate Cicero when he’s given half a chance. Every one of those
youngsters thinks that at last he has found a teacher who really sees
what is in him, the great promise to which the rest of us are blind.
Then he proceeds to fall in love with Miss Kingsley to show her that
her interest is not lost. She appeals to the adolescent vanity that they
all have so much of, and she’s making them so insufferably self-
conscious and sentimental and onesided that you and I can’t do
anything with them.”
Miss Sperry watched Miss Kingsley. She saw that the boys who
could use their father’s automobiles vied with each other for the
honor of taking her home on Friday nights—she lived in a
neighboring town; that they hung over her desk before and after
sessions, engaged in interminable discussions of the value of poetry
or the madness of Hamlet. On her birthday her desk was banked
with roses; Miss Sperry wondered how they found out when her
birthday came. Miss Kingsley’s work went very well, but she robbed
every other teacher of the time and energy that fairly belonged to the
other subjects taught. The result was that the poor work caused by
her selfish policy showed in the classes of other teachers. In her own
there was a constant and lively interest, fanned continuously by the
numberless “conferences” with which she kept her hold on her
students. The school was badly demoralized by Christmas, and yet
the real cause of all the trouble appeared to be the one brilliantly
successful teacher on the force.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

The principal of a school should see to it that each teacher and

each subject has a fair share of the attention of the students. In this
case, the principal should say to Miss Kingsley, “I notice that a
number of our boys are falling behind with their mathematics, and
Miss Bulwer tells me that Howard Grimes failed in Latin last month
—something never heard of before. I have been looking for the cause,
and I find that most of those who are failing are spending more time
on their English than is fair. You are stimulating them by a personal
appeal to put time on English which really belongs to other studies.
So I am asking you to discontinue your private conferences for the
present; and, moreover, it is not dignified for you to accept
attentions from the boys as though they were your own age; it will
lead to criticism which will hurt your work and your influence.”
Private talks to the boys and girls about their work, following this
restriction of the English teacher’s demands, may help to bring
results. The other teachers should be encouraged to make their work
as appealing as possible, and to show a personal interest in the
bringing up of grades in the neglected studies. Most important of all,
wholesome social conditions may be stimulated by a series of parties
among the high school students, in which normal relations amongst
themselves are encouraged. Such regulations for study as are needed
to keep the boys from too much contact with Miss Kingsley are to be
adopted, without making their object obvious to the pupils.

COMMENTS

The amative impulses of youth are not vicious, but need direction
and control. Self-control, above all else, is to be taught, and the
teaching must often be reinforced by wise, friendly restraint. Frank
friendships are to be encouraged; sickly, silly sentimentality laughed
out of court. If a teacher, instead of standing ready to give this help
and guidance when it is needed, encourages a sentimental devotion,
as Miss Kingsley did, the most fundamental safeguard of youth is
sacrificed—the ideal of controlled emotion, of a conscious saving of a
sacred experience for the future. A large range of interests, a healthy
balance of activities, and a wholesome unconsciousness of self, tend
to keep young people simple and child-like in their emotional lives.
Above all, no teacher has any business to give the impression that he
alone appreciates youth and its promise, or to make his relations
with impressionable boys and girls unduly personal.

ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)

Clarence Miller was an exceedingly “A Wet Blanket”

handsome young teacher in a small village for Infatuation
high school. In his second year of service, Carolyn Brush, daughter of
the great man of the town, decided that she would not return to the
fashionable boarding school which she had been attending, but
would go to the village school and subjugate Clarence Miller, whom
she met during the Christmas vacation. She was very pretty and very
clever, and her stay in a girl’s boarding school had not made her less
romantic than other girls are.
The lessons were easy for her, and during the first few days she
recited brilliantly, hoping to win special attention from the young
principal. He accepted her most studied efforts with the same
pleasant courtesy he gave to all, and then Carolyn tried another plan.
She failed to recite altogether, looking at Mr. Miller with a pitiful,
hurt look whenever he called upon her, and shaking her pretty head
sadly. The village boys and girls, somewhat awed at best by Carolyn’s
pretty clothes and polished manners, and keenly conscious of
everything she did, observed all this with much interest. Carolyn
became more and more enamored of Mr. Miller the more she saw of
him.
One morning she stepped to the desk when there were no other
pupils near. “Mr. Miller,” she said, “I wonder if I may speak to you—
alone—some time? Tonight, after school, perhaps? Just for a
moment. I am in such trouble.”
 “Of course you may, Miss Carolyn,” said Mr. Miller, heartily. “I’ll
be glad to help you if I can.”
But Carolyn was not at school that afternoon. She called up the
school by telephone at five after four, however, said that her mother
had required her help that afternoon, and added that they all wanted
Mr. Miller to come up for supper. “And I hope you will, for I do feel
that you can help me. We can talk after supper.”
“Sorry, but I have some work that is going to take my whole
evening, Miss Carolyn. You can tell me about that matter at recess
tomorrow. Please thank your mother for the invitation, and tell her
how sorry I am I can’t come.”
At recess the next morning, Carolyn said, when she was sure no
prying boy lingered near:
“Oh, Mr. Miller, I have been so worried lately I just couldn’t study.
I have a dear friend at school, whom I’ve trusted and loved for two
years more than anyone else. And now I find that she has deceived
me, and it almost breaks my heart. It seems as if everything has just
stopped, you know; life isn’t the same. What can one do? If one can’t
trust one’s friends, what is there one can count upon?” She looked up
at him with tears in her eyes, the lovely picture of disillusioned youth
in its most appealing form. “I just had to talk to some one about it,
and you’re the only person here who is—you know—like myself—who
would understand.”
Mr. Miller neither fell into this fair trap nor shied at it. He said,
“Now, I’ll tell you just what I would do if I were you. You talk to your
father. He knows all about people, and he’ll give you more good
advice in a minute than I could in a year. If it were I, and a girl had
treated me like that, I’d find a better chum and let her go, and not
weep over it either. Just stop worrying about her. You can’t afford to
lose out on your lessons for a snip of a girl who doesn’t know a good
friend when she has one. Oh—you’ll excuse me, won’t you? I
promised the boys to show them a new curve, and here they are for
me.” And the cautious, sensible principal vanished out-of-doors.
Carolyn, being really infatuated, made one more attempt. “I know
you don’t like me,” she told the principal one day. “But why is it?
What have I done, that you should hate me so? I have tried to get my
lessons, and tried to be good in school; but you seem to hate the very
sight of me.”
“Now, that’s all nonsense,” Mr. Miller averred. “I like you just as
well as anyone else in the room, and, so far as I know and intend, I
treat you just as I do the others.”
To be treated just as the others were treated, was exactly what
Carolyn did not want. She suddenly discovered that the principal was
not handsome, and that she did not care for him. She told her father
that the school was so much poorer than Grey Gables that she
wanted to go back there, and at the Easter vacation she left the high
school. So Carolyn came and went, and not one of the other pupils
knew of the little comedy of sentiment and sense that had taken
place there that winter.
The quickly-veering emotion of youth is easily stimulated or
inhibited by suggestion. Mr. Miller saw through the schemes of his
pupil, and, instead of falling in with them, as he might have done had
he wanted excitement or adulation or romantic adventure, he cut
them off in a friendly, but matter-of-fact way that nipped expectation
in the bud. A flirtation with his pretty pupil might have been a great
deal of fun, but it would have marred his influence with the people of
the village and with his pupils; and he was wise enough to deny
himself that fun for the sake of his professional duty. He might have
stimulated an adventure in half a dozen ways; he steadily declined
even to suggest the thought of such a thing until Carolyn was cured
of her fancy. Without humiliating her in any way, before the other
students, he kept his relations with her impersonal and free of
romantic elements, and so gradually overcame her infatuation by
giving it nothing to feed upon.
 DIVISION X

Who breaks his faith no faith is held with him.

—Cervantes

Always act in such a way as to secure the love of your neighbor.

—Cato
 AN ILLUSTRATIVE CONTRAST BETWEEN
FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Mr. Bradley was principal for two years of the Newcastle school.
He revealed his characteristics as a teacher so fully that we find in
him an example of the type not to be recommended and yet one that
is very instructive for students of school discipline.
In stature he was slightly below medium height. He came from
rural ancestry and was fairly well equipped as to physique. He had
black hair and eyes, somewhat mobile features and a wandering
gaze. His movements could hardly be called quick, but they were
prompt and without distinct mannerisms.
He had a most gracious manner when meeting people on the street
or in their homes. He spoke kindly to everyone and had the
reputation among the townspeople of being a royal, good fellow.
Even his pupils could not deny that he treated them very courteously
and jovially outside of school hours.
Despite all this he used essentially the method of the hen-pecking
incompetent when handling disciplinary matters in school. The
moment he entered the school precincts he was a different man. His
countenance then betrayed the sternness of the schoolmaster who
dwelt within and apart from the polite gentleman he seemed to be
when outside the school-room. His eyebrows gathered and his
muscles reverberated with the sense of authority that flooded his
whole nature.
His eye was on the lookout for misdemeanors and if a pupil made a
misstep in the realm where Mr. Bradley thought he had jurisdiction,
that harsh, strident voice, with but the slightest trace of fellow-
feeling, spoke the word of correction or announced an impending
penalty.
In the school-room it was his delight to slip up behind an offender
and pluck him by the ear as a reminder of duty. Being the only
instructor who indulged in this practice it soon came to be one of the
most odious signals of his presence in the room. When absorbed in
his subject he made instruction interesting; his pupils could not fail
to learn if they did not venture to vary the program by misconduct.
However, their recollection of his general attitude toward them, the
ease with which they could upset his plans by introducing a few
school pranks, the certainty that he would lose his temper on slight
provocation, always hung as a barrage screen between them and
undivided concentration on the subject-matter of their lessons.
Mr. Bradley made it a practice to watch for accumulating offenses.
He felt incompetent to handle minor evils, but attempted to squelch
a wayward pupil by reciting a list of grievances and applying
penalties for the same. He had a good memory for facts of this sort.
He could shake his finger in the face of a boy or girl and say, “Didn’t
you pull Esther’s hair yesterday ... trip up Jimmie on the way to class
in geometry and purposely spill the crayons when you were at the
board? Now, I have had enough of this. I want to know what you are
going to do about it.”
This gentleman could not catch the drift of things. Early in his first
year Mr. Bradley’s attention rested upon Ted. Ted was a short,
heavy-set chap of some fourteen years, incapable of any
revolutionary propensities, but able to interest himself with a variety
of aggravating tricks. His pranks were individually almost too small
to command severe penalties, but they were too annoying to escape
the principal’s eye.
Unfortunately, Mr. Bradley hit upon the lash as a cure for Ted.
Selecting a more pronounced misdemeanor as an opportunity for
settling accounts with the troublesome pupil, he gave him a sound
whipping.
There was some ground for the general protest that arose from the
high school. Ted was a favorite with every one. The crude principal
had struck one but he had wounded all. His untactfulness had made
him abhorrent to all, even to those who had not hitherto drawn upon
themselves his specific disapproval and useless punishments. Mr.
Bradley, perhaps, never knew that he had undermined his own
usefulness as much by this treatment of a school favorite as by any
single deed that transpired during his whole stay in Newcastle.
He had his own method of handling the problem of whispering. He
made it a rule that every pupil in high school must answer at roll call
at the end of the day on the matter of whispering. If a pupil had
whispered he must answer “Present,” and specify the number of
times during the day he had whispered. If he had a clear record on