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Stojče Dimov Ilčev

Global Mobile Satellite

Communications
Applications
For Maritime, Land and Aeronautical
Applications Volume 2
2nd Edition
Global Mobile Satellite Communications
Applications
Stojče Dimov Ilčev

Global Mobile Satellite

Communications
Applications
For Maritime, Land and Aeronautical
Applications Volume 2

Second Edition

By
Stojče Dimov Ilčev
(Стойчо Димов Илчев)
Durban University of Technology (DUT)
Durban, South Africa

123
Stojče Dimov Ilčev
Durban University of Technology (DUT)
Durban
South Africa

ISBN 978-3-319-71857-6 ISBN 978-3-319-71858-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71858-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017941480

© Springer International Publishing AG 2005, 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
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for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
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Printed on acid-free paper

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The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To the memory of my late father

Prof. Dimo Stoev Ilčev

(Димо Стоев Илчев)
Preface

The two volumes of this book were written in order to form a bridge between
potential readers and current GMSC trends, system concepts and network archi-
tecture by using a very simple style with easily comprehensible many technical
information, characteristics, graphicons, figures, illustrations, and mathematic
equations.
The special part of GMSC for maritime, land, and aeronautical CNS applications
are new techniques for modern transportation concerns and their fleets at sea, on
land, and in the air for the enhancement of commercial and distress communications
and tracking solutions. The modern GMSC infrastructures are greatly important for
all transportation companies, their successful commerce, carriage and management
of vessels, land vehicles, and aircraft. Finally, modern, innovative techniques and
technology in GMSC are needed for newly developed mobile broadband and
multimedia communications and for IT, CNS, and Global Navigation Satellite
Systems (GNSS).
The Volume 2 of this book, nominated as “Applications,” consists of seven
chapters on the following particular subjects:
Chapter 1: Inmarsat GEO GMSC System describes the Inmarsat system, Space
Segment, ground segment, and standards for maritime, land, and aeronautical
applications. In addition, this chapter is including Maritime System Architecture
and Operations, Land System Architecture and Operations, and Aeronautical
System Architecture and Operations, Maritime Emergency and Safety Service and
Aeronautical Emergency and Safety Service with special contribution on Global
Aeronautical Distress and Safety System (GADSS) developed by author of this
book in 2000, 16 years before the ICAO proposal.
Chapter 2: Non-GEO GMSC Systems comments particularly upon modern big
LEO systems, such as Globalstar and Iridium, Little LEO Orbcomm and Gonets
Leosat GMSC Systems, and O3b Networks Global MEO GMSC System.
Chapter 3: Global Broadcasting Satellite System (GBSS) presents implementa-
tion of new DVB-RCS for maritime, land, and aeronautical CNS.

vii
viii Preface

Chapter 4: Cospas-Sarsat GMSC System presents distress and safety satellite

systems, emergency satellite beacons for all mobile applications via LEOSAR,
MEOSAR, and GEOSAR subsystems.
Chapter 5: Global Mobile Satellite Distress System (GMSDS) is introducing
new concept of integrated commercial and safety satellite CNS for maritime, land,
and aeronautical applications.
Chapter 6: Global Satellite Augmentation Systems (GSAS) gives a retrospective
of determination and navigation satellite systems in integration with CNS and
introduces existing and new projected Regional Satellite Augmentation Systems
(RSAS), such as European EGNOS, Japanese MSAT (MTSAS/JMA), US WAAS,
Russian SDCM, Chinese SNAS, Indian GAGAN, and African ASAS. The new
projected ASAS network by author of this book is very important for entire Africa
and Middle East, better as proposed extension of EGNOS, for enhanced traffic
control and management of ships, land vehicles, and aircraft, including to improve
safety and security at sea, on the ground, and in the air.
Chapter 7: Stratospheric Communication Platforms (SCPs) are new wireless
systems still under development, which will use constellations of stratospheric
aircraft and airships equipped with transponders and large antenna systems to
provide more cost-effective CNS systems for ships, land vehicles, and aircraft.

Durban, South Africa Stojče Dimov Ilčev

Preface to the First Volume

Global Mobile Satellite Communications (GMSC) structures are specific mobile

satellite communication discipline and technique for maritime, land, and aeronau-
tical applications, which will enable connections between Mobile Earth Stations
(MES), such as ships, land vehicles, and aircraft on the one side and ground
telecommunications subscribers on the other, through the medium of Space
Segment (satellite constellation), Land Earth Stations (LES) and Terrestrial
Telecommunications Network (TTN) or other landline providers.
This book is very important for modern shipping, land (road and rail), and
aeronautical concerns, because GMSC are providing more effective business, trade,
and prosperity in the new millennium, in the first place for transport safety and
security matters and secondly for commercial communications. The most consid-
erable marketing and technical point of this book is due to a great deficiency of
suitable manuals on the international book market, which completely describe
GMSC fundamentals, Space Segments, ground segments (MES and LES), and
Global Mobile Personal Satellite Communications (GMPSC).
This book discusses hot topics in GMSC techniques and technology, which will
be useful for technical staff onboard vessels, land vehicles, and aircraft, on offshore
constructions and for those possessing satellite handset phones. This includes sea,
land, and air transport sets with many other requirements for more effective trade,
which need development, design, utility, implementation, and knowledge of
Communication, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS) for safety and commercial
applications. Otherwise, GMSC solutions are very important to all modern trans-
portation companies, dispatchers, agencies, brokers and the successful manage-
ment, commerce, carriage tracking, and logistics of their fleet.
In general, this book may become the manual for a broad range of readers with
different levels of technical education and knowledge, for professional staff
involved in GMSC and their technical managers, engineers, professors, students,
instructors, and participants in GMDSS courses, consultants and supervisors of
MES and for military officers and cadets. This book could find an important place in
libraries, universities, and institutions as well.

ix
x Preface to the First Volume

Mobile satellite systems have today become very considerable reading matter for
students in many maritime, transportation, and aviation universities, faculties in
telecommunication and electrical engineering, for all modern transportation com-
panies, GMSC manufacturers, providers, operators, and for their management staff.
Everyone involved in GMSC systems has to know something about these tech-
nology and transmission systems. Thus, in writing this book, the author has used
the expertise, prospects, literature, and manuals of numerous experts, specialists,
institutions, and references mentioned at the end of this handbook as well as
information from Internet.
The author has been a professional expert in maritime radiocommunications
since 1969, as a radio officer on board oceangoing cargo ships using Morse MF/HF
radiotelegraphy and MF/HF/VHF radiotelephony and later as master mariner and
Electronics/GMDSS Operator with Inmarsat Ship Earth Stations (SES). In addition,
for over 15 years, he has managed the Former-IS Marine Radio company and new
established CNS Systems for research, service, installation, and engineering of
GMSC and Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) systems and equipment
onboard ships and integration with modern IT systems. The author has also used his
doctoral dissertation, master’s theses, technical manuscripts, papers, and practical
experience with radiocommunications, navigation, and GMSC systems.
For basic and principal technical information, he has drawn heavily mostly on
the following sources:
• “Global Mobile Satellite Communications, For Maritime, Land and
Aeronautical Applications”, 1st Edition published by Springer in 2005 and
“Global Aeronautical CNS”, published by AIAA in 2013, both written by S.D.
Ilcev.
• “Mobile Satellite Communication Networks”, written by R. Sheriff and Y.
F. Hu; and “Satellite Communications Systems”, written by G. Maral and M.
Bousquet. Both books were published by Wiley in 2001 and 1994, respectively.
• “Mobile Satellite Communications—Principles & Trends”, written by
Madhavendra Richharia and published by Addison-Wesley in 2001.
• “Mobile Antenna Systems Handbook”, written by K. Fujimoto and J.R. James;
“Mobile Satellite Communications”, written by S. Ohmori, H. Wakana and S.
Kawase; and “Low Earth Orbital Satellites for Personal Communication
Networks”, written by A. Jamalipour. All three books were published by Artech
House, in 1994, 1998 and 1998, respectively.
• “Satellite Communications: Principles and Applications” and “Electronic Aids
to Navigation: Position Fixing”. Both books written by L. Tetley and D. Calcutt
were published by Edward Arnold, in 1994 and 1991, respectively.
• “An Introduction to Satellite Communications”, written by D.I. Dalgleish; and
“Satellite Communication Systems” edited by B. Evans. Both books were
published by IEE, in 1991 and 1993, respectively.
• “Never Beyond Reach”, edited by B. Gallagher and published by Inmarsat, in
1989.
Preface to the First Volume xi

• “Cпyтникoвaя cвязь нa мope”, written by L. Novik, I. Morozov and V.

Solovev; and “Meждyнapoднaя cпyтникoвaя cиcтeмa мopcкoй
cвязи—Инмapcaт”, written by V. Zhilin. Both books were published by
Sudostroenie, Leningrad, in 1987 and 1988, respectively.
• “Telekomunikacije satelitima”, written by R. Galić, Školska Knjiga, Zagreb,
1983.
• “Radio wave Propagation Information for Predictions for Earth-to-Space Path
Communications”, edited by C. Wilson and D. Rogers, ITU, Geneva.
Readers will find that this book has been written using up-to-date systems,
techniques, and technology in satellite communications. The material has been
systematized in such a way as to cover satellite development, systematization, and
definition of all nomenclature and synonyms of mobile satellite communications
systems and services, new kinds of launcher systems and the presentation of all
types of satellite orbit constellations and spacecraft, the newest concepts of trans-
mission models and accesses including IP networking, a complete introduction to
mobile antenna systems and propagation, Inmarsat, Cospas-Sarsat, big LEO, little
LEO, navigation and tracking systems, including forthcoming augmentation
satellite system for Communications, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS) mobile
solutions, stratospheric platforms as communications systems, including mobile
DVB-RCS.
Furthermore, new concepts and innovations in GMSC, such as Inmarsat BGAN,
Fleet and Swift Broadband solutions, Global Xpress for maritime and aeronautical
applications, new Iridium LEO mobile applications, innovative maritime
O3B MEO solutions and mobile DVB-RCS GEO users segment. Furthermore,
modern VSAT broadcasting applications and integration of GMSC systems with
new Personal Videophone Technology and Mobile Videophone over IP (VPoIP)
will be discussed. Finally, the historic moment is approaching when we can use
MES terminals and say: “Hallo, can you see me, over”?
Acknowledgements

Above all, the author of this book would like to express his very special appreci-
ation and gratitude to Prof. Ahmed Cassim Bawa former Vice Chancellor (VC) and
Principal of Durban University of Technology (DUT), who gave him huge support
in Space Science Research and Postgraduate Studies. The author also expresses his
special gratitude to the DVC for Research and Postgraduate Studies at DUT, Prof.
Sibusiso Moyo and DUT staff for support and encouragement to establish Space
Science Centre (SSC) for Research and Postgraduate Studies in Space Science and
for moral assistance in completing this book.
The author is Chair of SSC, Research Professor and Supervisor at DUT for
Research and Postgraduate Studies. The author has very important multinational
project African Satellite Augmentation System (ASAS) for entire Africa and
Middle East including many other proposals in Radio and Satellite CNS, Digital
Video Broadcasting-Return Channel via Satellite (DVB-RCS), Global Radio and
Satellite Tracking of mobiles and living beings, Satellite SCADA (M2M),
Stratospheric Platform Systems (SPS), Space Solar Power (SSP) and one of sig-
nificant GADSS project developed in 2000. He also would like to express his
special appreciation to DUT for generous contribution as a sponsor of this book.
The Durban University of Technology prides itself on commitment to academic
excellence.
Over 24,000 students who pass through the doors everyday are testament to a
growing ethos of learning, research, and community engagement. DUT is a mul-
ticampus university of technology at the cutting edge of higher education, renowned
for technological training and academic prowess. The University is characterized by
being research-driven with a focus on strategic and applied research that can be
translated into professional practice. Furthermore, research output may be com-
mercialized, thus providing a source of income for the institution. In striving to
create a new and dynamic ethos, the University builds upon current strengths and
celebrates the expertise of its staff. DUT is providing Webpages for its SSC
for Research and Postgraduate Studies at: www.dut.ac.za/space_science—

xiii
xiv Acknowledgements

where are presented full study program and projects for instant developments,
including all research and supervisor staff.
The author is also very grateful to the group of authors for various manuals,
brochures, and pamphlets issued by IMO, ICAO, ITU, IATA, ARINC, WMO,
ESA, SITA, ETSI, ETRI, Intelsat, Intersputnik, Eutelsat, Roscosmos, Eurocontrol,
Inmarsat, Cospas-Sarsat, Iridium, Globalstar, Orbcomm, Gonets, Sea Launch, and
other regulatory bodies and operators.
This book is dedicated to all his friends working in shipping industry, his newest
friend Prof. Felix Mora Camino, and to his present postgraduate students at DUT.
He also wishes specially to acknowledge the valuable support and understanding
from publisher of this book Springer, especially to Ms. Mary E. James, Senior
Editor in Applied Sciences and her assistants Ms. Zoe Kennedy, Ms. Rebecca R.
Hytowitz, and Mr. Brian Halm.
Finally, he would like to express very heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to his
lovely wife Svetlana M. Ilčeva and his family for their help and understanding,
while the manuscript was being written, especially to his dear children and grand
children living in Montenegro: son Marijan with his wife Vanja and their children
Daria and Martin, daughter Tatjana, with her husband Boško and their children
Anja and Stefan, to his stepdaughter Olga, her husband Boris, his stepgrand-
daughter Bažena and stepson Lev, to his sister Prof. Tatjana Ilčeva and niece Ivana
in Belgrade, Serbia and to his cousin Valentin Boyadžiev and his family in Sofia,
Bulgaria.
Contents

1 Inmarsat GEO GMSC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1

1.1 Inmarsat System and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.2 Inmarsat Space Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
1.2.1 Second and Third Generations of Inmarsat Satellite
Constellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Inmarsat MSC Link Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 Inmarsat Ground Segment and Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1 Inmarsat Mobile Earth Station (MES) Solutions . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.2 Inmarsat Land Earth Stations (LES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.3 Inmarsat Ground Network (IGN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4 Inmarsat Mobile Earth Stations (MES) and Applications . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.1 Inmarsat Maritime Network and Ship Earth Stations
(SES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
1.4.2 Inmarsat Land Mobile Vehicle Earth Station (VES) . . . . .. 43
1.4.3 Inmarsat Aeronautical Network and Aircraft Earth Station
(AES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44
1.5 Inmarsat Commercial GMSC Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
1.5.1 Inmarsat Transmission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
1.5.2 Inmarsat Maritime System Architecture and
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
1.5.3 Inmarsat Land System Architecture and Operations . . . . .. 62
1.5.4 Inmarsat Aeronautical System Architecture and
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.6 Inmarsat Private, Personal, and Control Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.6.1 Virtual Private Networking (VPN) Over MPDS . . . . . . . . . 72
1.6.2 VPN Client Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.7 Special Inmarsat Mobile Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.7.1 Integrated SwiftBroadband and Scotty Video Encoder . . . . 75
1.7.2 Inmarsat Mobile Satellite Tracking Applications . . . . . . . . 77

xv
xvi Contents

1.7.3 Inmarsat SCADA (M2M) Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81

1.8 Inmarsat Maritime Emergency and Safety Service . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
1.8.1 Global Maritime Safety Satellite Communications
(GMSSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
1.8.2 Global Distress, Urgency, and the Safety
Satellite System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84
1.8.3 Maritime Safety Information (MSI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
1.9 Inmarsat Aeronautical Emergency and Safety Service . . . . . . . . .. 93
1.9.1 Global Aeronautical Safety Satellite Communications
(GASSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93
1.9.2 Aeronautical GNSS Augmentation System
via Inmarsat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95
1.9.3 Aeronautical Navigation Report Services (ANRS) . . . . . .. 96
1.9.4 Aeronautical Weather Report Services (AWRS) . . . . . . .. 96
1.9.5 Satellite Automatic Dependent Surveillance—Broadcast
(SADS-B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
1.9.6 Future Air Navigation System (FANS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98
1.9.7 Global Aeronautical Distress and Safety System
(GADSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
2 Non-GEO GMSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.1 Big LEO GMSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.1.1 Globalstar Big LEO GMSC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.1.2 Iridium Big LEO GMSC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.2 Global Little LEO GMSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2.2.1 Orbcomm Little LEO GMSC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2.2.2 Gonets Leosat Little LEO GMSC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
2.3 O3b Networks Global MEO GMSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
2.3.1 O3b Space Segment and Latency Features . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
2.3.2 O3b Ground Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
2.3.3 O3b Users Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
2.3.4 O3b Users Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3 Global Broadcasting Satellite System (GBSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.1 Overview of Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.1.1 DVB Over Satellite (DVB-S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.1.2 Error Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.1.3 MPEG-2 Source Coding and Multiplexing DVB-S
Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.2 DVB-RCS Interactive Service and IP Over DVB . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
3.2.1 DVB-RCS Hub and User Terminal Networks . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.2.2 DVB-RCS forward and return links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.2.3 DVB-RCS Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.3 DVB-S2 Second Generation of DVB-S Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Contents xvii

3.3.1 New Features of DVB-S2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

3.3.2 Transmission System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3.3.3 Migration from DVB-S to DVB-S2 and Related
Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
3.3.4 Framing Structure and Backward Compatible Modes . . . . . 226
3.3.5 The Physical Layer and Its Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.3.6 Integration of DVB-S2 into DVB-RCS Systems . . . . . . . . 230
3.4 Third Generation of DVB-S Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
3.5 Interactive Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) and Satellite
Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
3.5.1 VSAT Network Configuration and Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
3.5.2 VSAT Network Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
3.6 DVB-RCS Hub Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
3.6.1 Advantech Discovery 300 Series DVB-RCS
VSAT Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
3.6.2 ViaSat LinkStar Pro Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
3.6.3 Hughes HX Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
3.7 VSAT Fixed and Mobile Interactive Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
3.7.1 Evolution iDirect VSAT Satellite Routers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
3.7.2 LinkStar ViaSat DVB-S2 VSAT Satellite Router . . . . . . . . 265
3.7.3 Hughes HX200 Hughes Satellite Router . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
3.7.4 Advantech Wireless Broadband Satellite Routers . . . . . . . . 267
3.7.5 Advantech S4120 VSAT Satellite Router . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
3.7.6 Advantech S5120 VSAT Satellite Router . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
3.8 DVB-RCS Architecture for Mobile Satellite Broadband and
Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
3.9 Mobile Satellite Broadcasting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
3.9.1 DVB-RCS Architecture for Maritime and Land Mobile
Broadband . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
3.9.2 DVB-RCS Architecture for Aeronautical Broadband . . . . . 288
4 Cospas-Sarsat GMSC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
4.1 Scope of the Cospas-Sarsat Satellite Distress and Safety Systems
(SDSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
4.1.1 Cospas-Sarsat Organization and Signatories . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
4.1.2 The International SAR Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
4.2 Cospas-Sarsat Mission and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
4.2.1 Basic Concept of Cospas-Sarsat System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
4.2.2 LEOSAR and GEOSAR Satellite System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
4.3 Overall Cospas-Sarsat System Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
4.3.1 Cospas-Sarsat VHF 121.5/243 MHz System . . . . . . . . . . . 316
4.3.2 Cospas-Sarsat UHF 406 MHz System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
4.3.3 Complementarity of the 406 MHz LEOSAR and
GEOSAR Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
xviii Contents

4.3.4 Distribution of Alert and Location Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

4.4 Cospas-Sarsat Space Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
4.4.1 LEOSAR Cospas-Sarsat Payload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
4.4.2 GEOSAR Space Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
4.5 Cospas-Sarsat Ground Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
4.5.1 Cospas-Sarsat Emergency Satellite Beacons . . . . . . . . . . . 335
4.5.2 Replacement Batteries for Avionics ELT
and PLB Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
4.5.3 Distress Satellite Beacon Programmers and Testers . . . . . . 345
4.5.4 Local User Terminals (LUT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
4.5.5 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) SAR (MEOSAR) System . . . . 358
4.5.6 Mission Control Centres (MCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
4.5.7 Rescue Coordination Centres (RCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
5 Global Mobile Satellite Distress System (GMSDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
5.1 New Aspect of Satellite Global Maritime Distress and Safety
System (GMDSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
5.1.1 Current GMDSS Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.1.2 Enhanced GMDSS Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
5.1.3 Cospas-Sarsat GMDSS EPIRB Equipment
Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
5.1.4 Inmarsat SES GMDSS Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
5.1.5 Iridium SES GMDSS Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
5.1.6 Orbcomm SES GMDSS Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
5.1.7 O3b SES GMDSS Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
5.1.8 Alternative Maritime Radio GMDSS Solutions . . . . . . . . . 411
5.1.9 Alternative Maritime Satellite GMDSS Solutions . . . . . . . . 416
5.2 Aspect of Satellite Land Mobile Distress and Safety System
(LMDSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
5.3 Satellite Global Aeronautical Distress and Safety System
(GADSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
5.3.1 Aeronautical HF Radio Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
5.3.2 Aeronautical VHF Radio Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
5.3.3 Cospas-Sarsat Aeronautical Satellite Subsystem . . . . . . . . . 430
5.3.4 Inmarsat Integrated Aeronautical Satellite Subsystem . . . . . 430
5.3.5 Iridium Aeronautical Satellite Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
5.3.6 Future GADSS Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
5.3.7 Concept of ATC Via GADSS System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
5.3.8 Alternative Aeronautical Radio GMDSS Solutions . . . . . . . 437
5.3.9 Alternative Aeronautical Satellite GADSS Solutions . . . . . 453
5.4 Automatic Identification System (AIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
5.4.1 Radio Automatic Identification System (R-AIS) . . . . . . . . . 460
5.4.2 Satellite Automatic Identification System (S-AIS) . . . . . . . 464
5.5 Aeronautical Distress and SAR Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Contents xix

6 Global Satellite Augmentation Systems (GSAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

6.1 Development of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) . . . . 469
6.2 Global Determination Satellite System (GDSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
6.2.1 Passive GDSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
6.2.2 Active GDSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
6.2.3 Hybrid GDSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
6.3 GNSS Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
6.3.1 Maritime Navigation Satellite System (MNSS) . . . . . . . . . 477
6.3.2 Land Navigation Satellite System (LNSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
6.3.3 Aeronautical Navigation Satellite System (ANSS) . . . . . . . 478
6.4 Integrity Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
6.5 Differential GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
6.6 Regional Satellite Augmentation Systems (RSAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
6.6.1 RSAS EGNOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
6.6.2 RSAS MSAT (MTSAS/JMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
6.6.3 RSAS WAAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
6.6.4 RSAS SDCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
6.6.5 RSAS SNAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
6.6.6 RSAS GAGAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
6.6.7 RSAS ASAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
6.7 Special CNS Effects of ASAS Infrastructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
6.7.1 Purpose and Benefits of ASAS Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
6.7.2 Special Effects of Maritime ASAS System . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
6.7.3 Land Movement Guidance and Control (LMGC) . . . . . . . . 530
6.7.4 Current and New Aeronautical CNS Subsystems . . . . . . . . 532
6.7.5 In-Flight Special Effects of ASAS Networks . . . . . . . . . . . 538
6.7.6 Development Process of ASAS Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
6.7.7 System Configuration of ASAS Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
6.8 Equipment for ASAS Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
6.8.1 NovAtel Reference Receiver G-II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
6.8.2 Master Control Station (MCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
6.8.3 Ground Earth Stations (GES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
6.8.4 Ground Communication Network (GCN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
6.8.5 Space Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
6.9 Mobile RSAS Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
6.9.1 Shipborne RSAS Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
6.9.2 Vehicleborne RSAS Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
6.9.3 Airborne RSAS Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
7 Stratospheric Platform Systems (SPSs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
7.1 Overview to SPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
7.1.1 Architecture and Applications of SPS Networks . . . . . . . . 566
7.1.2 Technical and Geometry Aspect of SPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
7.1.3 Recent Developments of Space Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
xx Contents

7.1.4 SPS Ground Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574

7.2 Aircraft SPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
7.2.1 General Atomic SPS Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
7.2.2 SkyTower (Helios) SPS Global Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
7.3 Airships SPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
7.3.1 Sky Station Global Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
7.3.2 TAO (SkyNet) SPS Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
7.4 Network Solutions via SPS Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
7.4.1 Fixed Communication Networks via SPS Stations . . . . . . . 588
7.4.2 Fixed Broadcasting Networks via SPS Stations . . . . . . . . . 591
7.4.3 Mobile Communication Networks via SPS Stations . . . . . . 593
7.5 Mobile CNS Applications via SPS Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
7.5.1 Maritime CNS Applications via SPS Stations . . . . . . . . . . 598
7.5.2 Land CNS Applications via SPS Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
7.5.3 Aeronautical CNS Applications via SPS Stations . . . . . . . . 604
7.5.4 Mobile Broadcasting Applications via SPS Stations . . . . . . 609
7.6 Mobile Tracking Applications via SPS Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
7.7 Satellite Optical Downlink and High Data Link via SPS . . . . . . . . 615
7.8 Integration of Space System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
7.9 Integration of SPS with Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) . . . . . 620
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
About the Author

Prof. Stojče Dimov Ilčev is Chair of Research and Postgraduate Studies in Space
Science and CNS at Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban, South
Africa. He studied maritime radio engineering and also nautical science at
Montenegro University in Kotor, then maritime electronics and communications at
Rijeka University in Croatia, and postgraduate satellite engineering at Skopje
University in Macedonia and Belgrade University in Serbia. Ilčev holds Bachelor
(BSc), Master in Electrical Engineering (MSc) and Doctor of Science (PhD) degrees.
He also obtained the certificates for Radio operator 1st class (Morse), for GMDSS
1st class Radio Electronic Operator and Maintainer and license for Master Mariner
without limitations. Since 1969, Ilčev worked onboard different merchant ships, in
Satellite Earth Station, at Coast Radio Station in Bar - Montenegro, Jugooceania
Shipping Company, Nautical School and at Maritime Faculty in Kotor -
Montenegro. Since 2000, he worked at IS Marine Radio and CNS Systems com-
panies on research and projects relating to modern Communication, Navigation and
Surveillance (CNS) for maritime, land, and aeronautical applications. He has written
four books on CNS engineering and systems for maritime, land, and aeronautical
applications, and he has many projects and inventions in this field including
DVB-RCS and Stratospheric Platforms.

xxi
Acronyms

16APSK 16-Ary Amplitude and PSK

16PSK 16-Phase Shift Keying
16QAM 16-State Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
32APSK 32-Ary Amplitude and PSK
32PSK 32-Phase Shift Keying
8PSK 8-Phase Shift Keying
AAC Airline Administrative Communications
AAC Airline Administrative Control
AAI Airport Authorities of India
AASS Airborne Assurance Separation System
ABS Auto Beam Switching
ABS Automatic Beam Switching
AC Alternating Current
ACARS Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting
System
ACC Aeronautical Control Centre
ACC Aircraft Control Centre
ACC AIS Control Centre
ACD Adaptive Coding and Modulation
ACE Antenna Control Equipment
ACM Adaptive Code Modulation
ACM Adaptive Coding and Modulation
ACME Antenna Control and Modem Equipment
ACQ Acquisition
ACS Aeronautical Communication Stations
ACS Aeronautical Communication Subsystem
ACS Aeronautical Communication System
ACS Attitude Control System
ACSE Antenna Control and Signaling Equipment
ACU Above Cockpit Unit

xxiii
xxiv Acronyms

ACU Antenna Control Unit

AD Audio Devices
ADE Above Deck Equipment
ADS Automatic Dependent Surveillance
ADS-C Automatic Dependent Surveillance—Contract
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
ADSS Automatic Dependent Surveillance System
AEEC Airline Electronic Engineering Committee
AES Aircraft Earth Station
AES Advanced Encryption Standard
AES Aeronautical Earth Station
AFC Automatic Frequency Control
AFF Army Field Forces
AFF Automated Flight Following
AFTN Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network
AGC Automatic Gain Control
AHD Above Haul Device
AHNIS Aeronautical Highlights and Navigation Information
Services
AIDC ATS Interfacility Data Communications
AIRCOM Air Communications
AIS Aeronautical Information Services
AIS Automatic Identification System
AL Accuracy Lateral
ALAS Aircraft Local Augmentation System
ALC Automatic Level Control
AMBE Advanced Multiband Excitation
AMCP Aeronautical Mobile Communications Panel
AMPS/IS-95 Advanced Mobile Phone System
AMSC Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Communications
AMSC Aeronautical MSC
AMSS Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Service
ANP Actual Navigation Performance
ANRS Aeronautical Navigation Report Services
ANS Aeronautical Navigation Subsystem
ANS Aeronautical Navigation System
ANS Avionics Navigation System
ANSS Aeronautical Navigation Satellite System
AOC Aeronautical Operational Control
AOC Advanced Operational Capability
AOC Aeronautical Operational Control
AOC Airline Operational Communications
AOR Atlantic Ocean Region
APS Air Passenger Services
APV Approach with Vertical
Acronyms xxv

ARC Aeronautical Radio Communications

ARFM Automatic Rain Fade Mitigation
ARINC Aeronautical Radio Incorporated
ARM Advanced RISC Machines
ARS Aircraft Radio Station
ASAS African Satellite Augmentation System
ASCM Adaptive Spreading Code and Modulation
ASI Aeronautical Safety Information
A-SMGC Advanced-SMGC
ASQF Application Specific Qualification Facility
ASS Aeronautical Satellite Service
ASS Aeronautical Surveillance Subsystem
ASS Aeronautical Surveillance System
ASS Airport Surface Surveillance
ASTB African Satellite Test Bed
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service
ATM Air Traffic Management
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATN Aeronautical Telecommunication Network
ATN Aeronautical Telecommunications Network
ATP Authorization to Proceed
ATS Air Traffic Service
ATSC ATS Communication
ATSN ATS Navigation
ATSS ATS Surveillance
AV Accuracy Vertical
AVCS Aerial Vehicle Communications System
AVCS General Atomics Aerial Vehicle Communications System
BACS Broadband Aeronautical Communications Service
BAS Broadband Access Server
BB frames Baseband frames
BB Baseband
BBFRAMES Baseband Frames
BC Backwards Compatible
BCH Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem
BCU Below Cockpit Unit
BDE Below Deck Equipment
BeiDou Big Dipper
BER Bit Error Rate
BER Bit-Error-Rate
BEST Bandwidth Efficient Satellite Transport
BGAN Broadband Global Area Network
BHD Below Haul Device
B-ISDN Broadband ISDN
xxvi Acronyms

BLE Bluetooth Low Energy

BMCS Broadband Maritime Communication Service
BOC Back-up Operations Centre
BOC Base Station
BPE Business Premise Equipment
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
BS AIS Base Station
BS Broadcast Services
BSAN Broadband Satellite Access Network
BSH Bundesamt für Seeschifffahrt und Hydrographie
BSS Broadcast Satellite System
BWA Broadband Wireless Access
CA Conditional Access
CAN Controller Area Network
CAPEX Capital Expenditures
CAT I Category I
CBR Adaptive Constant Bit Rate
CBR Constant Bit Rate
CCF Central Control Facility
CCM Constant Coding and Modulation
CDGP Conventional DGPS
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CDR Critical Design Review
CES Coast Earth Station
CFMC Centre of Fishery Monitoring and Communications
CGM Centre of Global Monitoring
CICA Convention on International Civil Aviation
CIR Committed Information Rate
CMGC Coastal Movement Guidance and Control
CNES Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales
CNR Carrier-to-Noise Ratio
CNS Communication, Navigation and Surveillance
CNS Inmarsat Civil Navigation Satellite Overlay
CNSO Inmarsat Civil Navigation Satellite Overlay
CONUS Continental United States
COTM Communications-On-The-Move
CPDLC Controller Pilot Data Link Communications
CPE Consumer Premise Equipment
CPF Central Process Facility
CRL Communications Research Laboratory of Japan
CRS Coast Radio Station
CSC Coastal Surveillance Centre
CSC Common Signaling Channel
CSD Circuit Switched Data
CTM Customer Terminal Management
Acronyms xxvii

D&E Demonstration and Evaluation

DAB Digital Audio Broadcast
DAP Data Acquisition Platform
DASS Distress Alerting Satellite System
D-ATIS Digital Automatic Terminal Information Service
DBS Direct Broadcast Satellite
DBS-TV Direct Broadcast Service-TV
DC Direct Current
DCAAS Dynamic Channel Activity Assignment System
DCPR Data Collection Platform Repeaters
DCS Data Collection System
DDB Dedicated Distress Button
DDP Data Distribution Plan
DECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
DECT Digital European Cordless Communication
DGA-B DGNSS Augmentation Broadcast
DGPS Differential GPS
DIM Defense Information Management
DLA DirecTV Latin America
DLA Dynamic Link Adaptation
DLNA Diplexer/Low Noise Amplifier
DME Distance Measuring Equipment
DMG Distress Message Generator
DND Department of National Defense (DND) of Canada, the
DNID Data Network ID
DOE Department of Energy
DoIP Data over IP
DoIP Data transmission over Internet Protocols
DSBT Distress Satellite Beacon Tester
DSC Digital Selective Call
DSN Defense Switched Network
DSNG Digital Satellite News Gathering
DSSI Digital Space Systems Inc
DTH Direct-to-Home
DTHTV Direct-to-Home TV
DTMF Dual Tone Multiple Frequency
DTV Direct TV
DTVC/DSNG Digital TV Contribution and Satellite News Gathering
DUT Durban University of Technology
DVB Digital Video Broadcasting
DVB-C DVB-Cable
DVB-RCP Digital Video Broadcasting-Return Channel via Platforms
DVB-RCP Digital Video Broadcasting-Terrestrial
DVB-RCS DVB-Return Channel via Satellite
DVB-S DVB-Satellite
xxviii Acronyms

DVB-S Digital Video Broadcasting via Satellite

DVB-S DVB over Satellite
DVB-S3 (NS3) DVB-S3 and DVB-S2 are Extensions of DVB-S
DVB-T DVB-Terrestrial
DVR Digital Video Recorder
EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
EC European Commission
ECAC European Civil Aviation Conference
ECDIS Electronic Chart Display Information System
EDAS EGNOS Data Access System
EFB Electronic Flight Bag
EFIS Electronic Flight Instrument System
EGC Enhanced Group Call
EGNOS European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System
EIRP Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power
EIRP Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
ELG Electronics Launching Group
ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter
EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility
EMCA European Maritime Core Area
EMEA Europe, Middle East, Africa
ENID Enhanced Data ID
ENT EGNOS Network Time
EO Earth Observation
EPIRB Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon
ERAST Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology
ES Elementary Stream
ESA European Space Agency
ESA/PAA Electronically Steered Array/Phased Array Antenna
ESNP European Satellite Navigation Program
ESTB EGNOS System Test Bed
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
ETG European Tripartite Group
ETM Engine Trend Monitoring
ETSI European Telecommunications Institute
EUMETSAT European Meteorological Satellite Organization
EVGC Enhanced Voice Group Call
EVR Electronic Vehicle Registration
EWAN EGNOS Wide Area Network
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAC Future Aeronautical Communications
FANS Future Air Navigation System
Fax Facsimile
FB FleetBroadband
FDM Flight Data Monitoring
Acronyms xxix

FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access

FDOA Frequency Difference of Arrival
FEC Forward Error Correction
FFPP Flexible Flight Profile Planning
FIFO First-In-First-Out
FIR Flight Information Regions
FIS-B Flight Information Service-Broadcast
FIT Fixed Interactive Terminals
FL Forward Link
FLS Forward Link Subsystem
FMS Flight Management System
FMU Fuselage Mount Unit
FOQA Flight Operations Quality Assurance
FOQA/MOQA Flight and Maintenance Operational Quality Assurance
FPM Flight Plan Management
FQR Factory Qualification Review
FSL Free-space Loss
FSO Avionic Free-space Optics
FSPP Flexible Sailing Profile Planning
FSS Fixed Satellite Service
FSS Flight Standards Service
FSSE Flight Safety Satellite Equipment
FTP File Transfer Protocol
G/T Figure-of-Merit
GABS Globalstar Accounting and Billing System
GACCS Global Aeronautical Corporate and Commercial System
GADSS Global Aeronautical Distress and Safety System
GAGAN Indian GPS/GLONASS and GEOS Augmented Navigation
GAN Global Area Network
GASDL GNSS Augmentation Satellite Data Link
GASDL GNSS Augmentation SDL
GASSC Global Aeronautical Safety Satellite Communications
GAT Global Aircraft Tracking
GAVDL GNSS Augmentation VDL
GAVDL-B GNSS Augmentation Data Link
GAVDL-B GNSS Augmentation VDL-Broadcast
GBAS Ground-based Augmentation System
GBO Globalstar Business Office
GCC Gateway Control Centre
GCN Ground Communication Network
GCS Ground Control Station
GCT Global Container Tracking
GCU Gateway Channel Units
GDN Globalstar Data Network
GDP Ground-station Data Processing
xxx Acronyms

GDSS Global Determination Satellite System

GEM Gimbal Electronics Module
GEM Globalstar Electronic Module
GEO Geostationary Earth Orbit
GEOLUT GEO Local User Terminals
GEOSAR GEO Search and Rescue
GES Base Station
GES Gateway Communication Section
GES Gateway Earth Stations
GES Ground Earth Station
GIC GNSS Integrity Channel
GIC GPS/GLONASS and GEOS Augmented Navigation
GIC Ground Integrity Channel
GIS Geographic Information System
GIS Geo-location Information System
GLCC Global LRIT Control Centre
GMBSS Global Mobile Broadcasting Satellite System
GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
GMM Ground-station Maintenance Monitor
GMPSC Global Mobile Personal Satellite Communications
GMS Galileo Ground Mission Segment
GMS Geostationary Meteorological Satellite
GMS Ground Monitoring Stations
GMS Reference Stations
GMSC Global Mobile Satellite Communications
GMSDS Global Mobile Satellite Distress System
GMSSC Global Maritime Safety Satellite Communications
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GNSSW Global Navigation Satellite WAAS
GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GPS Global Positioning System
GRS Ground Radar Station
GRS Ground Radio Station
GRS VHF Ground Radio Stations
GS Generic Stream
GSAS Global Satellite Augmentation System
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
GSR Ground Surveillance Radar
GSSAO Global Satellite Supports Airline Operations
GST Global Ship Tracking
GTD Global Tacking Device
GUS Ground Uplink Subsystem
GVDL GNSS Data Link via VDL
GVT Global Vehicle Tracking
Acronyms xxxi

GWT Global Wagon Tracking

GX GlobalXpress
HAL Horizontal Alert Limit
HALO High-altitude Long Operation
HAP High-altitude Platforms
HD High Definition
HDL Hardware Description Language
HDR High Data Rate
HDTV High-definition TV
HDTV High-definition Video
HDTV High-definition Television
HEO High Elliptical Orbit
HF High Frequency
HGA High Gain Antenna
HP High Priority
HPA High Power Amplifier
HPL Horizontal Protection Limit
HPT High-power Transceiver
HSD High-speed Data
HSDPA High-speed Downlink Packet Access
HSO Hybrid Satellite Orbits
HSS Homeland Security System
HSU High-speed Unit
HTS High Throughput Satellite
I/O Input/Output
IA Initial Approach
IACO International Aviation Consulting
IAMSAR International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and
Rescue
IATA International Air Transport Association
IAWVG Instrumental Approach with Vertical Guidance
IBO Intelligent Backhaul Optimizer
ICAA Integrity, Continuity, Accuracy and Availability
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ICG International Communications Group
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
IDBS Interactive Digital Broadcast System
IDP IsatData Pro
IDU Indoor Unit
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IERCC International Emergency Response Coordination Centre
IF Intermediate frequency
IFE In-flight Entertainment
IGN Inmarsat Ground Network
IGP Ionospheric Grid Point
xxxii Acronyms

IGPS Interferometric GPS

IIS Intercom/Interphone System
ILS Instrument Landing System
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
IML Intermobile links
IMO International Maritime Organization
IMSO International Mobile Satellite Organization
IMT International Mobile Telecommunications
IMU IF Multiplexer Unit
IMU Multiplexer Unit
INLUS Indian Navigation Land Uplink Station
Inmarsat CNSO Civil Navigation Satellite Overlay
INMARSAT INternational MARitime SATellite
INMCC Indian Mission Control Centre
INRE Indian Reference Equipment
INRES Indian Reference Station
INSAT Indian National Satellite System
IOR Indian Ocean Region
IoT Internet of Things
IP Internet Protocol
IPL Interplatform Links
IPoATM IP over ATM
IPoDVB IP over DVB
IPoS IP over Satellite
IPSEC IP Security Subsystem
IPTV IP Television
IPV Internal Precision Vertical
IRD Integrated Receiver Decoders
IRDT Gonets Inter Regional Data Transmission
IRNSS India’s Regional Navigational Satellite System
IS Interactive Services
ISAS Inmarsat Satellite Augmentation System
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
ISL Intersatellite links
ISP Internet Service Provider
ISR Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance
ISRO Indian Satellite Research Organization
ITDU Intelligent Timing Distribution Unit
ITS Intelligent Transport System
ITS Intelligent Transportation Systems
ITS Iridium Tracking System
ITU International Telecommunications Union
Itv Interactive TV
IWG Interoperability Working Group
JAMSTEC Japan Marine Science and Technology Centre
Another random document with
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 Fig. 17—The horizontal streak caused by
Maddox rod bisecting muscle testing spot-
light for vertical imbalance, as patient
should see it.
Assuming that the patient finds that the streak cuts through the
point of light, the refractionist instantly notes the absence of
hyperphoria. Should the point of light and the red streak not bisect,
prism power must be added by rotating the phorometer’s handle to a
position that will cause the streak to cut through the light (Fig. 17).
While testing for hyperphoria, the red scale should alone be
employed, the white scale being totally ignored.
 Fig. 18—The Maddox rods placed
horizontally test esophoria or exophoria,
causing a vertical streak to be seen by the
patient.

Esophoria and Exophoria

The next step is to set the white lines of the red Maddox rod
either at white zero, or 180° line, with the rods in a horizontal position
(Fig. 18) and the phorometer on the white neutral line, with handle
horizontal (Fig. 19), thus making the test for esophoria or exophoria,
technically known as lateral deviations.
The red streak will now be seen in a vertical position. Should it
bisect the spot of light, it would show that no lateral imbalance exists.
Should it not bisect, the existence of either esophoria or exophoria is
proven, necessitating the turning of the phorometer handle. Should
the refractionist rotate the handle in a direction opposing that of the
existing imbalance, the light will be taken further away from the
streak, indicating that the rotation of the prisms should be reversed.

Fig. 19—The phorometer handle placed

horizontally denotes horizontal muscles
are undergoing test for esophoria or
exophoria indicated by “Es.” or “Ex.”
At the point of bisection (Fig. 20), the phorometer will indicate on
the white scale whether the case is esophoria or exophoria and to
what amount. In testing esophoria (ES) or exophoria (EX), the white
scale is alone employed, no attention being given to the red scale.
 Fig. 20—The vertical streak bisecting
muscle testing spot-light for horizontal
imbalance, as patient should see it.

Making Muscle Test Before and

After Optical Correction
It is considered best to make the binocular test before regular
refraction is made, making note of the findings; and again repeating
the test after the full optical correction has been placed before the
patient’s eye. This enables the refractionist to definitely determine
whether the correction has benefited or aggravated the muscles.
Furthermore, by making the muscle test before and after the optical
correction, a starting point in an examination is frequently attained.
For example, where the phorometer indicates esophoria it is usually
associated with hyperopia, whereas exophoria is usually associated
with myopia, thus serving as a clue for the optical correction.
Assuming for example that the binocular muscle test shows six
degrees of esophoria without the optical correction, and with it but
four degrees, it is readily seen that the imbalance has been
benefited by the optical correction. Under such conditions it is safe to
believe that the optical correction will continue to benefit as the
patient advances in years, tending to overcome muscular defect.

When to Consider Correction

of Muscular Imbalance
In correcting an imbalance, it is also a good plan to adhere to the
following rule: In case of hyperphoria, either right or left, consider for
further correction only those cases that show one degree or more. In
exophoria, those showing three degrees or more. In esophoria,
correct those showing five degrees or more, except in children,
where correction should be made in cases showing an excess of 3°
of esophoria. These rules are naturally subject to variation according
to the patient’s refraction and age, but they are generally accepted
as safe.

Four Methods for Correction

of Muscular Imbalance
There are four distinct methods for correcting muscular
imbalance, each of which should be carried out in the following
routine:
1. Optical correction made with spheres or
cylinders, or a combination of both.
 2. Muscular exercising or “ocular gymnastics.”
This is accomplished on the same principle as
the employment of other forms of exercises,
or calisthenics.
3. The use of Prisms: When the second method
fails, prisms are supplied, with base of prism
before the weak muscle, for rest only.
4. Operation: If the above three methods, as
outlined in the following chapters, have been
carefully investigated, nothing remains but a
tetonomy or advancement, or other operative
means for relief and satisfaction to the patient.

The Rotary Prism

The rotary prism of the Ski-optometer, (Fig. 21) consists of a
prism unit, having a total equivalent of thirty degrees. It is composed
of two fifteen-degree prisms, back to back, so that the turn of its
pinion or handle causes each of its lenses to revolve, one on the
other. When its bases are opposite, they neutralize; when directly
together, they give a total value of thirty degrees. While revolving
from zero to maximum strength, they give prism values which are
indicated on the scale of measurements, the red line denoting the
total prism equivalent.
 Fig. 21—Turning rotary prism’s pinioned
handle gives prism value from zero to 30°
as indicated by prism’s red line indicator.
It is obviously essential to know where the base of the rotary
prism is located. Therefore if prism in or out is desired, the zero
graduations should be placed vertically and the red line or indicator
set at the upper zero (Fig. 21).
A rotation inward to 10 would give a prism equivalent of ten
degrees, base in. A rotation from zero to 10 outward would give a
prism equivalent of ten degrees, base out, etc. With zero graduations
horizontal and the red line or indicator set therewith, a rotation
upward to ten on the scale would give a prism equivalent of ten
degrees, base up. A rotation from zero downward to 10 would give a
prism equivalent of ten degrees, base down.
An understanding of the foregoing will show that a rotation of the
red line, or indicator, will give prism value from zero to 30, with base
up, down, in or out.
 Use of the Rotary Prism in
Binocular Muscle Tests
Should a case be one of esophoria, exceeding the ten degree
range of the phorometer, the rotary prism should be brought into
operative position with cypher (0) graduations vertical (Fig. 21), while
the red line or indicator should be set at 10 on the outer or temporal
scale. The phorometer’s indicator should again be set on the center
or neutral line on the white scale. The rotary prism will then add ten
degrees to the esophoria reading indicated on the phorometer.
Should the case be one of exophoria, exceeding ten degrees, the
indicator should be set at ten degrees upon the inner or nasal scale
and the indicator of the phorometer should then be set at the white
center or neutral line, as in the previous test. Should prism power
ever be required to supplement the phorometer in hyperphoria, the
rotary prism should be employed with zero graduations horizontal,
and the red line or indicator set at ten degrees on upper or lower
scale, as required.
 Chapter VIII
THE MONOCULAR DUCTION MUSCLE TEST

Made with Both Rotary Prisms

W hile the previously described binocular muscle test made with

the phorometer and Maddox rod, only determines the
existence and amount of esophoria, exophoria, and
hyperphoria, neither the faulty nor the deviating muscle is located,
hence a monocular muscle test is essential in order to determine
whether the muscles of the right or left eye are faulty. Furthermore,
an imbalance may possibly be due to either a faulty muscular poise,
or lack of nerve force in one or both eyes. A “duction test” should
accordingly be made of each muscle of each eye separately,
followed by a comparison of the muscular pull of both eyes
collectively.
These tests are commonly termed adduction, abduction,
superduction and subduction, and are defined in the order named.
They include tests of the vertical and horizontal muscles of each eye,
made individually by means of the rotary prisms, each being placed
before the eye undergoing the test.

Locating the Faulty Muscle

The phorometer and the Maddox rod should be removed from
operative position, discontinuing the use of the muscle-testing spot-
light, employed in the previously described binocular test. The optical
correction, if one is required, should be left in place, while the
patient’s attention should be directed, with both eyes open, to the
largest letter on the distant test chart; or if preferable, the Greek
cross in the Woolf ophthalmic, chimney may be used. Either one,
however, should be located on a plane with the patient’s head. As a
guide for the operator, it might be well to remember that when the
handle of the rotary prism is in a horizontal position, the lateral or
horizontal muscles are being tested. On the other hand, when the
handle is in a vertical position, the vertical muscles are undergoing
the test.

Adduction
Adduction, or relative convergence, is the power of the internal
muscles to turn the eyes inward; prism power base out and apex in,
is employed.
 Fig. 22—To test adduction, base out is
required. Rotary prism’s line or indicator
should be rotated from zero outwardly.
To test abduction, base in is required.
Indicator should be rotated inwardly from
zero.
To test adduction of the patient’s right eye, the rotary prism
should be placed in position before the right eye, the red line or
prism indicator being registered at zero upon the prism upper scale.
The two cyphers (0) should be placed in a vertical position with the
handle pointed horizontally (Fig. 21). The rotary prism should then
be rotated so that its red line or indicator is rotated outward from
zero until the large letter—preferably the largest letter, which is
usually “E”—on the distance test-type or the Greek cross previously
referred to, first appears to double in the horizontal plane. The
reading on the scale of measurements should accordingly be noted.
This test should be repeated several times, constantly striving for the
highest prism power that the patient will accept without producing
diplopia. The prism equivalent thus obtained will indicate the right
adduction and should be so recorded, as designated in Fig. 24. The
amount of adduction ranges from 6 to 28, prism diopters, the normal
average being 24.

Abduction
Abduction is the relative power of the external muscles to turn the
eyes outward. Prism power base in and apex out is employed. To
determine abduction, or the amount of divergence of the external
rectus muscle of the right eye, prism power with base in or toward
the nasal side should be employed. The rotary prism will therefore
remain in the same relative position as in making the adduction test
(Fig. 22), with the two cyphers (0) or zero graduations vertical, but
the indicator or red line should be rotated inward from zero, or
towards the patient’s nose.
With the patient’s attention again directed to the large letter “E,”
or the Greek cross, this inward rotation should be continued until
diplopia or double vision occurs. Like the former, this test should be
repeated several times, the refractionist continuing to strive for the
highest prism power which the eye will accept. This will indicate
abduction of the right eye and should be so recorded as designated
in Fig. 24. The amount of abduction ranges from 3 to 10 prism
diopters. The normal average is 8.
The ratio of adduction to abduction is normally rated at about
three to one. In other words, it is conceded that the power of the eye
to converge is normally three times as great as its power to diverge,
the usual measurements being eight to twenty-four respectively.
While applicable in most instances, this may vary in different cases.

Superduction
 Superduction, sometimes termed sursumduction, is the relative
power of the superior recti to turn the eyes upward. Prism power
base down and apex up is employed. To test superduction, the rotary
prism should be placed in position with the two cyphers lying
horizontally, with the handle pointed vertically (Fig. 23). The patient’s
attention should again be directed to the large letter “E”, and the
indicator or red line should be rotated downward from zero. The
highest prism power that the patient will accept before the object
appears to double in the vertical plane will indicate the degree of
right superduction. This should be recorded accordingly. Conditions
of this kind do not usually exceed two or three degrees. The test,
however, should be repeated several times before the final result is
recorded, as indicated in Fig. 24. The amount of superduction
ranges from 1 to 4 prism diopters. The normal average is 2.
 Fig. 23—To test superduction, base down
is required. Rotary prism’s line or indicator
should be rotated downward from zero.
To test subduction, base up is required.
Indicator should be rotated upward from
zero.

Subduction
Subduction, sometimes termed infraduction or deorsumduction,
is the relative power of the inferior recti to turn the eyes downward.
Prism power base up and apex down is employed. To test
subduction, the rotary prism should be operated with zero
graduations placed horizontally, as in the superduction test (Fig. 23),
but the indicator should be slowly rotated in the reverse direction, or
upward from zero. With the patient’s attention again directed to the
large letter “E,” or the Greek cross, the strongest degree prism thus
secured without diplopia will indicate the right subduction. The
amount of subduction ranges from 1 to 4 prism diopters. The normal
average is 2.
Any difference between superduction and subduction, usually
denoting the existence of hyperphoria, should be given careful
consideration.

Procedure for Monocular Muscle Testing

As previously explained, after a duction test of each of the four
muscles of the right eye, the rotary prism before that eye should be
placed out of position and the procedure for adduction, abduction,
superduction and subduction repeated by means of the rotary prism
before the left eye. In case of an existing imbalance, after testing the
muscle of both right and left eyes, the refractionist can quickly
determine which muscle or muscles may be lacking in strength (Fig.
24). In practically every instance muscle exercises or correcting
prisms may then be prescribed with definite knowledge of
requirements, as further described in the following paragraphs.
A binocular muscle test made with the phorometer, Maddox rod
and distant muscle-testing point of light might quickly indicate six
degrees of exophoria, both before and after the optical correction is
made. While this would doubtless be the correct amount of the
manifest imbalance, it would be a difficult matter to ascertain which
muscles caused the disturbance. To determine this important
question, the monocular or duction test should be invariably
employed.

Diagnosing a Specific Muscle Case

Assuming, for example, a specific case where six degrees of
exophoria was determined in the binocular test that the muscle
findings in the duction test show right adduction of twenty-four
degrees, with an accompanying abduction of eight degrees; likewise
a superduction and subduction of two degrees for each eye. With the
aid of a chart or diagram—which should be made in every case—a
comparison of these figures would indicate an exophoria of
approximately six degrees, with a corresponding weak left internus
(Fig. 24). This not only shows the muscle pull of each eye
individually, but a comparison of the two eyes as indicated by the
dotted lines. Thus the relationship of the two eyes, and their
corresponding muscles is quickly indicated.

Fig. 24—Duction chart should be made in every

case. Above readily shows existence of muscular
imbalance and proves subduction and superduction for
both eyes are equal; otherwise hyperphoria would be
disclosed. Also note abduction for both right and left
eye are equal, otherwise esophoria would be
disclosed. Also note adduction for right eye is 24° while
left is but 18°, proving a case of 6° of exophoria with a
left weak internus.

A glance at the above diagram discloses the following three

important facts, all of which should be known to the refractionist
before a single thought can be devoted to the correcting of the case:
1. 6° exophoria is the amount of the insufficiency.
 2. 18° adduction (which should be 24°).
3. Left weak internus.
As previously stated, the power to converge is normally rated 3 to
1, or 8 to 24, as shown above, while the power of the eye to look
upward, is equal to the power to look downward. The diagram
accordingly proves that the muscles of the right eye are in perfect
balance, having equal muscular energy.
A comparison of the left eye shows adduction of 18 degrees with
an abduction of 8 degrees, proving a lateral insufficiency because
the ratio is less than 3 to 1; and the muscles of the left eye are at
fault. The power of 2 degrees superduction and 2 degrees
subduction, proves that no weakness exists in the vertical muscles.
After making the duction test for each eye individually, a
comparison of both eyes in relationship to each other may be more
readily determined by following the dotted lines (Fig. 24).
As previously stated, it is the inability of the two eyes to work
together that causes the imbalance, so that if both eyes were
normal, the adduction, abduction, superduction and subduction of
the two eyes would agree.
The duction chart (Fig. 24.) also shows that the corresponding
muscles of each eye agree—with the exception of the adduction of
the right eye and the left eye. This proves that the left internus is
weak, measuring only 18 degrees instead of 24 degrees; it further
proves the 6 degrees of exophoria in the monocular test, as was
quickly and more readily determined in the binocular test.
Likewise, in cases of esophoria, hyperphoria, or cataphoria, the
making of definite muscle measurements independently through the
prescribed method would show through the merest glance at a
similar diagram which muscle or muscles were relatively out of
balance. Heterphoria of almost any type, or tendencies other than
normal, may be fully investigated by making a thorough and
separate test of each muscle.
Where an imbalance exists, a rapid test may be employed to
distinguish a pseudo or false condition from a true condition. This is
accomplished by first placing the two Maddox rods (both the red and
white) so that the rods lie in a vertical position. If the two lines fuse,
we have determined the existence of a false condition caused by a
possible error of refraction or nerve strain. If the lines separate, we
have determined a true muscular condition, and then only should the
second method of muscular treatment follow.

Ski-optometer Model 205

Same as Model 215 but Automatic Cylinder
Arrangement omitted.

Embodying Spherical Lenses Combined with

Appliances for Testing and Correcting Muscular
Imbalance.
 Chapter IX
FIRST METHOD OF TREATMENT
OPTICAL CORRECTION

T he mere determination of the degree of an imbalance, or even

the diagnosis of a patient’s trouble, is not sufficient. If relief is to
be secured, something more must be accomplished.
As previously stated, muscular imbalance may be corrected
through one of the four following rules or methods, each explained in
their relative order:

1—Optical Correction
2—Muscular Exercise
3—Use of Prism Lenses
4—Operative Methods

Esophoria
To correct a case of muscular imbalance, where six degrees of
esophoria has been determined, the first rule of making the test for
optical correction with the Ski-optometer’s spherical and cylindrical
lenses, would be in the line of routine. The binocular test made with
the phorometer and combined use of the red Maddox rod would
have determined the six degrees of esophoria.
The reason for making the binocular muscle test before and after
the optical correction is because an imbalance is often aggravated or
benefited by the correcting lenses. The optical correction frequently
eliminates the need for further muscular treatment.
 For example, we will assume that the optical correction tends to
decrease the degree of esophoria from six degrees to four degrees.
According to the previously mentioned rule for correcting cases
exceeding one degree in hyperphoria, three degrees in exophoria
and five degrees in esophoria, the condition would indicate that of
being “left alone.” Just what is taking place should be fully
understood—its cause as well as its effect.

Fig. 25—Comparative diagram showing

how a decentered lens before a centered
eye has the same effect as a centered
lens before a decentered eye.
When not otherwise specified, accurately centered lenses are of
primary importance. The pupil of the eye should be directly behind
the center of each lens (Fig. 25).
Figure “A” of the latter sketch illustrates a perfectly centered lens
—its center indicated by a cross, the circle representing an eye
directly behind it. Figure “B” illustrates a perfectly centered pupil
behind a prism, with its center designated by a cross. To ascertain
how the centered spherical lens takes the place of a prism, Figure
“C” should be compared with Figure “B”; this will show that the eye is
decentered, while the lens is centered. A further comparison will
prove that the results in Figures “B” and “C” are identical, the
correcting lenses having practically the same effect through the