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    Ogata - Discrete-Time Control Systems - Aula2

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    2 The z Transform 2-1 INTRODUCTION ‘A mathematical tool commonly used for the analysis and synthesis of discrete-time control systems is the z transform. The role of the z transform in discrete-time systems is similar to that of the Laplace transform in continuous-time systems. ‘Ina linear discrete-time control system, a linear difference equation character- izes the dynamics ofthe system. To determine the system’s response to « given input, Siich a difference equation must be solved. With the z transform method, the solu: tions to linear difference equations become algebraic in nature. (Just as the Laplace transformation transforms linear time-invariant differential equations into algebraic equations in s, the z transformation transforms linear time-invariant difference equations into algebraic equations in z.) ‘The main objective of this chapter isto present definitions of the z transform, basic theorems associated with the z transform, and methods for finding the inverse 7 transform. Solving difference equations by the z transform method is also dis- cussed. Discrete-Time Signals. Discrete-time signals arise if the system involves a sampling operation of continuous-time signals. The sampled signal is x(0),x(7), x(2T),...., where Tis the sampling period. Such a sequence of values arising from the sampling operation is usually written as x(kT). Ifthe system involves an iterative), process cartied out by a digital computer, the signal involved isa number sequence) (0), (1), 2)... The sequence of numbers is usually written as x(le), where the argument & indicates the order in which the number occurs in the sequence, for example, x(0),x(1),2(2)..... Although x(K) is a number sequence, it can be con- sidered as a sampled signal of x(¢) when the sampling period T'is 1 see. vt) wi 2 ‘The z Transform Chap. 2 ‘The z transform applies to the continuous-time signal x(0), sampled signal x(KT), and the number sequence x(k). In dealing with the 2 transform, if no Confusion occurs inthe discussion, we occasionally use x(kT) and x(k) interchange- ably. [That is, to simplify the presentation, we occasionally drop the explicit appear- ance of T and write x(&T) a8 x(K).) Outline of the Chapter. Section 2~1 has presented introductory remarks. Section 2~2 presents the definition of the z transform and associated subjects Section 2-3 gives z transforms of elementary functions. Important properties and theorems of the z transform are presented in Section 2-4, Both analytical and computational methods for finding the inverse z transform are discussed in Section 2-5. Section 2-6 presents the solution of difference equations by the z transform method. Finally, Section 2-7 gives concluding comments. 2-2 THE z TRANSFORM ‘The z transform method i an operational method that is very powerful when working with discrete-time systems, In what follows we shall define the z transform of a time function or a number sequence. In considering the z transform of a time function x(¢), we consider only the sampled values of x(0), thats, x(0),x(T),x(27),...., where Tis the sampling period ‘The z transform ofa time function x(1), where fis nonnegative, or asequence cof values x(KT), where k takes zer0 or positive integers and Tis the sampling period, is defined by the following equation: XG) = Zbx(0) = e647) = Zxcee* ey) For a sequence of numbers x(k), the z transform is defined by e led x@) beth) = Bx @-2) ) ‘The 2 transform defined by Equation (2-1) or (2-2) is referred to as the one-sided 2 transform The symbol 2 denotes “the z transform of." In the one-sided 2 transform, we assume x(t) = Ofor! < Oorx(k) = Ofork <0, Note that zis complex variable. Note that, when dealiig with a time sequence x(&T) abiained by sampling & time signal x(¢), the z transform X(2) involves T explicitly. However, for a number sequence x(k), the z transform X(z) does not involve T explicitly. ‘The 2 transform of x(1). where ~2 < # <=, orof x(k), where takes integer values (K = 0, £1, 22, ++), is defined by Z [x(k] = D xKT)e* Q-3) XG) bo) XG) = ZK) = Extent on) Sec. 2-3 z Transforms of Elementary Functions 25 “The z transform defined by Equation (2-3) or (2-4) is referred to as the nwossided _ transform. tn the two-sided 2 transform, the time function x(¢) is assumed to be nonzero for ¢ < 0) and the sequence x(k) is considered to have nonzero values for E20 Both the one-sided and two-sided z transforms are series in powers of 2~! (Cte later involves both positive and negative powers of 2". In this book, only the vy) one-sided z transform is considered in detail = For most engineering applications the one-sided 2 transform will have a con- venient closed-form solution ints region of convergence. Note that whenever X(2), 4 aninginite series in 2~', converges outside the circle [z| = R, where R is called the / radius of absolute convergence, in using the z transform method for solving discrete- time problems itis not necessary each time to specify the values of z over which X(2) is convergent ‘Notice that expansion of the right-hand side of Equation (2~1) gives X(z) (0) + x(T)z7! + x(2T)27 + +++ + x(KT)Zz* + - (25) Equation 2-5) implies that the z transform of ny continuous-time function x(?) may bbe writen inthe series form by inspection, The z in thisseries indicates the position intime at which the amplitude x(K7) occurs. Conversely, if X(2)igivenin the series “Form as above, the inverse transform can be obtained by inspection as a sequence ofthe function x(&T) that corresponds tothe values ofx(?) atthe respective instants of time If the z transform is given asa ratio of two polynomials in z, then the inverse transform may be obtained by several different methods, such asthe dit “method, the computational method, the partial-traction-expansion method, andthe ‘version integral niethd (Sc Section 2-S for details ) 2-3 2 TRANSFORMS OF ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS In the following we shall present z transforms of several elementary functions. It is noted thatin one-sided z transform theory, in sampling a discontinuous function x(¢), wwe assume that the function is continuous from the right; that is, if discontinuity occurs at ¢ = 0, then we assume that x(Q) is equal to x(0+) rather than to the average at the discontinuity, [e(0—) + x(0-+)}2. Unie Step Function. Let us find the z transform of the unitstep function xo [925 [As just noted, in sampling a unit-step function we assume that this function is ‘continuous from the right; that is, 1(0) = 1. Then, referring to Equation (2-1), we have (9) = Da Leetbete ste 26 The z Transform — Chap. 2 N yQehar 4d 42 ( : AG velo : Far! Mae SY Oh 2 Gehan) Wotice thatthe series converges if [| > 1. In finding the z wansforim the vanavige 2) except at poles of X(z). sty fBLgeR Unit-Ramp Function. Consider the unit-ramp function Sli bet wor 2S Notice that (KT) = KT, k= 0,1,2, : Figure 2-1 depicts the sampled unit-ramp signal. The magnitudes of the sampled values are proportional to the sampling period T. The z transform of the unit-ramp function can be written as XG) = 2 = Sakene = Sar = | = Tet + Det ae) aha Fad dhe pte of the amp | font ey Fd dha 2-4 of the ee ine fepatatt)) \yetye RT \\ tae Eat ete Tole 218 4 OTF i ® Ee Lr an wan \"L5 ee si'cles Lay B \ Fe) oT ate . DO lie 2° VF) TF 4 18 TF eer OD mothely Lod Side of B) A 2 | ob 2") Fl pers, sh (a) (4) OT av at aru) Ripe 2 Sampled Garam pal ‘See. 2-32 Transforms of Elementary Functions a Note that it is a function of the sampling period 7. Polynomial Function at. Let us obtain the z transform of x(k) as defined by oh k= 0,1,2, wwf E20 where @ is a constant. Referring to the definition of the z transform given by Equation (2-2), we obtain X(z) = Zlal] = Dalkjet = Date startet tat Y Exponential Function. Let us find the 2 transform of em, Ost of 1S since UT), k= 41,2, we have x@)=2[e]= Zeunet= Seon SL pee Met eM Sinusoidal Function, Consider the sinvsidal function y= {game 94 0, 1<0 ‘Noting that oe = cos ut + j sinar eM = cost ~ jsinat wwe have 1 (git — e-y sina = (eM ~ e*") wA ey The z Transform — Chap. 2 Since the z transform of the exponential function is Ze X(2) = Zino) = fh ee] (een es vamp 21 ‘Obtain the z transform ofthe cosine function wo=[e 2S I we proceed in a manner similar tothe way we treated the : transform of the sine function, we have X(2) = feos. BZ Ie emmy] J bhe’ gotten fous ofy “FT eoswr +i the at — Bxample 2-2 Hennett Obtain the «transform of ile ee oe ae XO" ees) Whenever a function in sis given, one approach for finding the corresponding z transform is to convert X(s) into x(t) and then find the z transform of x(0). Another ‘approach isto expand (+) into partial fractions and use az transform table to find the transforms of the expanded terms Sill other approaches will be discussed in Section 3-3, Sec. 2-3 2 Transforms of Elementary Functions 2 : ‘The inverse Laplace transform of X() is xei-e Ose bm Xu)yaz [Le Gy ery __tene we= Comments. Just 28 in working withthe Laplace transformation, a table of z transforms of commonly encountered functions i very useful for solving problems in the field of disretetime systems. Table 2-1 is sucha tl a) ys is De say |= Jat) J= tf imetlie = 60) 9d al TABLE2-1_ TABLE OF 7 TRANSFORMS a xe) x 20 or x0) xe) ‘ronester data 5) te - ead 1 o ks0 BoB) ek = 7 week s 1 OL nee a 4 10) 1, gee. 27 tay L [ ar «| ob ¢ Aare [ iw (2 «| 2 | « ay | é ? any ‘ ° era 75] ane 1 = = w| oy | « ke pte fecwet | dane 30 TABLE 2-1 (continued) The z Transform Chap. 2 x6) xO eT or (8) x0) cep Pear Pew retry 2) ae urte wes 3 raiser [eta ee sioukT fe cosukT yl |S leedere| etsnee | eotsnatr HY [ete oT ere 7 | eta emcoser | et rcosak i 1 ‘ me oo ka 123, = . a ee oo pot ar er = nue a a Ue ter eee) * # cork re 2 = % 2 B =O. fers <0 (AT) = x(K) = fork <0 Unless othervce nated, k= 0.1.2.3, Sec. 2-4 Important Properties and Theorems of the z Transform 3 2-4 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND THEOREMS OF THE z TRANSFORM ‘The ase of the 2 transform method in the analysis of discrete-time control systems may be facilitated if theorems of the z transform are referred to. In this section we present important properties and useful theorems ofthe z transform. We assume that the time function x(t) is z-transformable and that x(0) is zero for 1 < 0. ‘Multiplication by a Constant. If X(z) is the z transform of x(0), then Zlax(s)] = a Z[x(0)] = aX(e) where a is a constant. ‘To prove this, note that by definition ax(kTet = a x(eT2" fax] = aX(2) Linearity of the x Transform. The z transform possesses an important prop- ‘erty: linearity. This means that, if (&) and g(k) are z-transformable and a and 8 are scalars, then x(k) formed by a linear combination 2(k) = af(ke) + Bak) has the z transform X(2) = aF(2) + BGC) where F(z) and G(z) are the z transforms of f(k) and g(k), respectively. “The linearity property can be proved by referring to Equation (22) as follows: XG) = Z{e(@)] = Z Lal) + BoC] kfm = D laste + petiole = aS sioe* + eZee (e091 = a2 [fe] + BZ = aF(z) + G2) Muliplication by a. 1£ X(2) is the z transform of x((e), then the z transform of at x(t) can be given by X(a"'z): /Zakx(6)] = Xe") | eo This can be proved 28 follows: zeta] = Zeta" ~aGetayh A tif = X(o"'2) ad Shifting/Theorem. ‘The shifting theorem presented here is also referred to as 7 the real translation theorem. Ifx(¢) = O fort < Oand x(¢) has the 2 transform X(2), thea — 2 Lime debs be (night agg eto chap. 2 © ete nt en 2-8) where n is zero or a positive integer. To prove Equation (2-7), note that Z lee ary} = Dkr ~ erye* v ee Duar-at ef 8) By defining m = k ~ n, Equation (2-9) can be written as follows: Eble = ara et Eames Y Since x(mT) = O for m <0, we may change the lover limit ofthe summation from m= =n tom = 0, Hence, Fle = aT] = 2" D xen = 2X2) v0) ((Bius mlpstion of anim by 2 haste eft of dying the ine ) function x(¢) by time nT. (That is, move the function to the right by time nT)! >? 2 To prove Equation (2-8), we note that (kine acvance) ee tay = a shah Zh + aT) = Ser ane - =e Dxcr sane MH =r Ser rece PBs = of Sxane = fre fe Sane] a For the number sequence x(k), Equatian (2-8) can be written as follows: eemeeaeySeares] From this last equation, we obtain Zixk + D)=2xX@)- 2x0) VY Qany Blk +) = eZ lk +) 2x0) = 2X2) — 2x0) — 1) 12) ee = ZUkle)- eo) 8 | 2 ded 2 PX(a)- nfo) 2 xl) r enfin , 4 ately x 7 -"Le yo ; + al eit) © sec. 2-4 Important Properties and Theorems of the z Transform a Simiarly, Zix(k +m] = 2 X(2) - 22(0) — 2 'x(1) — AFR] — a1) (13) where m is a positive integer ‘Remember that multiplication of the z transform X(z) by z has the effect of advancing the signal x(FeT) by one step (1 sampling period) and that multiplication AY ofthe 2 transform X(z) by 2” has the effect of delaying the signal x(k) by one step {LG samping period), Bxample 2-3 Find the «transforms of unitstep functions that are delayed by 1 sampling petiod and 4 sampling periods, respectively, as shown in Figure 2-2(a) and (>) ‘Using the shifting theorem given by Equation (2-7), we have Zhe N= ZO] =F a Alo, Zlwe- an] = 2200) (ote thar 2“ represen a delay U6 1 sampling period 7, regardless ofthe value of 7) Example 2-4 ‘Obtain the z transform of fee) a, won eee oar a ar er are “0 at wean So or wa a er er Ware iguee 2-2 (a) Untstep function delayed by 1 sampling period; (b) unic- step function delayed by 4 sapling o petiods ee foe eS ace ™ She zTransform —chop.2 Retering to Equation (2-N, ve have Zhe -D)=2"X@) > The z transform of a* is : : ‘ cies prow stale Cea advo Z[fla)] = Zar Y where k= 1,23, vample 2-5 ‘Consider the fnction yl), whichis som of functions xh), where = 01,2, sock tat vik) = Bath, k= 041.2, where y(k) = O for k <0. Obtain the» wansform of y(). Firat note that HE) = x00) Fat x= DH yk = 1) =x) +e) + +x - 1) y Hence, YE) = ye 1) =x), = 01,2, v Therefore, Ziv) -y&- DI=zZ ew) Yee) ~ 21¥@) = XG) which yields Y@ = 7a Xe) where X(2) Complex Translation Theorem. If x(f) has the z transforin X(z), then the z transform of e~*x(2) can be given by X(ze"") This is known as the complex rans- lation theorem ‘To prove this theorem, note that ZleMa(0) = Saenentet = Zane t= xe) 14) Thus, we see that oa in X(2) by ze" gives the z transform of e°*'x(0) 3 Te. Example 2-6 ‘ Given the z transforms of sin a and cos ut, obtain the » transforms of €~* sina and eghem’ eon, repay, by wing he eonplex aston theorem tat) a e') & okt) -(x ra) ool 2s oe eT ee rool a | tet a! = une ae > OF aug at = XG) = Sec. 2-4 Important Properties and Theorems of the z Transform 35 Noting that Z {sin we] gave ve substitute efor x10 obtain th z transform of €* sin cts tows snot Example 2-7 (Obtain the 2 transform of te“ Notice that zu-q =x) Thus, Z le] = Xe") = / SV a Initial Value Theorem, _ Y£x(¢) has the 2 transform X(z) and flim X(z) exists, then the initial value x(0) of x(¢) or x(k) is given by an xO as) To prove this theorem, note that x0) = xe = 0) ate + Oe + Letting 2—>oin this last equation, we obtain Equation (2-155. The behavior ofthe Signal inthe neighborhood of = Gor = Ocan thus be determined bythe behavior ofk@) z= ‘The intel value theorem is convenieat for checking 2 transform calculations for possible errors. Since »(0) is usualy knowa, a check of the inital value by Tim X(2) can easly spot errors in X=), any exist Brample 2-8 Hop ce, ‘Determine the iia valve 2(0 i the = tanatorm of x0) i ven by ye eee 4O)* Gey FF By using the intl value theorem, we find bee HO tng ary 36 The z Transform Chap. 2 Referring to Example 2-2, notice that this X(z) was the 2 transform of x)= 1-e" ich agrees withthe result obtained earlier. Yana tus) =0, Final Value Theorem. Suppose that x(lc), where x(k) = O for k <0, has the = tansform X(2) and that al the ples of 2) Wi inside th unit cute, with the Sateen cog a ee of X(z), or the condition for x(k) (k = 0, 1,: ) to remain finite.] Then the final value of x(), that is, the value of x(k) as k approaches infinity, can be given by Jimx(R) = lim (1 — 2°)X@)] 7) e316) To prove the final value theorem, note that ew=xe)= Sawer (4) 2 [elk - N) = xe) = Ext -mt (2) Hence, talg, {t) -(2), Brie - Bak — et = X@) ~ 271X@) Taking the init as x approaches unity, we have : [= Because of the assumed ae condition and the condition that x(k) = 0 for <0, the left-hand side of this last equation becomes ste Sace= ne] gta -e9x0 Eo ~ 20k 1 = 0) ~ (961 + ea) ~ 20) “a £ +(x) ~ x(Q)] + Hence, fim x(k) = Him (1 = 2°.X@)] which is Equation (2-16). The final value theorem is very useful in determining the behavior of x(k) as k—»e from its z transform X(z). Root the weed foe fab! 1. gts. Example 2-9 Determine the final value x(=) of x)= a>0 by using the final value theorem, By applying the final value theorem to the given X(z), we obtain Sec, 2-5 The laverse z Transform a x(@) = im (1 - 2)X(2)} nisl eters x) ‘Asa matter of course, the two results agree. ‘Summary. In this section we have presented important properties and theo- rems of the z transform that will prove to be useful in solving many z transform problems. For the purpose of convenient reference, these important properties and theorems are summarized in Table 2-2. (Many of the theorems presented in this table are discussed in this section. Those not discussed here but included in the table are derived or proved in Appendix B.) 2-8 THE INVERSE z TRANSFORM ‘The z cansformation serves the same role for discrete-time control systems that the Laplace transformation serves for continuous-time control systems. For the 2 trans- form to be useful, we must be familiar with methods for finding the inverse z transform ‘The notation for the inverse z transform is 2~?. The inverse z transform of X(2) yields the corresponding time sequence x(k), it should be noted that only the time sequence at the sampling instants is obtained from the inverse z transform. Thus, the inverse z transform of X(z) yields 2 unique x(k), but does not yield a unique x(t). This means that the inverse 2 transform yields a time sequence that specifies the values of x(¢) only at diserete instants of time, ¢ = 0,7,27,,..., and says nothing about the values of x(t) at all other times. That is, many different time functions x(¢) can have the same x(K7) See Figure 2-3. When X(2), the 2 transform of (AT) or x(k), is given, the operation that determines the corresponding x(K7) or x(k) is called the inverse z transformation ‘An obvious method for finding the inverse 2 transform is to refer to a ztraasform table, However, unless we refer to an extensive z transform table, we may aot be able to find the inverse z transform of a complicated function of z. (JE we use a less extensive table of z transforms, it is necessary to express a complex z transform as ‘sum of simpler z transforms. Refer to the partil-fraction-expansion method presented in this section.) ‘Other than referring to 2 transform tables, four methods for obtaining the inverse 2 transform are commonly available: | ~~ y 28 The 2 Transform — Chap. 2 TABLE2-2 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES ANO THEOREMS OF THE 2 TRANSFORM 3@ Ztet0]_or Sis0) 7 a ax@) 3] en) + bat amie) + OR) 3 | eT) w xD =x) = =(0) @ x47) FRG)-#x =a) ae x(k +2) 2 X(z) - 27x(0) — 2x(1) 6 ats AT) PRG) — FXO - P= wT =D) ia x(t ~ kT) 2 *X(2) 8. x(n + k) 2X(z) - 2*x(0) Sx(I) — 0+ ~ ex(k = 1) a at) zc) , {wo et) ae dex(k) [a oH) Xe) ‘Te. en) XG) “ x x) ; a yf 1s. axe) oda) (16. x0) Tim (2) ifthe limit exists 7 — im{@~ =-)X(@)} if A — VG) analy on " oo) Fa FU wean Gl 16 | te) = x)=) @ = ox@) | axe) = x FD — He) _DK@) = 20) 20 2x rw 2 Extn Exea > eee (=f) xo | Etnyor =m xore) x Sate) xa) Sec. 2-5 The Inverse z Transform 9 wr : Figure2-3. Two diferent continuous-time functions, x() and (0), that ave the same values at 0, 7,27, 1. Ditect division method 2. Computational method 43, Partial-raction-expansion method 4, Inversion integral method In obtaining the inverse 2 transform, we assume, as usual, that the time sequence x(kT) or x(k) is zero for k <0. Before we present the four methods, however, a few comments on poles and. zeros of the pulse transfer function are in order. Poles and Zeros inthe z Plane. In engineering applications ofthe z transform method, X(z) may have the form boa + yz +t by XQ) = aa,” msn) @-17) or bole = le — = poe ~ Pad 2...) ate the poles of X(z) and the 2/3 (j= 1,2,..-.m) X@)= where the p/’s (= the zeros of X(2) ‘The locations of the poles and zeros of X(z) determine the characteristics of (6), the sequence of values or numbers. As in the case of the 5 plane analysis of linear continuous-time control systems, we often use a graphical display in the z plane of the locations of the poles and zeros of (2). ‘Note that in control engineering and signal processing X(z) is frequently expressed as a ratio of polynomials in 2, ag follows: paz ot bya tent noe tg? TPaethaget. tae X@)= (2-18) 40 ‘The z Transform — Chap. 2 ‘where 2”? is interpreted as the unit delay operator. In this chapter, where the basic properties and theorems of the z transform method are presented, X(z) may be expressed in erms of powers of z, as given by Equation (2~17) or in terms of powers of 2", as given by Equation (2-18), depending on the circumstances, Infinding the poles and zeros of ¥(2) it iz convenient to express X(e) asa ratio of polynomials in z For example, xGy = ZtOS 2 +05) "37542" +E +D Clearly, X(z) has potes at z = ~1 and z = ~2 and zeros at z = O and 2 = 0.5 1fX(2) is written as a ratio of polynomials in 2, however, the preceding X(z) can be written as Barat are 140527" XO" Tarte TFG Pay Although poles at = ~1andz = —2and azeroat z = ~0.5 ate cleanly seen from the expression, a zero at = Ois not explicitly shown, and so the beginner may fail tosee the existence of azero at z = 0. Therefore, in dealing with the poles and zeros of X(2), itis preferable to express X(z) as a ratio of polynomials in z, rather than polynomials in z~. In addition, in obtaining the inverse z transform by use of the inversion integral method. itis desirable to express X(z) as a ratio of polynomials, inz, rather than polynomials in z*, to avoid any possible erors in determining the “humiber of poles at the origin of function X(z)2"™ A\: Direct Division Method. In the direct division method we obtain the inverse 2 transform by expanding X(z) into an infinite power series in 2’. This method is ifficult to obtain the closed-form expression for the inverse z Find only the first several terms of x(&). mn method stems from the fact that if X(z) is expanded into 4 power series in 2”, that is, if Xz) Bren = x(0) + (Ts + x27)2 + (erat + X(2) = Exe = (0) + (127! + x(2)z-2 + + xe then x(K7) or x(k) isthe coefficient of the 2" term, Hence, the values of x(K7) or x(k) for k = 0,1,2,... can be determined by inspection. EX (2) is given in the form of a rational function, the expansion into an infinite Power series in increasing powers of 2" ean be accomplished by simply dividing the numerator by the denominator, where both the numerator and denominator of X(z) are written in increasing powers of 2°" Ifthe resulting series is convergent, the Sec. 2-5 The Inverse z Transform a coefficients of the z~* term in the series are the values x(KT) of the time sequence fr the values of x(k) of the number sequence ‘Although the present method gives the values of x(0),x(T),x(27),. or the values of x(0),x(1),x(2),... in a sequential manner, itis usually difficult to obtain tan expression for the general term from 2 set of values of x(K7) or x(k). ,-—~ Example 2-10 Find +(&) for & = 0,1,2,3,4 when X(2) is given by . 2 48 10: +5 7 XO)" Gre =0H) piel i of polynomials in 2, as follows: 10s" + se"* ey = XO)" ison First, eweite X(2) 35 @ Dividing the numerator bj the denominator, we have 10s"! + 172"? + 18.424 6 18.6827" + foresee 18d? ame 3 Tees 268 1st — 22.4160" + 3.7360"* Thus, X(z) = 102" + 172 + 18.427? + 18.682" + ae _Eysoopion ns inintsees expo of.) 0.20) = Boxe, wwe obtain (0) x() = 10 ¥ xQ)=17 XG) = 184 x(4) = 18.68 ‘Asseen from this example, the direc division method may be earried out by hand calculations if oaly the frst several terms ofthe sequence are desired. In general, the method does not yield a closed-form expression for x(k), except in special cass. Example 2-11 Find x(k) when X(2) is given by x) XO)" Tee 2 The z Transform Chap. 2 By comparing this infinite series expansion of X(2) with X(z) = Divox(k)z obtain = el O=0 sa=t thee & xQ)=-1 wo & ¢ 2Q)=1 a er gree x)= -1 This is an alternating signal of 1 and ~) 2 plot ofthis signal. Which starts from k= 1. Figure 2-4 shows Beample 2-12 ‘Obtain he inverse 2 transform of X(2) 21422 4 37 4 ae? ‘The transform X(2) is already inthe form of a power series in 2" Since X(z) has a finite number of terms, it corresponds to a signal of finite length. By inspection, we fd — x()=1 won x) x@)-4 Alother x(b) values are ero 2. Computational Method. In what follows, we present two computational ap- roaches to obtain the inverse z transform, 1, MATLAB approach 2. Difference equation approach Consider a system G(2) defined by (19) In finding the inverse 2 transform, we utilize the Ki where Sec. 2-5 The Inverse z Transform 3 & (KT) = » fork =o fork #0 ‘Assume that +(&), the input to the system G(z), is the Kronecker delta Input, o x@) 21, fork=0 =0, fork #0 ‘The 2 transform of the Kronecker delta input is X@)=1 Using the Kronecker delta input, Equation (2-19) can be rewritten as 2 G2) __ 0.46732" ~ 05393277 GO)" XG)" T= 15307 + 0.66072 0.46732 ~ 03393 Fa 1 Sie + 0.6607 MATLAB Approach. MATLAB can be used for finding the inverse = transform. Referring to Equation (2-20), the input X(z) isthe z transform of the Kronecker delta input. In MATLAB the Kronecker delta input is given by (2-20) [1 zerost1 where N corresponds to the end of the discrete-time duration of the process consid- ered ‘Since the z transform of the Kronecker delta input X(z) is equal to unity, the response of the system fo this input is, 0.46732 ~ 0.33932"? 0.46732 ~ 0.3393 <1 Sane + 0.66072 153272 + 0.6607 Hence the inverse 2 transform of G(z) is given by y(0},y(1),»(2),..-. Let us obtain y(&) up to k= 40. ‘To obtain the inverse z transform of G(z) with MATLAB, we proceed as follows: Enter the numerator and denominator as follows: ¥@) = G@) => 0.4673 -0.3393) 15327 0.6607) den (0 Enter the Kronecker delta input. Ca 1 zeros, 40}) ‘Then enter the command ihter(um,den,) “ The 2 Transform Chap. 2 ‘Summarizing, the MATLAB program to obtain the inverse z transform or the response to the Kronecker delta input is as shown in MATLAB Program 2-1 MATLAB Program 2-1 oh —— Finding inverse 2 transform ——- {4 "70 Finding the verse 2 ansform of Gla isthe same as ‘finding the response ofthe system Via) = Gl) the ‘Yekronecker dai input ree" ‘#74 Enter the numerator and denominator of Gl * um = [0 0.4673 0.3393); en [1 1.5327. 0.66071; Enter the Kronecker deta input x and iter cominand herdnum.denvd xe lt zero A0l); y= filter If this program is executed, the screen will show the output y(k) from k as follows: ee Columns 1 through 7 0 0.4673 0.3769 0.2690 0.1632 0.0725 CColurnns 8 through 14 =0.0429 ~0.0679 ~0.0758 -0.0712 0.0591 -0.0436 ~ Columns 15 though 21 0.0137 -0.0027 0.0050 0.0094 0.0111 0.0108 Columns 22 through 28 0.0070 0.0046 0.0025 0.0007 -0.0005 ~0.0013 ~ Columns 28 through 35 -0.0016 ~0.0014 ~0,0011 ~0.0008 ~0.0004 -0 0002 Columns 36 through 41 8.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0001 Oto 40 0.0032 0.0277 0.0092 0.0016 0.0000 (Note that MATLAB computations begin from column 1 and end at column 41, rather than from column 0 to column 40 ) These values give the inverse 2 of G(z) hat 1s, 70) = 0 0.4673 0.3769 0.2690 transform Sec. 2-5 The Inverse z Transform 45 y(40) = 0.0001 To plot the values of the inverse 2 transform of G(z), follow the procedure given in the following, Plotting Response to the Kronecker Delta Input. Consider the system given by Equation (2-20). A possible MATLAB program to obtain the response of this system to the Kronecker delta input is shown in MATLAB Program 2-2. The corresponding plot is shown in Figure 2-5. (MATLAB Program 2-2 ‘ys Response to Kronecker deta input —— ‘num = [0 0.4673 0.3393]; den = (1 1.5327 0.6607]: xe[trerost40)}; (0 40-1 tl; axis, 40; {y= eriow,den.3); ploty0') ed {le(Response to Kronecker Dela Input) label k) abel 00) \ esponce to Kronecker Det put od ot 2 a a seveoeee oa ee ee Figure 2-5. Response of the system defined by Equation (2-20) othe Kronecker dla input 46 The z Transform — Chap. 2 If we wish to connect consecutive points (open circles, o) by straight lines, we need to modify the plot command from plot(k,y,c) to plotk,y,'o",k,y,'~’). Difference Equation Approach. Noting that Equation (2-20) can be written as, (2 = 1.93272 + 0.6607) (2) = (0.46732 — 0.3393)X(2)y ‘we can convert this equation into the difference equation 2s follows: y(k + 2) ~ 15327y(k + 1) + 0.607y(K) = 0.4673x(k + 1) ~ 0.3393x(K) (2-21) lec aes Us where x(0) = 1 and 2(k) = 0 for & #0, and y(K) = 0 for k-<0, [x(k) isthe —-— Kronecker delta input.) ey “Te ll deta y(0) and y() con be determined os flows: By substituting Jeo.) Fo ~Pime Eaton 2-23), we tna 8 HO) = 1.532I9(-1) + 0.6 (~2) = 246734(—1) ~ 0.3393x(-2) TTL co from which we get > oe yO) =O Next, by substituting k = ~1 into Equation (2-21), we obtain S91) = 1.532790) + O.6607y(—1) = 0.467%x(0) = 0 230%4(—1) : sal SH ¢ “ Oo ° 1 (1) = 0.4673 Finding the inverse z transform of ¥(z) now becomes a matter of solving the following difference equation for y(&: lk + 2) = 15327y(ke + 1) + 0.6607y(k) = 0.4673x(k + 1) — 0.3393x(K) 2-22) ‘with the initial data y(0) = 0, y(1) = 0.4673, x(0) = 1, and x(k) = 0 for k + 0. J) “7 Egustion 2-22 canbe solved enti by han, or by ue of BASIC, FORTRAN, of other. vi Partial-Fraction-Expansion Method. ‘The partial-raction expansion method presented here, which is porallel to the partial-fraction-expansion method used in Laplace transformation, is widely used in routine problems involving z transforms. The method requires that all terms in the partial fraction expansion be easly recognizable in the table of z transform pairs. ‘To find the inverse z transform, if X(z) has one or more zeros at the origin (2 = 0), then X(2)/2 or X(2) is expanded into a sum of simple frst-or second-order terms by partial fraction expansion, and a 2 transform table is used to find the corresponding time function of each expanded term. Its noted that the only reason that we expand X(z)/z into partial fractions is that each expanded term has a form that may easily be found from commonly available z transform tables a Sec. 2-5 The Inverse z Transform ar Example 2-13 ‘Before we discuss the partal-fraction-expansion method, we shal review the shifting theorem. Consider the following X(2) XQ) By writing 2X(z) as ¥(2), we obtain 2X(2) = Y(e) = the inverse z transform of ¥(2) can be obtained 25 follows: 2ME)] = y= at 1Y(2) i given bY ye) Retering to Table Hence, the inverse 2 transform of X(2) 27UK@)) = 20) = k=) a tee Consider X(2) a8 given by ay = Doe bt + ot Dye +, xe) Peg t F Gyn + On ‘To expand X'(.) into partial fractions, we first factor the denominator polynomial of X(2) and ind the poles of X(2) burt yew ot yt + by x) = MEE St bet + ba = Pe = Pd ~ Pe) ‘We then expand X (22 into partial fractions so that each term i easly recognizable in a table of 7 transforms. If the shifting theorem is utilized in taking inverse 2 raagsorns, however, X(), instead of H(e)/2 may be expanded into partal frac racine inverse transform of X(2) ts obtained ss the sum of the inverse 2 transforms of the partial fractions. “Acommonly used procedure for the case where all the poles are of simple order land there is at least one zero at the origin (that is, 6 = 0) isto divide both sides ‘ofX(z) by 2 and then expand X(z)/2 into patial fractions. Once X(z)/zis expanded, it will be of the form XQ). _ 4, 4 + 2 E=B tom z The coefficient a,can be determined by multiplying both side of ths last equation by 2 ~ piand setting z = p,. This will result in 2er0 forall the terms on the right-hand side except the a term, in which the multiplicative factor z ~ pj has been canceled by the denominator. Hence, we have msn os Pe 48 The z Transform — Chap. 2 Note that such determination of a is valid only for simple poles. If X(2)/z involves a multiple pole, for example, a double pole at z = p; and no other poles, then X(z)/2 will have the form XG) z @=py The coefficients ¢ and c; are determined from -(le-o@2]., Its noted that i X(z)/z involves a triple pole at z = p, then the partial fractions must include a term (z + p:)/(z — p,)’. (See Problem A-2~8.) Example 2-44 (Given the x transform x@)= where ais a constant and Tis the sampling period, determine the inverse z transform <(KT) by use of the partial-fraction-expansion method. ‘The partial fraction expansion of X(2V/ is found to be Xe) Thos, From Table 2-1 we find Example 2-15 Lot us obtain the inverse = transform of xG)= by use of the partiahfraction-expansion method, ‘We may expand X(2) into patil fractions as follows wey sph + pt Sec 2-5 The Inverse z Transform «a Noting that the two poles involved in the quadratic term of this last equation are complex conjugates, we rewrite X(z) as follows: x@) Since Sino. coaak +e by ideotiging e#? =i and coseT =4 in this case, we have of = 2/3 and Sino? = V2, Hence, we obain r ‘Thus, we have watt) = 308%) cos DZ 4 Lae gin = De 4) = 409) = 30079 cos SBE + F001 sn Rewriting, we have" : x0) =0 ae #63) [Note thatthe inverse z eanstorm of X(z) can also be obtained as follows X(2) = 42 Since 50 Thez Transform Chap. 2 and ke a we have nae [4 ke 1,2, 2, kso Although hit sostion may lok diferent from the one obtained eariar, both solutions fae corect and yield the same values for (8) Inversion Integral Method. This isa useful technique for obtaining the in- verse 2 transform. The inversion integral forthe 2 transform X(z) is given by 1 1, ZX] = XRD) = x00) = at Xe) tdz (2-23) where Cis a cicle with ts center atthe origin ofthe z plane such that all poles of X(2)e"™ are inside it. [For the derivation of Equation (2-25), see Appendix B.)-> GJ ‘The equation for giving the inverse z transform in terms of residues can be po derived by using theory of complex variables. It can be obtained as follows: X(T) = x(k) = Ky + Kyo + Ky . = Spresidueot x(z)e"“atpolez = 2ofX(e)e""] (2-24) where Ki, Kis... , Ky denote the residues of X(2)2*“ at poles 21,23, .- ZmsTespec- tively. (For the derivation of this equation, see Appendix B.) In evaluating residues, note that if the denominator of X(z)z*"* contains a simple pole z = z, then the 1g residue K is given by K = lim[(e = 2)X(@)2""] ¥ 28) am Note that the values ofk in Equations (2-24), (2-25), and (2-26) are nonnegative integer values. If X(z) has a zero of order r atthe origin, then X(2)2"“' in Equation (2-24) will involve a zero of order r + & ~ 1 at the origin. Ifr = 1, then r + k— 120 for k = 0, and there is no pole at z = On X(z)2"". However, ifr = 0, then there will be a pole at z = 0 for one or more nonncgative values of K. In such a vase, separate inversion of Equation (2-24) is necessary for euch such value of k- (See Problem A-2-9.) Tt should be noted that the inversion integral method, when evaluated by residues, is a very simple technique for obtaining the inverse z transform, provided that X(z)z*! has no poles atthe origin, » = 0, If, however, X(z)2""' has a simple pole ora multiple poie at z = 0, then caleulations may become cumbersome and the Sec. 2-5 The Inverse z Transform 81 partial-fraction-expansion method may prove to be simpler to apply. On the other hhand, in certain problems the partial-fraction-expansion approach may become laborious. Then, the inversion integral method proves to be very convenient Example 2-16 (Obtain x(K7) by using the inversion integral method when X(z) is given by XG) Note that fg et XO For k=0,1,2,.X(z)s*! has two simple poles, z= z= 1 and Hence, fram Equation (2-24), we have [reine ot 5 mae sate z | oe De =K4R where 1K, [vesidue at simple pote «= 1} = tim] ( - geen] / wgle ogy] y= [residue at simple pote 2 = «| = tim | (ee) OS) = “ ult e-Te= | “ Hence, . MAT) = K+ R18, = 12, Example 2-17 (Obtain the inverse x transform of by us 7 and a double pole at 1,2, X(2)a"“ has a simple pote at 2 Hence, from Equation (2-24), we obtain For k =KaK 2 Thez Transform Chap. 2 where Ky = [residue at simple pole 2 = e°*?] al eSe; = [residue at double pole z = 1) a ee a Hence, eee cess “TT 2.6 z TRANSFORM METHOD FOR SOLVING DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS Difference equations can be solved easily by use of a digital computer, provided the numerical values of all coefficients and parameters are given. However, closed-form expressions for x(k) cannot be obtained from the computer solution, except for very special cases. The usefulness of the 2 transform method is that it enables us to obtain the closed-form expression for x(k). Consider the linear time-invariant discrete-time system characterized by the following linear difference equation: x(k) + ayx(k ~ 1) +o + yet — nm) = Dau(k) + yuk = 1) +--+ + byulk nm) Q-27) where u(k) and x(k) are the system’s input and output, respectively, at the kth iteration. In describing such a difference equation in the z plane, we take the z transform of each term in the equation, Let us define 21e(4)] = X@) Then x(b + 1),x(le + 2),x(k + 3),, and x(& ~ 1),x(k — 2),x(k — 3),-..canbe expressed in terms of X(z) and the initial conditions Their exact 2 ransforms were erived in Section 2~4 and are summarized in Table 2-3 for convenient reference. Next we present two example problems for solving difference equations by the + transform method See. 2-6 2 Transform Method for Solving Difference Equations 53 ‘TABLE 2-2. TRANSFORMS OF xik + m) ANO xik ~ m) Discrete function = Transform Hk +9) PRG) — FH) — Px(l) ~F3@)— =O) xe +3) PX(@) ~ Px(0) — Fx(1) ~ 2) xk+2) #X(@) ~ Px(0) ~ 22(0) ye +1) 2X(z) ~ 2(0) x0) x@) xe) 2X) x -2) 2X@) xe -3) 27X@) xe —8) xe) Example 2-18 Solve the following difference equation by use of the z transform method: E42) + 3e(k +1) + 2H) = 0, (0) =O, x= 1 rote that the 2 transforms ot x(k + 2), x(k + 1), and x(k) are given, iy, by elk +2)] = PX) ~ 28x(0) - 0) ZUelk +] = 2X(2) - 2200) 21x(@)] = XG) “aking the z transforms ofboth sis ofthe given diffrence equation, we obtain PX(2) = z2x(0) ~ ni(i) + 32X(@) ~ 32x) + 2K) = 0 Substituting the inital data and simplifying gives Noting that we have Example 2-19 Obtain the solution of the following difference equation in terms of x(0) and x(1): x(k +2) + (@ + D)x(k #1) + abx(k) = 0 where a and b are constants and K-= 01,2, 4 The z Transform — Chap. 2 ‘The = transform of this difference equation ean be given by [2XG) ~ #x(0) ~ zx(1)] + (@ + BEC) ~ xO] + abX(2) = 0 [et + @ 4 D)z + abIXL) = [24 + (@ + B)zIe(O) + 2x(1) Solving ths last equation for X(2) gives [E+ (@ + b)eIe(0) + 2x00) Ee e+ b) tab Notice that constants a and b are the negatives ofthe two roots of the characteristic equation. We shall now consider separately two cases: (a) a + b and (6) a = b X() (a) For thecase where a + b, expanding X(z)/z into partial fractions, we obtain XC) bx(0) + x0), ae) #2) 1 2 rea re avs from which we get be) +x) axl) #01) boa Ttat* ab xe) ‘The inverse z transform of X(2) gives bx +x), x0) = 72) ay ath where k= 0,1,2, (©) For the case where @ = b, the z transform X(2) becomes sage) = LE 2020) + 200) Fala te 2) , #lex(0) + (0) rte’ Gta? = OL, , fer) + se Te Gray “The inverse z transform of X(2) gives x(B) = x(0)(~a)! + fax(0) + xQ))K(-ay", ab where & = 0.1.2, 2-7 CONCLUDING COMMENTS In this chapter the basie theory of the z transform method has been presented. The 2 transform serves the Same purpose for linear time-invariant discrete-time systems ‘asthe Laplace transform provides for linear time-invariant continuous-time systems The computer method of analyzing data in discrete time results in difference equations. With the z transform method, linear time-invariant difference equations can be transformed into algebraic equations. Ths facilitates the transient response analysis of the digital control system. Also, the z transform method allows us to use Chap, 2 Example Problems and Solutions 5 conventional analysis and design techniques available to analog (continuous-time) control systems, such as the root-locus technique. Frequency-response analysis and design can be carried out by converting the z plane into the w plane. Also, the ‘transformed characteristic equation allows us to apply a simple Stability test, such ty stability eiterion. These subjects will be discussed in detail in Chapters EXAMPLE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS Problem A-2-1 (Obtain the = transform of G*, where G is an n Xm constant matrix, Solution By definition, the 2 transform of G*is SOE + Get 4s + - Gry" = (1-6): [Note that G* can be obtained by taking the inverse z transform of (I ~ G2" or (21 ~ G)""2. That is, Gt e2-Ya-@7)" 2-et - G2] Problem A-2-2 (Obtain the » transform of & Solution By definition, the 2 transform of Kis giel=Seeta eta te se ert + Reds NUE Bete Get HO HSE) ra+e) Gos Hore we have used the closed-form expression (1 ~ 2°!) for the infinite series involved in the problem. (See Appendix B ) Problem A-2-3 ‘Obtain the 2 transform of ka by two methods. Solution Method 1 By definition, the z transform of ka!” is piven by tar) Sua Bote baat mL Das! 4 Baha dah) The z Transform Chap. 2 Method 2. The summation expression forthe 2 transform of ka'“* cin also be written as follows: etka) = Sat zl 5a(z) Problem Ando Show that o[S-)] - and & 2(8) = lin x) (2-28) Alto show that (2-29) where 1 Ss & Solution Define ye) = Bx, so that 3700) = x) y) = x(0) + (2) y2) = x(0) + x(2) + x02) yk) = ¥(0) + (2) +x) + #4) ‘Then, clearly yk) = ye = 1) = 300) By writing the z transforms of x(k) and y(k) as X(z) and ¥(z), respectively, and by taking the £ transform of this ast equation, we have Yt) ~ 21¥@) = x) Hence, Ya) = pax) Chap. 2 Example Problems and Solutions 7 2[Ex]-20e1- re = and “ {S.0]-s50-m-2e By using the Final value theorem, we find cle) mye) Exn= 300 | Next, to prove Equation (2-29), ist define 50) = Sati) =a e+ tte) where 1 transform of __es- 2) aod oa ‘Use (1) the pari raction-expansion method and 2) the MATLAB method. Write 4 MATLAB program for finding x(K), the inverse z transform of X(e) Problem B-2-10 Given the 2 wransform 4X0) = GIF 0F Ta OY termine the initial and final values of x(8), Also find x(), the inverse z wansform (of X(2), in a closed form Problem B-2-11 (Obtain the inverse = transform of ‘Use (1) the inversion integral method and (2) the MATLAB method. Problem BH2-12 (Obtain the inverse z transform of ina closed form Problem B-2-13, By using the inversion integral method, obtain the inverse transform of LG GC Problem B-2-14 Find the inverse 2 transform of xa Use (1) the direct division method and (2) the MATLAB method Problem B-2-15, Obtain the inverse = transform of 0.368" + 0.4782 + 0.154 =F Xiz)= by use of the inversion integrat method Chap. 2 Problems n Problem B-2-16 Find the solution of the following difference equation: Ce +2) ~ Lax(k +1) + 04r(9 and x(k) = 0 for k <0 For the input function u(k), consider where x(0) © x the following two eases: afl 01,2, WO=1o

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