Oxford Successful Physical Sciences Grade 10 Learner's Book - Compressed

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Contents
About the authors .....................................................................................................................................................5
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................................5
How to use this book ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Programme of Assessment ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Skills for Physical Sciences .......................................................................................................................................9
Module 1 Matter and materials (Part 1) 21

Unit 1 Revising matter and classification................................................................................................................22
Unit 2 States of matter.............................................................................................................................................30
Unit 3 Kinetic molecular theory..............................................................................................................................34
Unit 4 Atoms and atomic models...........................................................................................................................37
Unit 5 Atomic mass and diameter...........................................................................................................................40
Unit 6 Structure of the atom...................................................................................................................................42
Unit 7 Electron configuration.................................................................................................................................44
Unit 8 The periodic table.........................................................................................................................................50
Unit 9 Chemical properties of Groups 1, 2, 17 and 18...........................................................................................60
Unit 10 Chemical bonding and Lewis diagrams.......................................................................................................63
Unit 11 Covalent bonding.........................................................................................................................................66
Unit 12 Ionic bonding...............................................................................................................................................69
Unit 13 Metallic bonding..........................................................................................................................................72
Module 1 Summary...................................................................................................................................................74
Module 1 Revision and extension.............................................................................................................................75
Module 2 Waves, sound and light 77

Unit 1 Transverse pulses..........................................................................................................................................78
Unit 2 Superposition of pulses................................................................................................................................80
Unit 3 Transverse waves..........................................................................................................................................82
Unit 4 Wave speed...................................................................................................................................................84
Unit 5 Longitudinal waves......................................................................................................................................88
Unit 6 Longitudinal waves and sound....................................................................................................................90
Unit 7 Sound phenomena.......................................................................................................................................92
Unit 8 Ultrasound and beyond human perception................................................................................................96
Unit 9 The nature of electromagnetic radiation.....................................................................................................98
Unit 10 Electromagnetic spectrum..........................................................................................................................100
Unit 11 Photons.......................................................................................................................................................102
Module 2 Summary.................................................................................................................................................104
Module 2 Revision and extension...........................................................................................................................105

Unit 1 Representing atoms and compounds.........................................................................................................108
Unit 2 Molecular substances.................................................................................................................................112
Unit 3 Ionic substances.........................................................................................................................................116
Unit 4 Metallic substances.....................................................................................................................................118
Module 3 Summary.................................................................................................................................................120
Module 4 Chemical change (Part 1) 123

Unit 1 Physical change..........................................................................................................................................124
Unit 2 Chemical change........................................................................................................................................127
Unit 3 Conservation of atoms and mass ..............................................................................................................132
Unit 4 Law of Constant Composition...................................................................................................................136
Unit 5 Balanced chemical equations.....................................................................................................................138
Module 4 Summary.................................................................................................................................................144

Module 5 Electricity and magnetism 147
Unit 1 Magnetism and magnetic fields..................................................................................................................148
Unit 2 Electrostatics...............................................................................................................................................154
Unit 3 Conservation and quantisation of charge..................................................................................................158
Unit 4 Electric circuits............................................................................................................................................161
Unit 5 Emf and potential difference......................................................................................................................163
Unit 6 Current........................................................................................................................................................166
Unit 7 Resistance....................................................................................................................................................168
Unit 8 Resistors in series........................................................................................................................................170
Unit 9 Resistors in parallel.....................................................................................................................................173
Module 5 Summary.................................................................................................................................................176

Unit 1 Ions in aqueous solutions..........................................................................................................................180
Unit 2 Electrolytes and conductivity.....................................................................................................................184
Unit 3 Ion-exchange reactions..............................................................................................................................188
Unit 4 Redox reactions..........................................................................................................................................192
Unit 5 Atomic mass and the mole concept...........................................................................................................194
Unit 6 Molar mass.................................................................................................................................................196
Unit 7 Determining the composition of substances.............................................................................................200
Unit 8 Moles, molar volume and molar concentration........................................................................................202
Unit 9 Basic stoichiometric calculations...............................................................................................................204
Module 6 Summary.................................................................................................................................................208
Module 7 Mechanics 211

Unit 1 Vectors and scalars.....................................................................................................................................212
Unit 2 Position.......................................................................................................................................................217
Unit 3 Distance and displacement........................................................................................................................219
Unit 4 Speed and velocity......................................................................................................................................222
Unit 5 Average acceleration...................................................................................................................................226
Unit 6 Instantaneous velocity and speed..............................................................................................................229
Unit 7 Investigate uniform acceleration...............................................................................................................232
Unit 8 Graphs of motion.......................................................................................................................................234
Unit 9 Using graphs of motion.............................................................................................................................237
Unit 10 Equations of motion...................................................................................................................................240
Unit 11 Equations of motion and road safety.........................................................................................................245
Unit 12 Different kinds of energy............................................................................................................................248
Unit 13 Conservation of energy..............................................................................................................................252
Module 7 Summary.................................................................................................................................................258
Module 8 Chemical systems 261

Unit 1 The hydrosphere........................................................................................................................................262
Unit 2 Human interaction with the hydrosphere.................................................................................................265
Unit 3 Water quality and purification...................................................................................................................268
Module 8 Summary.................................................................................................................................................270
Study and exam skills........................................................................................................................................ 272

Practice control test: Term 1....................................................................................................................................274
Practice control test: Term 3....................................................................................................................................276
Practice mid-year exam............................................................................................................................................278
Practice final year exam: Paper 1 (Physics)..............................................................................................................282
Practice final year exam: Paper 2 (Chemistry).........................................................................................................286
Cation and anion tables........................................................................................................................................290

Physical constants and SI units............................................................................................................................291
Glossary...................................................................................................................................................................291
Index........................................................................................................................................................................295
Periodic table....................................................................................................................................Inside back cover

About the authors
Peter Broster has 44 years experience teaching Physical Sciences. He holds a BSc (Chemistry), a BEd, a MSc (Chem
Ed) and a Diploma in Physics for Science Teachers. Peter is currently teaching post-matric Physics and Chemistry at
a private school. He has co-authored several Physical Sciences textbooks for Oxford University Press.
Wendy Horn is the deputy principal at The Settlers High School in Cape Town and has taught Physical
Sciences for 18 years. She holds a BSc and HDipEd from the University of Witwatersrand. Wendy has been
nominated for the National Teaching Awards several times. She is actively involved with the NSC examinations
and was the senior marker for Physical Sciences (Paper 2) in 2010. Wendy also wrote the Oxford Success Exam
Physical Sciences Study Guides for Grades 11 and 12.
Hugh James has been active in science education for the past 37 years. For much of his career, Hugh was
a principal but did not lose his interest in his subject field. He has co-authored several Physical Sciences
textbooks for Oxford University Press. For the past five years, Hugh taught Physical Sciences to learners across
the entire spectrum of socio-economic backgrounds. This experience motivated him to write the Oxford
Practical Teaching Physics Laboratory Guide – a reference book for teachers.
Acknowledgements
The authors and publisher gratefully acknowledge permission to reproduce copyrighted material in this book.
Photography credits:
Cover image Andrea Danti/Shutterstock; inside front cover a–i Detlef Basel; p. 9 concept w/Shutterstock; p. 11 prapass/
Shutterstock; p. 14 sima/Shutterstock; pp. 15a, b, 19a, 81, 88c, 94a–c, 95a, 125a–c, 148b, 149a, 150a–f, 155e, 156a, b,
162i, 163b, 164b–d, 166b, 167a, 169b, d, 170a, 173a, 219, 252b Hugh James; p. 20h Laurence Gough/Shutterstock;
p. 21 Scott Rothstein/Shutterstock; p. 24 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p. 25c Domtuner/
Shutterstock; p. 28 Joe White/Shutterstock; p. 30a Anna RukaK/Shutterstock; p. 31 Evgeny Karandaev/Shutterstock; p. 35
canismaior/Shutterstock; pp. 41b, 153, 154a, 200a, 243b Photodisc/OUP PictureBank; p. 49 Anton Bryksin/Shutterstock;
p. 61 Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library; p. 77 Ziga Camernik/Shutterstock; p. 78a VeeX/Shutterstock; p. 82a Ziga
Camernik/Shutterstock; p. 83a Mana Photo/Shutterstock; p. 90 Greg da Silva/Shutterstock; p. 92 Picsfive/Shutterstock;
p. 93 Zzoplanet/Shutterstock; p. 95d, 223, 246a Digital Vision/OUP PictureBank; p. 96c jovannig/Shutterstock; p. 97a
Andrea Danti/Shutterstock; p. 97b Andrei Nekrassov/Shutterstock; p. 98a Marku Gann/Shutterstock; p. 99 Andreas
Gradin/Shutterstock; p. 107 Sebastian Duda/Shutterstock; p. 110d Lightspring/Shutterstock; p. 110e, j, k, m, n
Magcom/Shutterstock; p. 110g Laurent Dambies/Shutterstock; p. 110h Micheal J. Thompson/Shutterstock; p. 111a
Este Roux; p. 112a F. Enot/Shutterstock; p. 112c Peter Broster; p. 115b Jeffrey Rasmussen/Shutterstock; p. 115c Micheal
J. Thompson/Shutterstock; p. 115d Ashray Shah/Shutterstock; p. 116a, b Peter Broster; p. 117a Charles D. Winters/
Science Photo Library; p. 117b Vasilyev/Shutterstock; p. 122d Onur Ersin/Shutterstock; p. 123 Otna Ydur/Shutterstock;
pp. 127, 132 Detlef Basel; pp. 147, 151b, d Milan B/Shutterstock; p. 161 iconico/Shutterstock; p. 179 Photostockar/
Shutterstock; p. 183 Andre Helbig/Shutterstock; p. 185b Nitr/Shutterstock; p. 189a Oliver Hoffmann/Shutterstock; p. 192
Ultimax/Shutterstock; p. 198 Podfoto/Shutterstock; p. 202 Aptyp_koK/Shutterstock; p. 211 Snehit/Shutterstock; p. 212
Studio BM/Shutterstock; p. 217b Graphi-Ogre/OUP PictureBank; p. 244a John Foxx/OUP PictureBank; p. 250 Woodsy/
Shutterstock; p. 252a Valeria73/Shutterstock; p. 261 Peter Bay/Shutterstock; p. 262a Cloki/Shutterstock; p. 265 Xavier
Marchant/Shutterstock; p. 266 Ignite Lab/Shutterstock; p. 271 Sergej Khakimullin/Shutterstock
Illustration credits:
pp. 10, 32a, 42, 66b, 68a, b, 69a, b, 70c, d, 71, 110a, b, 213a–d, 214a–e, 215a, b, 217a, 218a–c, 220c, 221, 234b–c,
235a, b, e–g, 236a, b, 237, 239a, c, 242a, b, 243a, 245, 246b, 249a, b, 253a, 255, 256, 257b, 260a–c, 286a–d
Baseline Publishing Services; pp. 16, 23, 25a, b, 30b–d, 32b, 33a, b, 36, 37b, 38b, c, 39b, 44a, b, 45a, b, 46a, b,
47a–c, 48a, b, 55, 67a–f, 70b, 72, 83b, 95b, c, 102, 105b, c, 113, 115a, 116, 118a–c, 121b, c, 122a, e, g, h, 130b, c,
142, 143, 145a, b, 146a, b, 154c–e, 156c, 157, 158a, b, 162a–h, 167b, 170b, c, 171a, b, 173b, c, 174a, b, 175a–d,
177, 178a–e, 181a–d, 220a, b, 229b, 230, 231, 233, 234a, 235c, d, 239b, 244b, 275a, 276a–d, 277a, b, 278a, b, 280,
281a, b, 282a–e, 283a, b, 284a, b, 285a, b, 288, inside back cover Philip du Plessis; pp. 19b, 20a Bronwen Lusted;
pp. 20b–g, 41a, b, 50, 51, 53, 64a, b, 66a, 70a, 78b, c, 79, 80a–e, 82b, c, 85a, b, 88a, b, 89, 91, 96a, b, 98b, 100,
105a, 109, 111b–h, 112b, 114a, b, 115a, 121a, 126a–c, 122b, c, f, 128a–d, 129a, b, 130a, 134, 140, 148a, c, d,
149b, c, 151a, c, e, 152a, b, 154b, 162j, k, 163a, 164a, 166a, 167c–e, 168, 169a, c, 171c, 178f, 180a, 184a–d, 185a,
188a, b, 189b, 195, 200b–d, 222, 224a–c, 227a, b, 232a, b, 239d, 240, 241, 248b, 254a–c, 257a, c, 275b Rudi
Elliott; p. 37b, 38a, 39a, c, 155a–d, 226, 229a, 243c, 248a, 253b Rassie Erasmus; p. 262b Advanced Biology/OUP
MediaBank
About the authors/Acknowledgements 5

How to use this book
Welcome to Oxford Successful Physical Sciences Grade 10. The table of contents on pages 3–4 would already
have given you a good idea of how this book is laid out. On pages 9–20 you will find Skills for Physical
Sciences which is an introduction to the mathematical and other skills needed for Physical Sciences. You
can refer back to this section throughout the year.
The book is divided into modules that group together the main topics within Physical Sciences. On
the first page of every module, you should study the mind map that shows you what sub-topics will be
covered during the module. This first page looks like this:
MODULE
3
Matter and materials (Part 2)
Crystals have fascinated people for centuries. You may think that crystals
Module name: Identifies the main topic of the module.
belong in crowns and jewelry, but they are common structures that are found
and used all around us.
In nature, minerals form beautifully coloured crystals. Our modern world
is also shaped by crystals. They play an important role in the components of
computers, lasers, car engines and even space shuttles.
In this module we will discuss the particles which make up crystals, the
bonds between them and the types of crystals that they form.
Atomic models The atom Matter and materials

(Part 2)
Mind map: Unpacks the sub-topics of the module. Sub-topics are

Making models
to represent Chemical bonding
elements and
compounds
separate units within the module.

Covalent bonding Ionic bonding Metallic bonding
Molecular substances Ionic substances Metallic substances
Covalent molecular structures Covalent network structures Metal crystal structures
Molecular formulae Empirical formulae
At the end of each module, you will find the following:

• a module summary that will help you to revise the module’s work quickly
• a module revision consisting of revision questions to test how much you have learnt in the module.
It will also help you identify parts of the module that you did not understand very well. The module
revision has test or exam type questions. It will help to prepare you for what you can expect in your
end-of-year exam paper.
You will see the following features throughout the book:
Unit name: Identifies the sub-topic that the unit covers within the module. Unit 2 Superposition of pulses
Interference
Photographs and other illustrations: Are captioned and labelled clearly to + 120 mm + 80 mm
Figure 1 Transverse pulses travel towards each other from each
end of the slinky. The disturbances are to the same side.
Figure 1 shows two transverse pulses approaching
each other along a slinky spring. Their disturbances
are both to the same side. When they cross, the
disturbance of the spring increases (see Figure 2).
make it easier for you to understand the text.

This is an example of interference.
Interference is when two or more pulses (and

waves) interact with each other in the same
space and at the same time.
Figure 2 Where the two pulses cross, the disturbance
increases. Superposition leads to constructive interference.
Notice in Figure 3 that after crossing each other,

each pulse carries on unchanged in its original
direction of motion.
Figure 3 After crossing, the two pulses carry on unchanged.
New words: Explain key words to learn and remember. New word
superposition: placed on
Superposition
The word superposition means “placed on top of each other”. We can
top of each other understand what happens when pulses cross by having a picture in our minds
of the pulses on top of each other when they cross.
Definition: Defines key concepts that you need to learn and understand. Principle of superposition
Where pulses cross, the combined disturbance at any point is equal to the
sum of the disturbances.
– 80 mm
+ 120 mm
Figure 4 These two pulses travel towards each other Figure 5 Pulses with disturbances in opposite directions
with the disturbances in opposite directions. cancel each other out when they cross. Here, superposition
leads to destructive interference.
Constructive and destructive interference

When pulses interfere, the direction of the disturbances must be taken into
account. In Figure 2, superposition leads to a larger amplitude. In Figure 5 it
leads to a smaller amplitude.
If the disturbances are in opposite directions, we say that one is positive and
the other is negative. When you add a positive and a negative number, the
size gets smaller.
80 Module 2 Waves, sound and light
6 How to use this book

Worked example 3
An aircraft needs to reach a speed of 100 m.s−1 before it can take off. If its
Worked examples and calculations: Before you are asked to
try any calculation, we will show you how to work through the
acceleration is uniform at 10 m.s−2, calculate the length of the runway it requires.
Method
Although this question requires a scalar answer, length, the variables in the
equations are vectors. Remember that they have magnitude and direction.
calculation using a relevant example. This will help you to see

Step 1 Draw a diagram positive
that includes the a +10 m.s–2
positive direction
vf +100 m.s–1
and variables
x ?
how a question must be answered and set out in a test or an exam.

vi = 0 m.s–1
Step 2 Choose the equation vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx
Step 3 Substitute values (100 m.s−1)2 = 0 + 2 × (10 m.s−2) × Δx
Step 4 Simplify 10 000 (m.s−1)2 = 20 m.s−2 × Δx
10 000 (m.s−1)2
Δx =
20 m.s−2
= 500 m
Step 5 Answer The aircraft requires a runway of 500 m to take off.
1
Activity 1 Answer questions on equations of motion
Give two conditions for using equations of motion.

Activities: Are tasks where you apply concepts and knowledge
2 Figure 3 shows a skateboard rider inside a pipe. Why can you not
you learnt in the unit.

use equations of motion to calculate his displacement when he starts
moving along the surface?
3 The car in the Figure 4 has a velocity of 8 m.s−1 as it passes a lamp pole
MODULE 7
and its acceleration (to the right) is 2 m.s−2.
3.1 How much does the velocity of the car change each second? Figure 3 Illustration for
Question 2.
3.2 The car passes a tree 4 s later. Calculate:
3.2.1 the car’s velocity when it passes the tree
3.2.2 the distance between the pole and the tree.
4 A train travelling on a straight track at 10 m.s−1 increases its speed and
accelerates uniformly at 0,25 m.s−2 for 30 seconds.
4.1 Calculate:
4.1.1 the final velocity of the train
4.1.2 the displacement of the train during the 30 s. Figure 4 Diagram for
4.2 The train then slows down with uniform acceleration and comes to a Question 3.
stop after a further 50 s.
4.2.1 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the train’s
new acceleration.
4.2.2 Did the direction of the train’s velocity change during the 80 s
it was in motion?
4.2.3 Compare the direction of the initial acceleration of the train with the
direction of its acceleration while it is slowing down. Provide an explanation
with your answer as well as labelled vectors of the acceleration.
Unit 10 Equations of motion 243
You will also find examples of these features in this book:

Know the difference: Highlights terms that are likely to be confusing because they are so similar, but are
often opposite in meaning. Be sure to revise all of these when you study so that you do not mistake these
terms in the heat of the exam room!
Exam words: Explain key instruction words so that you understand what you have to do in activities.
Steps: Give you step-by-step instructions to perform a certain task. It makes it easier for you to master that skill.
Visit this website: Gives the web links for relevant websites where you can find more information. Use these
when you need to do research.
Did you know?: Shows content to broaden you knowledge, but it is not required in any formal text or exam.
We used the following icons (little pictures) to make it easier for you to distinguish between different activities:
Marks an activity that forms part of the Points you to a safety precaution when
formal Programme of Assessment. you are performing a practical laboratory
procedure.
Marks the Chemistry practical activities. Marks the Physics practical activities.
At the end of this book, you will find:

• a study and exam skills section that has tips on how to approach your activities, how to study, and
how to prepare for tests and exams. Included is a list of the key instruction words you need to know
in order to understand instructions in activities, tests and exams. Full practice tests and an exam are
also included for you to approach your proper exams with confidence.
• a glossary, which is an alphabetical list of the meanings of all the new and difficult words and key
concepts defined in this Learner’s Book. Use this list as a study aid to prepare for tests and exams.
• an index, which is an alphabetical list of all the topics, sub-topics and important concepts covered in
this book, together with their page references. You will find the index more useful than the contents
page to find your way quickly to a section of work.
Have confidence in your success this year with Oxford Successful Physical Sciences!
Good luck!
The Authors and Publisher
How to use this book 7

Programme of Assessment
In Grade 10, the formal Programme of Assessment comprises of seven tasks. Six of these tasks are completed
during the school year and contribute 25% of the total mark for Physical Sciences. Among these six tasks,
there should be two control tests and a mid-year exam. The remaining tasks consist of two prescribed
practical experiments (one Chemistry and one Physics experiment) and one project (on either Chemistry or
Physics). The remaining 75% of the final mark for promotion is the end-of-year examination.
Programme of Assessment
End-of-year assessment
Assessment tasks (25%)
(75%)
Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4
Type % Type % Type % Final examination
Experiment 20 Experiment 20 Project 20 (two papers of 150 marks
each)
Control test 10 Mid-year examination 20 Control test 10
Total: 30 marks Total: 40 marks Total: 30 marks Total: 300 marks
Total: 400 marks
Final mark: 25% (assessment tasks) + 75% (final exam) = 100%
Formal assessment opportunities in this book

Term Task Task options LB page
1 Experiment Experiment 2: Determine the heating and cooling curve of water 32
Control test Practice control test (Term 1) 274, 275
2 Experiment Experiment 1: Investigate current and voltage in series circuits 170
Experiment 1: Investigate current and voltage in parallel circuits 173
Mid-year examination Practice mid-year examination 278–281
3 Project Experiment 2: Investigate uniform acceleration 233
Activity 2: Poster project on the impact of a dam 267
Project 2: The purification and quality of water 269
Control test Practice control test (Term 3) 276, 277
4 Final examination Practice final examination 282–290
8 Formal Programme of Assessment

Skills for Physical Sciences
Scientific language This module introduces you to a number of skills that will enable you to
Scientists have agreed investigate, and apply the Physical Sciences to the world around you. Scientific
to ways of naming models help us to understand phenomena.
compounds that reveal
their composition and can
be understood around
the world. For example,
table salt is called sodium
Models in Science
chloride.
A model is a representation of something. A model car is a scaled down version
of the real thing. It is recognisable as a car but some detail has been lost.
In Science, a model is a simplified description of a system or phenomenon

that contains the essential aspects of the system.
The purpose of scientific models

The purpose of a scientific model is to explain and help us to understand the
physical world. To do this it needs to:
• simplify a complex situation. When we think of the particle kinetic model
of matter we think of small ball-like particles interacting with each other.
Yet the atoms and molecules the model represents are very complex objects.
• agree with experimental observations. When a gas is heated its behaviour
is explained by the increased kinetic energy of its particles.
• predict what will happen if circumstances change. Equations based on the
model can predict changes in quantities.
The limitations of scientific models

Just because a model is a simplification, it does not mean that phenomena
always have a simple explanation. There may be more than one factor involved.
How to recognise a scientific model

The words “model” – atomic model – and “theory”
– kinetic molecular theory – are clues that you are using a
scientific model. Another clue is that the situation has
been simplified. For example, the periodic table arranges
the elements in a simplified form that agrees with
experimental observations and theoretical knowledge.
How models change with new information

As scientists make new discoveries they adapt the model to
explain the new evidence. If the model cannot explain a
Figure 1 The periodic table is an example of a scientific new discovery scientists may have to discard it and create
model. The atomic model is another. a new one.
Skills for Physical Sciences 9
Final OS PS Gr 10 LB 21-10-13.indb 9
New words Scientific notation
base: number in terms of
which other numbers are Writing numbers
expressed It is easy to make a mistake when you write numbers such as 0,000 024 5 or
coefficient: number that 5 360 000 000. Scientific notation overcomes this.
multiplies an exponential
number or a variable; the Scientific notation expresses a number as a product of two numbers:
coefficient of 3,5 × 103
N × 10n
is 3,5
exponent: number that
• N is a coefficient. coefficient exponent
indicates how many
times another number is » For positive numbers, N is greater
multiplied by itself; for 103 than or equal to 1 but less than ten 2 × 103 base
the exponent 3 means (for example, 2 in 2 × 103).
10 × 10 × 10 [10 to the power of 3]
» For negative numbers, N is greater Figure 2 Terminology for numbers
than −10 but equal to or less than −1 written in scientific notation.
(for example, −2 in −2 × 103).
• 10 is a power of 10 for which the
n
exponent n is an integer.
Worked example 1
Large number (larger than 10): Write 5 360 000 000 in scientific notation.
Step 1 Select the Write the digits 536 and place a comma between the first and the second
coefficient digits: 5,36 (Leave out the zeros after the 6.)
Step 2 Select the Count how many places the decimal comma was moved to the left and write
power the number as the exponent for the power of 10.
of 10 • To move the decimal comma 9 places to the left is the same as dividing
by 109. So we then multiply × 109 to keep the size of the number the same.
• A large number has a positive exponent.
Step 3 Answer 5 360 000 000 = 5,36 × 109
Small number (smaller than 1): Write 0,000 024 5 in scientific notation.
Step 1 Select the Write the digits 245 and place a comma between the first and the second digits:
coefficient 2,45
Step 2 Select the Write the number of places the decimal comma was moved to the right as the
power negative exponent for the power of 10.
of 10 • To move the decimal comma 5 places to the right is the same as multiplying
by 105. To keep the size of the number the same we write × 10−5 which is the
same as dividing by 105.
• A small number has a negative exponent.
Step 3 Answer 0,000 024 5 = 2,45 × 10−5
Addition and subtraction

To add or subtract numbers in scientific notation, ensure that they are all to the
same power of 10. Then add or subtract the coefficients of the numbers to find the
new coefficient. If necessary, adjust the coefficient and power of ten of the answer.
10 Skills for Physical Sciences

Worked example 2
Add 3,2 × 102; 8,51 × 103 and 4,74 × 103.
SKILLS
Step 1 Select uniform Ensure all the numbers are to the same power of ten. (Change to the
power of ten higher power of ten.) Change 3,2 × 102 to 0,32 × 103
Step 2 Add the (0,32 × 103) + (8,51 × 103) + (4,74 × 103)
coefficients = 13,57 × 103
Step 3 Answer in 1,357 × 104
scientific notation
Multiplication and division

• To multiply two numbers in scientific notation, multiply the coefficients
and add the exponents of the powers of 10.
• To divide two numbers in scientific notation, divide the coefficients and
subtract the exponent of the denominator from the exponent of the numerator.
Worked example 3
1 (8 × 103) × (4 × 106)
= (8 × 4) × 10(3 + 6)
= 32 × 109
= 3,2 × 1010 (change the coefficient and power of 10 to scientific notation)
(8 × 103)
2
(4 × 106)
= 8 × 10(3 − 6)
4
= 2 × 10 –3
Square and square roots

To square a number, square the coefficient and multiply the exponent by 2.
To find the square root, take the square root of the coefficient and divide the
exponent by 2.
Scientific calculators
Figure 3 Use the exponent
Scientific calculators automatically convert very large and small numbers to EXP key (×10x key on some
scientific notation. You can use the MODE key to choose the “Sci” option that calculators) to enter a power
of 10. Enter only the exponent,
displays all numbers in scientific notation. leave out the base 10.
Activity 1 Answer questions about scientific notation Calculator

To enter 1,256 × 10−15 into a
scientific calculator key in
1 Write the following large numbers in scientific notation:
the following:
1.1 5 890 1.3 2 376 000
1.2 320 000 1.4 19 070 000 000 1 . 2 5 6
2 Write the following small numbers in scientific notation: EXP – 1 5
2.1 0,001 2.3 0,000 030 6 The key for the position of
2.2 0,001 25 2.4 0,000 002 067 the decimal has a dot on it,
not a decimal comma.

3 Add the following numbers and give the answer in scientific notation:
3.1 2,3 × 104; 1,2 × 104; 3,7 × 104
3.2 9,7 × 103; 8,9 × 103; 6,84 × 104
3.3 2,2 × 10−4; 3,58 × 10−3; 1,2 × 10−4
3.4 9,26 × 10−3; 3 × 10−5; 7,1 × 10−4
4 Subtract the following numbers and give the answer in scientific notation:
4.1 6,4 × 102 − 4,8 × 102 4.3 5,2 × 10−6 − 3,2 × 10−7
4.2 7,8 × 10 − 4,5 × 10
3 2
4.4 8,93 × 10−9 − 9,87 × 10−8
5 Multiplication and division. Calculate the following:
5.1 (2 × 102) × (3 × 105)
5.2 (1 × 103) × (4 × 10 −6)
(5 × 10 −3)
5.3
(2 × 106)
(4 × 103)
5.4
(8 × 10 −6)
Answers to numerical questions

1.1 5,89 × 103; 1.2 3,2 × 105; 1.3 2,376 × 106; 1.4 1,907 × 1010; 2.1 1 × 10 −3; 2.2 1,25 × 10 −3;
2.3 3,06 × 10 −5; 2.4 2,067 × 10 −6; 3.1 7,2 × 104; 3.2 8,7 × 104; 3.3 3,92 × 10 −3; 3.4 1 × 10 −2;
4.1 1,6 × 102; 4.2 7,35 × 103; 4.3 4,88 × 10 −6; 4.4 −8,977 × 10 −8; 5.1 6,0 × 107; 5.2 4 × 10 −3;
5.3 2,5 × 10 −9; 5.4 5 × 108
Conversion of units
Multiples and submultiples of units
New word
We measure quantities in units such as length in metres and time in seconds.
unit: specified measure of a Multiples and submultiples of units such as the kilometre and millimetre
physical quantity make units easier to use (see Table 1).
Table 1 Multiples and submultiples of units
Prefix Symbol Number Multiple Power of ten

giga- G billion 1 000 000 000 109
mega- M million 1 000 000 106
kilo- k thousand 1 000 103
1 100
deci- d tenth 0,1 10–1
centi- c hundredth 0,01 10–2
milli- m thousandth 0,001 10–3
Table 2 Common conversion factors micro- μ millionth 0,000 001 10–6
Quantity Conversion nano- n billionth 0,000 000 001 10–9
Mass 1 kg = 1 000 g pico- p trillionth 0,000 000 000 001 10–12
Length 1 km = 1 000 m
1 m = 10 dm
Conversion factors
1 m = 100 cm
1 m = 1 000 mm
Volume 1 m3 = 1 000 dm3 A conversion factor expresses the equivalence of a measurement in two
1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3 different units.
Capacity 1 dm3 = 1 L (litre)
1 dm3 = 1 000 mL
1 cm3 = 1 mL For example 1 cm = 10 mm. The conversion factor is 10. To find other
Pressure 1 kPa = 1 000 Pa conversion factors use Table 1 as follows: Divide the one multiple into the
1 atm = 1,013 × 105 Pa other. For example, for kilometres to millimetres: a kilometre is
(atm = atmosphere) 1 000 = 1 000 000 mm. So the conversion factor is 1 km = 1 000 000 mm.
0,001

Method for using conversion factors
• Choose or calculate the conversion factor.
• Estimate the size of the answer. Is the new multiple a bigger size?
SKILLS
• If yes, the number will become smaller.
• If no, the number will become larger.
• Multiply or divide the quantity by the conversion factor. Check the units.
• Double check that the answer agrees with your estimate.
Worked example 4
Convert 1 500 g to kilograms.
Step 1 Select a conversion factor 1 kg = 1 000 g
Step 2 Estimate the size of the Kilograms are a larger unit than grams, so the numerical answer
answer will be smaller than 1 500.
Step 3 Multiply or divide the Divide by the conversion factor of 1 000.
quantity by the factor 1 500 g 1 kg
×
1 1 000 g
= 1,5 kg
Step 4 Check the answer Note that the grams cancel to leave an answer in kilograms and,
as estimated, the numerical answer is smaller.
Step 5 Answer 1 500 g = 1,5 kg
Dimensional analysis Calculator

Sometimes a quantity is a combination of other quantities and is measured Many of the formulae that we
in two or more types of units. Dimensional analysis is a method we use to use in Science require the
unit to be a base unit such
check that dimensions such as length and time remain the same throughout as metres. For example, if
our problem solving. For example, the speed of cars is measured in kilometres the measurement is 500 nm,
then all you have to do is
(length) per hour (time). This means that if we convert to metres and seconds, to enter
the units must be metres per second and not seconds per metre.
5 0 0 EXP – 9
Area and volume in your calculator.
The dimensions of area are length2, so their units are squared as well. For
example: 1 m2 = (100 cm)2 = 10 000 cm2.
The dimensions of volume are length3, so 1 dm3 = (10 cm)3 = 1 000 cm3
Conversion from one scale to another

We make use of the Celsius and the Kelvin temperature scales in Science.
The conversion is as follows:
Kelvin temperature (unit kelvin, symbol K) = Celsius temperature (unit Celsius,
symbol °C) + 273
Translate data into the correct units

Activity 2 and dimensions
Use conversion factors and scientific notation to translate data into the correct
units and dimensions.

1 Fill in the missing conversion factors:
1.1 1 g = _____ mg 1.3 1 mm = _____ nm
1.2 1 mg = _____ g 1.4 1 mg = _____ kg
2 Convert:
2.1 5 km to metres 2.3 700 nm to mm
2.2 500 mg to g 2.4 0,2 gigajoules to kJ
3 Express:
3.1 360 seconds in minutes 3.5 450 K in °C
3.2 360 seconds in hours 3.6 1,5 dm3 in cm3
3.3 1 hour in seconds 3.7 500 cm3 in dm3
3.4 100 °C in kelvin 3.8 750 dm3 in litres (L)

1.1 1 000; 1.2 0,001; 1.3 1 000 000 (106); 1.4 0,000 001 (10 −6); 2.1 5 000 m; 2.2 0,5 g;
2.3 0,000 7 mm (7 × 10 -4 mm); 2.4 2 × 105 kJ; 3.1 6 minutes; 3.2 0,1 hours; 3.3 3 600 s; 3.4 373 K;
3.5 177 °C; 3.6 1 500 cm3; 3.7 0,5 dm3; 3.8 750 L
Mathematical relationships
Rate
We often want to know how quickly something is happening. This is a rate.
In Science, a rate is the change per second.
Some examples of changes are a change of mass, change of position, change of

chemical concentration and change of energy.
Equations for calculating a rate

Figure 4 A car’s speed is
a rate that is measured in Rate = change
kilometres per hour. In Science
time taken
we usually measure speed in Rate = Δx where the symbol Δ indicates the change of a quantity.
metres per second. Δt
In Grade 9 you learnt about power. Power is the amount of energy (W)
transferred to a system per unit time. So power is an example of a rate.
P = ΔW
Δt
Power is measured in watts (symbol W) which is the same as joules per
second (J.s-1).
Worked example 5
Calculate the power of an energy saving light bulb that transfers 840 J of
energy in 60 s.
Variables P = ΔW
W = 840 J Δt
= 840 J
Δt = 60 s 60 s
P=? = 14 J.s−1 (J.s−1 means joules per second or J/s)
= 14 W The light bulb transfers energy at rate of 14 watts or 14 J.s–1.

Rate of chemical reaction
In chemistry some reactions are faster than others. These are also measured as
a rate.
SKILLS
Fractions
A fraction is a quotient of numbers or variables. It is written in the form

a where a is the numerator and b is the denominator.
b
Ratios
A ratio compares the values of two or more parts.

Figure 5 As a fraction of the
total, a single mass-piece is 1
4
Relationship between the parts of the pile of 4 mass-pieces.
When a ratio is written in the form a : b it gives the relative sizes of the parts.
In Figure 6, the ratio of the one mass to the other is 1 : 3. This is in contrast
with a fraction which is the relationship between a part and the whole.
A ratio can also be written in the form a in a calculation.
b
Chemical formulae
Chemical formulae are written as ratios. A water molecule (H2O) has two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. So the ratio of hydrogen atoms to
oxygen atoms in water is 2 : 1 no matter how many molecules there are. Figure 6 The ratio of the mass
on the left with the mass on the
right is 1 : 3.
Worked example 6
When 7 g of zinc reacts completely in an acid, it produces 2,5 dm3 of hydrogen. What
volume (V) of hydrogen would be produced by 10 g of zinc under the same conditions?
The ratios of the volumes are the same as the ratios of the masses.
V : 2,5 = 10 : 7
V = 10 (rewrite in the form a )
2,5 7 b
V= 2,5 × 10 (multiply both sides by 2,5)
7
= 3,57 dm 3
When it reacts completely in an acid, 10 g of zinc will produce 3,57 dm3 of hydrogen.
Activity 3 Answer questions about fractions and ratios
1 Draw a straight line 120 mm long to represent a piece of resistance wire.

Divide it in two so that the longer length is 3 of the entire length. What
4
is the length of the longer piece?
2 If 3 of a length of string is 150 mm, what is the full length of the piece
4
of string?
3 Calculate the lengths obtained when you cut a 120 mm length of
resistance wire into pieces in the ratio:
3.1 1:2 3.2 1 : 1 : 2 (three pieces)

1 90 mm; 2 200 mm; 3.1 40 mm and 80 mm; 3.2 30 mm, 30 mm and 60 mm

Constants
A constant is a quantity which, in a given context, has a fixed value.
y y
For example if the ratio x equals a constant value, k, then x = k and y = kx
For example, if you convert rands to cents, the equation is:
number of cents = 100 × number of rands (the constant is 100).
New words Direct proportion

If the variables x and y are in direct proportion, then if x becomes larger so
proportional: when one does y in the same ratio. If x becomes smaller, then y also becomes smaller.
quantity is a constant
multiple of the other: y = kx
Two variables are in direct proportion when one quantity is a constant
proportionality constant: multiple of the other: y = kx
constant value of the
ratio of two proportional
quantities: k = y • An equation for two variables that are in direct proportion is y = kx (k  0).
x
• k is called a proportionality constant.
• The graph of y vs. x is a straight line that passes through the origin.
Speed vs. time • The constant k is the gradient Dy of the graph y = kx.
25 Dx
y
Speed (km.h–1)
20
• For each (x;y) pair the ratio x is the same and equals k.
15 • The symbol for proportion is the Greek letter α – pronounced alpha – we

10 write y α x if we do not know the size of k.
5
Inverse proportion
0
80 160 240 320
Two variables are inversely proportional to each other if, as the one
Time t (minutes)
increases, the other one decreases and their product remains constant.
Figure 7 Inverse proportion:
a graph of speed vs. time for a
cyclist travelling between two We know that two variables are inversely proportional if the one variable is
towns 25 km apart. proportional to the reciprocal of the other.
30 1 • Two variables that are inversely proportional can be represented by
Speed vs.
time the equation y = k where k is non-zero. For example, if k = 2 and x = 3
x
Speed (km.h–1)
20 then y = 2 .
3
• The equation y = k is often written as xy = k
x
10 • The graph of y vs. x is a hyperbola (see Figure 7).
• The graph of y vs. l is a straight line that passes through the origin.
0 x
5 10 15
• The constant k is the gradient of the graph of the equation y = k.
1
(minutes x 10–3)
x
time
–1
• For each (x;y) pair the product xy is the same and equals k.
Figure 8 Inverse proportion:
• y  1 indicates that the variables are inversely proportional to each other.
x
The graph of speed
1
vs. (the multiplicative Figures 7 and 8 show that the variables of speed and time are inversely
time
inverse of time) is a straight proportional over a fixed distance. If the cyclist wants to cover the distance of
line that passes through the 25 km in less time, he or she has to move faster.
origin. The gradient of the line
equals the constant k and is The equation is: speed × time = distance
the distance of 25 km. In this case the constant k equals the distance of 25 km.

Use graphs to show direct and inverse proportionality:
• If a graph of y vs. x is a straight line then y is proportional to x.
• If a graph of y vs. 1 is a straight line then y is inversely proportional to x.
x
SKILLS
Changing the subject of the formula
The subject of a formula is written on its own on the left of the “equals” sign.
For example, T is the subject of T = t + 273.
However, we may need to make t the subject of the formula in order to carry
out a calculation or so that we can see the mathematical relationship for t.
Table 3 Some inverse
Method for changing the subject of the formula mathematical operations
Apply inverse mathematical operations until the variable that is to be the + –
subject of the formula is on the left hand side of the equation. If necessary, × ÷
rearrange the variables.
xn n
√y
Worked example 7
1 Make t the subject of the formula: T = t + 273
2 Make m the subject of the formula: w = mg
3 Make V the subject of the formula: D = m
V
4 Write r as the subject of A = πr2
Answers
1 The inverse of addition is subtraction. Subtract 273 from both sides of the formula to
obtain t on its own:
T – 273 = t + 273 – 273
T – 273 = t (+273 – 273 is zero)
Rewrite with t on the left and T – 273 on right:
t = T – 273
2 Divide both sides of the formula with g.
w = mg
m=w
g
3 Multiply both sides of the formula with V, then divide both sides with D.
D=m
V
V=m
D
4 Divide both sides by π to obtain r2 on its own, then take the square root.
A = πr2
r= A π√
Activity 4 Change the subject of the formula
Make the variable in brackets the subject of the formula:

1 y = mx + c (c) 5 y = kx (k)
2 P=a+b+c (a) 6 v = fλ (λ)
3 P = 2a + 2b (a) 7 T=1 (f )
f
4 P = 2(a + b) (b) 8 c=n (V)
V

Investigation skills
Scientific method
New words Scientists ask questions and want to be sure of the answers they obtain. To
scientific method: system do this they follow the scientific method to carry out an investigation. They
of experimental investigation also have to be able to communicate their findings to other scientists in
that enables the investigator such a way that their conclusions and predictions can be checked. There are
to come to a conclusion
based on evidence
three types of investigations and experiments that we carry out in a Physical
Sciences course:
variable: quantity that can
change 1 Find the relationship between variables (such as the pressure and
volume of a gas).
hypothesis: proposed
explanation that can be 2 Measure a quantity (such as the density of a substance)
tested to see if it is correct 3 Identify a substance.
such as the mathematical
relationship between two Investigate the relationship between variables
variables
The following steps show how to test a hypothesis using the scientific
fair test: investigation
method. Follow the same steps when writing a report.
with only one independent
variable
Identify a problem to investigate
independent variable:
variable that an investigator • Write down the investigative question.
changes or allows to change • Research the topic: What have other researchers found?
dependent variable:
variable that the independent Write a hypothesis
variable causes to change State what you think the relationship between the two variables is. It does not
controls: fixed variables have to be correct. The results of the investigation will enable you to either
accept or reject it.
Design an investigation to test the hypothesis

Caution
The key to the scientific method is that an investigation must be a fair test.
Discuss safety precautions
In a fair test we change only one variable and measure its effect on a second
and correct handling of
equipment and chemicals variable. If we change more than one variable we cannot tell how much each
with your teacher variable changes the outcome.
before carrying out an
• Explain the design very briefly (one or two sentences).
investigation.
• Identify variables:
» Independent variable: This is the variable you will change (e.g.
temperature by heating) or allow to change (e.g. time).
» Dependent variable: This variable changes as a result of a change to
the independent variable.
• Identify appropriate controls. Controls or control variables are kept
constant (fixed) so that they do not interfere with the investigation. This
ensures that the investigation is a fair test.
• Describe how the investigation will be carried out.
• Select appropriate tools and technology to collect precise and accurate
measurements (data).
• Draw a diagram of the equipment.
Carry out the investigation and obtain evidence

• Perform and understand the laboratory procedures that are necessary.
• Record observations. Record data in a table. Ensure that each column of
the table has the correct heading and includes units of measurement.

Present and analyse evidence
• Convert data into an appropriate form of data presentation (for example,
New words
equation, table, graph, or diagram). bias: to make the results
SKILLS
• Analyse information in a table, graph or diagram (for example, calculate come out the way you want
the average of a series of values or determine the slope of a line). them to
• Carry out calculations. experimental error:
• Determine the precision and accuracy of the experimental results (see measure of how much
results differ from accepted
Figures 9 to 11). values or how accurate
they are; can be because of
Conclusion (summing up) incorrect procedure
• Analyse the experimental results and identify possible sources of bias or design an investigation:
experimental error. think of a way to carry out
• Accept or reject the hypothesis. the investigation
• Recognise and evaluate alternative explanations for the same set of
observations.
• Design a model based on the correct hypothesis that can be used for Know the
further investigation.
• Evaluate the design and method of the investigation.
difference
Quantitative analysis
Measure a quantity measures how much of
a substance is present
In this type of experiment the format changes because there is no hypothesis in a sample, such as the
to test. Follow the following steps: percentage of oxygen in
magnesium oxide.
State the quantity to be measured Qualitative analysis

identifies the substances
• Research the topic. Find out what results other researchers have found. present in a compound
or mixture.
Design an investigation to measure the quantity
• Explain the design very briefly (one or two sentences).
• Identify the variable or variables that you need to measure.
• Identify the variable that you will change.
• Identify appropriate controls – fixed variables.
Describe how the investigation will be carried out (method)

• Select appropriate tools and technology (apparatus) to collect precise and
accurate quantitative data (measurements).
• Draw a diagram of the equipment.
• Record observations. Record data in a table. Ensure that each column of
the table has the correct heading and includes units of measurement.
Present and analyse measurements and calculations

• Convert data into an appropriate form of data presentation (for example, Figure 9 For greater precision
equation, table, graph, or diagram). use the scale on the right.
• Analyse information in a table, graph or diagram (for
example, compute the mean of a series of values or
determine the slope of a line).
• Carry out calculations.
• Determine the accuracy and precision of the
experimental results.
• If accepted values are known, calculate the percentage Figure 10 For accuracy of measurement, keep your eyes
error of the experiment. perpendicular to a scale to avoid the error of parallax.

Conclusion (summing up)
• Analyse experimental results and identify possible sources of bias or
experimental error.
• Evaluate the design of the experiment.
Identify a substance
Chemists call this qualitative analysis. Examples in this book are flame tests
Figure 11 For accuracy,
make the measurement at to identify elements (page 49) and precipitation tests (pages 189 and 190) to
the bottom of the meniscus identify anions and cations.
(curved surface) of a solution
dissolved in water.
Table 4 Warning labels for

common laboratory chemicals
Safety
Warning Work safely with science equipment and chemicals
Meaning
label • Before starting any investigation discuss safety and the correct handling of
equipment and chemicals with your teacher.
Irritant
(harmful) • Always obey the school’s safety rules.
• Read warnings marked Caution! in this book.
Poisonous Hazard signs

(toxic)
Make sure that you understand the hazard symbols placed on containers of
chemicals.
Flammable
Safety rules
• Listen to your teacher.
Corrosive
• Use your head and think whether your actions are safe.
• Use protective equipment and clothing.
• Only work with chemicals or apparatus under the supervision of a teacher.
• Read labels of containers to ensure you have the right chemicals.
Oxidising
• Carry out the investigation exactly as instructed by the teacher.
• Concentrate on the activity and do not play around.
• Obtain permission before carrying out additional investigations.
Explosive
• No eating, drinking or smoking.
Emergencies
• Call for professional help.
• Cuts: Press material over the wound to stop
bleeding.
• Chemical contact with body: Wash off with water
unless otherwise instructed.
• Electric shock: Switch off the mains supply before
touching the injured person.
• Fire: Your safety comes first. Raise the alarm. Do
not use water if there is danger of electric shock.
Leave the building if the fire cannot be put out
immediately or if you are inhaling fumes. Know the
shortest way to leave the building.
• Shock: Lie the person down with their feet lifted.
Figure 12 Work safely Make sure they keep warm.

MODULE
1
We know that all materials are made up of atoms but our understanding of
what an atom is has not always been the same. During the past centuries
scientists have developed different models of what atoms look like and how
they behave.
A better understanding of the structure of the atom helps us understand the
properties of different materials. We can also predict how one element will
bond with another element to form the materials that we use everyday.
Matter and materials Chemical

Matter and (Part 1) bonding
classification
Periodic table of
elements Lewis diagrams
States of matter Atomic models
Covalent Metallic
Ionic bonding
Kinetic molecular bonding bonding
theory
Atomic mass and
diameter
Periodicity in
properties of
elements Chemical properties
of Groups 1, 2, 17
and 18
Structure of Electron
the atom configuration
Module 1 Matter and materials 21

Unit 1 Revising matter and classification
An overview of matter
Matter is any substance that has mass and occupies space. It is made up of
different particles. The properties of the particles determine the characteristics
of matter and how it reacts with other substances. The flow diagram in
Figure 1 shows one way that matter can be grouped or classified.
MATTER
Mixtures Pure substances
Heterogeneous
Homogeneous mixtures
mixtures
Elements Compounds
Metals Non-metals
Magnetic substances Non-magnetic substances
Figure 1 A classification of matter
New words Properties of materials

physical property: property Every material has its own properties. The physical properties of a material
that can be observed or
are macroscopic properties. The macroscopic properties of objects give us
measured without changing
the identity of that matter information about the microscopic properties of objects.
macroscopic properties:
The properties of materials include the following:
properties large enough to • strength: how much force a material can withstand before it changes shape
be visible to the naked eye • thermal conductivity: how well a material conducts heat
microscopic properties: • electrical conductivity: how well a material conducts electricity
properties so small as • brittleness, malleability and ductility: how easily a material can be
to be visible only with a shaped without breaking apart
microscope
• magnetic properties: how well a material attracts magnetic metals
• density: how closely packed the particles are in a material
• melting point: the temperature at which a material changes phase from
solid to liquid
• boiling point: the temperature at which a material changes phase from
liquid to gas.
22 Module 1 Matter and materials

Mixtures
MODULE 1
A mixture is a physical combination of two or more atoms of element 1
substances, where these substances are not bonded (pure substance)
to each other.
The substances that make up a mixture: mixing chemical re
• are not in a fixed ratio
• keep their chemical properties mixture
atoms of element 2
• can be separated by physical (separation)
(pure substance)
methods, such as filtration, evaporation,
distillation and hand sorting. Figure 2 Representation of two elements forming a mixture.
Types of mixtures
Mixtures can be grouped into two types, namely homogeneous and
heterogeneous mixtures.
Homogeneous mixtures New words

A homogeneous mixture is uniform and the different components of the
mixture cannot be seen. The individual components of the mixture cannot be homogeneous mixture:
substances are evenly
distinguished from each other. A homogeneous mixture consists of a solute and
distributed throughout the
the solvent. A solute is a substance that is dissolved in another substance. A mixture
solvent is a substance in which another substance is dissolved, forming a solution. heterogeneous mixture:
A solution of sugar dissolved in water is an example. When the sugar consists of substances that
dissolves, it will spread evenly through the water so that all parts of the are visibly different or are in
solution are the same. different states
composition: parts or
Heterogeneous mixtures components of matter and
their relative proportions
A heterogeneous mixture consists of substances that are visibly different or
are in different states. The substances are not evenly distributed throughout the
mixture. It is not uniform and therefore does not have a definite composition.
A mixture of sand and water is heterogeneous because we can see the water
and the sand in the mixture.
Activity 1 Check your understanding of mixtures
1 Make mixtures of the substances listed below. Classify each of the mixtures
as homogeneous or heterogeneous. Give a reason for your answer.
1.1 sand and water
1.2 potassium dichromate and water
1.3 iodine and ethanol
1.4 iodine and water Exam words
2 Imagine that you have been given a container which holds a mixture give reasons: explain and
of sand, iron filings (small pieces of iron metal), sugar and small plastic use examples to justify
beads of different colours. state: write a piece of
2.1 State if this is a homogeneous or a heterogeneous mixture. information, as asked
2.2 Explain briefly how you would go about separating this mixture into the explain: describe giving
four materials that it contains. reasons
Unit 1 Revising matter and classification 23

New word Pure substances
paper chromatography: Any material that is not a mixture is called a pure substance. A pure substance
technique for separating has definite physical and chemical properties, and a definite composition.
and identifying mixtures that We can test the purity of a substance by using paper chromatography.
are or can be coloured
This method is used to separate mixtures, such as inks, into their components.
A substance is placed on filter paper. The end of the filter paper closest to the
substance is dipped into a liquid – called the solvent. Capillary action draws the
solvent up into the filter paper. The solvent dissolves the substance and carries it
up the filter paper. The different components of the substance travel at different
rates. The more soluble a component, the further it will travel up the filter paper.
As a result, the different components of the sample separate into different spots.
Another method of testing the purity of a substance is to boil or melt a
substance. A pure substance will boil or melt at an exact temperature under
the same conditions.
Pure substances can be elements or compounds. An element is a substance
that only consists of one type of particle. A compound consists of two or more
atoms of different elements that are chemically bonded.
Testing black ink pigment using

Practical activity 2
paper chromatography
In this practical activity you will use paper chromatography to determine if
MATERIALS
the colour in black water-soluble ink is a pure colour or a mixture of colours.
• 250 cm3 beaker
• filter paper (or white
METHOD
paper towel)
Step 1 Cut the filter paper into a strip of dimensions 10 cm  5 cm.
• pencil
Step 2 Draw a horizontal pencil line about 2 cm from the base along the
• ruler
shorter edge of the filter paper.
• black water-soluble
Step 3 Use the ink pen and draw a thick black dot in the middle of the pencil line.
ink pen (or Smarties)
Step 4 P our a little water into the beaker and lower
the filter paper into the water. Ensure that the
water level is about 1 cm below the ink dot.
Step 5 Fold the top of the filter paper over the
pencil and secure it to keep it in place.
Rest the pencil on the rim of the beaker.
Step 6 W hen the water reaches the top of the filter
paper, remove it and allow the filter paper to
dry overnight. Study the filter paper.
Conclusion
Figure 3 The various stages of paper chromatography showing
how the components of a substance separate and travel up the The black ink separates out into different colours. It
filter paper. is a mixture of colours.
Elements
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances
through chemical means. The smallest unit of an element is the atom. There
are about 117 known elements. The elements are represented on the periodic
table of elements.
24
Module 1 Matter and materials

Each element is represented by a chemical symbol.
• If the element’s symbol consists of one letter then it is a capital, for
MODULE 1
example, carbon (C).
• If the element’s symbol consists of two letters then the second letter is a
small letter, for example, sodium (Na).
Compounds atoms of element 1 atoms of element 1

(pure substance) (pure substance)
A compound is a chemical substance that forms when two or
more atoms of different elements combine (bond chemically) mixing chemical reaction
mixing chemical reaction
in a fixed ratio. The formula for a compound can be easily
recognised as it will have two or more capital letters. mixture mixture
compound
atoms of element 2 atoms of element 2 (pure substance)
Water has the formula H2O. This tells us that the compound
(pure substance) (pure substance)
consists of the elements hydrogen and oxygen. Two Figure 4 Representation of atoms of different elements
hydrogen atoms always combine with one oxygen atom. reacting to form a compound.
This is the fixed ratio for the compound water.
A compound has its own unique properties and does not have the properties of
the individual elements that make up the compound. Water is very different from
oxygen which supports combustion and hydrogen which burns easily. Water has
neither of these properties but has its own set of new properties.
Activity 3 Answer questions on mixtures
1 Decide which of the following substances are pure substances:

1.1 tap water 1.4 copper 1.7 oxygen
1.2 tea 1.5 brass
1.3 salt water 1.6 air
2 Classify the following as pure or mixture. Indicate if the block contains
an element, a compound or both.
A B C D E F G
Figure 5 Diagrammatic representation of pure substances and mixtures.
3 Study the following food label from a packet of liquorice allsorts:
INGREDIENTS
Sugar, Glucose Syrup, Water, Wheat Flower, Invert sugar, Vegetable
Fat, Coconut, Treacle, Molasses, Gelatine (Bovine), Liquorice Powder,
Caramel, Corn, Starch, Food Acids (E330, E296), Flavours, Salt,
Emulsifiers (E471), Gum Arabic, Colours (E122, E104, E110, E123).
3.1 Is liquorice allsorts a homogeneous mixture or a heterogeneous mixture?

Give a reason for your answer.
3.2 Identify how many types of colourants were used.
3.3 In your opinion, do you think liquorice allsorts is a healthy option for a
snack? Give a reason for your answer. Figure 6 Liquorice allsorts

Table 1 Food products and their ingredients 4 onsider the two food products, labelled A and B, and
C
Food product Ingredients their ingredients in Table 1 alongside.
A Breakfast cereal Carbohydrates; Fat; Sodium; 4.1 Give three elements named in product A.
Potassium; Cholesterol; Protein; 4.2 Name one compound found in product A.
Vitamins B1 and B2; Niacin; Folic
acid and Iron. 4.3 Is monosodium glutamate, which is found in product B,
B Pasta sauce Milk solids; Corn flour; Vegetable an element or compound? Give a reason for your answer
fat; Monosodium glutamate; Sodium
chloride; Flavourants and Colourants.
Names and formulae of substances

There are a few general rules we use to name compounds.
• The name of a compound consists of the names of the elements that make
up the compound. When there are only two elements in the formula, the
name will end in -ide.
Example: The compound that is formed when iron (Fe) and sulfur (S) react
is called iron sulfide (FeS).
Table 2 Common prefixes • The element that is on the left of the periodic table (usually the metal), is
Prefix Meaning used first when naming the compound.
Mono- One Example: In sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium (Na) is found on the left hand
Di- Two side of the periodic table, while chlorine (Cl) is found on the right.
Tri- Three • Prefixes (words that go in front of the element name) are used to indicate
Tetra- Four the ratio in which the elements occur in the compound.
Penta- Five Example: In carbon dioxide (CO2), the ratio of carbon to oxygen is 1 : 2.
For carbon monoxide (CO), there is one atom of oxygen for every one atom
of carbon.
• A compound may contain compound ions. For compound ions, when a
non-metal is combined with oxygen to form a negative ion, then the name
will end in -ate or -ite. The ions with more oxygen atoms ends with -ate.
New word
Examples: Potassium nitrate (KNO3) and potassium nitrite (KNO2)
ion: atom or group of atoms • Acids usually have hydrogen written first in their chemical formulae.
that has lost (positive ion) Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
or gained (negative ion)
• The hydroxides have the hydroxide (–OH) written last.
electrons
Example: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Table 3 Common compound Table 3 gives the names and formulae of some of the common compound
ions and their formulae
ions. The complete tables of positive and negative compound ions can be
Compound found in the data tables on page 290.
Formula
ion Some compounds also have everyday names. The most common one is
Ammonium NH4+ sodium chloride (NaCl) that we call table salt and use on our food. Table 4
Carbonate CO32– lists the chemical name, common name and formula of some compounds.
Sulfate SO42–
Sulfite SO32– Table 4 Chemical compounds, their everyday names and formulae
Nitrate NO3–
Chemical name Everyday name Formula
Nitrite NO2–
Ammonium carbonate Smelling salts (NH4)2CO3
Phosphate PO43–
Ammonium nitrate Fertiliser NH4NO3
Permanganate MnO4–
Hydrogen oxide Water H2O
Chlorate ClO3–
Chlorite ClO2–
Calcium carbonate Marble CaCO3
Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid (pool acid) HCl
Ethanoic acid Acetic acid (vinegar) CH3COOH
Sodium hydrogen carbonate Baking soda NaHCO3
Hydrogen sulfate Sulfuric acid H2SO4
26
Answer questions on names and formulae
Activity 4
MODULE 1
of substances
1 Use Table 3 and the names of the elements on the periodic table. Write
down the names of the following compounds:
1.1 KBr 1.5 Ca3(PO4)2
1.2 Na2CO3 1.6 CrCl3
1.3 MgSO3 1.7 Pb(NO3)2
1.4 FeSO4 1.8 Al(NO2)3
2 Write down the chemical formula for each of the following compounds:
2.1 sulfuric acid 2.4 nitrogen dioxide
2.2 sodium iodide 2.5 hydrogen oxide
2.3 magnesium sulfate
3 Consider the following chemical formulae: CO, LiOH, KClO3, NaI, HNO3,
KClO2 and CaCl2. Choose the:
Exam word
3.1 iodide 3.5 chloride choose: pick the best
3.2 chlorite 3.6 monoxide or most correct option
3.3 chlorate 3.7 hydroxide between many options
given
3.4 acid
4 Write down the chemical formula and chemical name for the following
compounds:
4.1 table salt
4.2 pool acid
4.3 vinegar
Metals, metalloids and non-metals

The elements in the periodic table are divided into metals, metalloids (also called
semi-metals) or non-metals. See the periodic table on the inside cover of this
book. Almost 75% of all elements are metals. On the right hand side of the
periodic table is a “zigzag” line that separates the metals from the non-metals.
Metals are found to the left of the line and non-metals are those on the right.
Metalloids lie next to the line on either side of it.
Metals
Metals have common properties. They are:
• malleable and can be bent into shape without breaking
• ductile and can be stretched into thin wires
• thermal (heat) conductors and are used in pots and pans
• electrical conductors and are used in electrical wires
• sonorous and have a ringing sound when hit and make good bells.
Metals have:
• metallic lustre and a shiny appearance; used to make jewellery
• high melting point used for equipment that needs to become very hot,
without melting such as a braai grid
• high density as their atoms are packed very close together; a small piece of
metal is quite heavy, such as a bar of gold.

Non-metals
Non-metals have the opposite properties to metals. They are:
• brittle and break easily when bent or shaped (not malleable or ductile)
• thermal and electrical insulators and do not conduct heat or electricity
• dull and do not have a shiny appearance.
Metalloids
Metalloids have some of the properties of metals and non-metals. There are
seven metalloid elements on the periodic table. They are boron (B), silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te), and astatine (At).
Silicon is the metalloid that is used the most widely. It is brittle and looks
shiny. It conducts electricity and heat, but not as well as metals.
Did you know? Electrical conductors, semiconductors

Computer chips need and insulators
exact control of the voltage
to work with all the data. An electrical conductor is a substance that allows an electrical current to pass
Silicon is ideal for this through it. Most metals are conductors of electricity. Copper is used for our
because it can be made
electrical wiring as it is one of the best conductors of electricity. Silver is a better
into either an insulator or
a semiconductor; both conductor of electricity than copper but is too expensive. An insulator does
are needed for controlling not conduct electricity. Plastic is good insulator and is placed around copper
electrical current. It is
wires to prevent us getting a shock when we touch the wire that has electricity
also one of the cheapest
materials that can do this. flowing through it. Semiconductors are made from the metalloids. They do not
conduct electricity when they are cold. Semiconductors conduct better as they
become hotter. This is the opposite of metals, as a metal’s conductivity becomes
less as the metal gets hotter. Silicon is used in the electronic industry as it is a
New word semiconductor. It is used in computer chips which are placed in the central
central processing unit
processing unit (CPU) of a computer.
(CPU): key component of
a computer system that
interprets and executes
program instructions
Thermal conductors and insulators
A thermal conductor is a material that allows energy – in the form of heat – to
move through the material. If you put a metal spoon in a pot of food that is
cooking, the end of the spoon will become hot to touch. The heat energy has
been transferred along the metal spoon.
A thermal insulator does not transfer energy in the form of heat. A thermal
insulator is a poor conductor of heat. Thermal insulation can keep an area,
such as a building, warm by keeping the heat inside. It can also keep the
inside of a container cold by keeping the heat out, such as in a cooler bag. Air
Figure 7 Examples of
computer chips. and water are poor thermal conductors.
Magnetic and non-magnetic materials

Metals are divided into magnetic and non-magnetic materials. A metal that is
attracted or repelled by a permanent magnet is magnetic.
28

A metal is ferromagnetic if it can be magnetised (i.e. made into a magnet). Iron
is the most common ferromagnetic material. There are other metals which also New words
MODULE 1
have magnetic properties. The main ones are cobalt (Co) and nickel (Ni). ferromagnetic: materials
Non-magnetic metals such as copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) and tin (Sn) are (such as iron) that can be
not attracted by magnets. magnetised strongly
A magnetic alloy is a combination of various metals that contains at least alloy: homogeneous mixture
one of the three main magnetic elements: iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), and cobalt of two or more metals
(Co). Steel is widely used in the building industry and is a magnetic alloy
made from carbon and iron.
Experiment idea
Conduct a simple investigation with the following materials: copper wire,
lead plate, aluminium foil, zinc plate, iron nail, roll sulfur, carbon (piece of
charcoal), iodine crystals and graphite (graphite rod), glass rod, plastic ruler
and any other materials of your choice.
Test and classify the materials as:

• metal or non-metal
• magnetic or non-magnetic
• conductors, semiconductors or insulators.
Uses of magnetic materials

• A compass is a magnetised needle that is free to move. It lines up with the
Earth’s magnetic field and points to magnetic north.
• Credit, debit and ATM cards have a magnetic strip on one side. This strip
stores all the information about the account holder.
• Speakers use magnetism to convert an electrical signal into the sound we hear.
• Hospitals use Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to identify problems in a
patient’s organs without having to operate.
Activity 5 Answer questions on properties of matter
1 Make use of the properties of matter to explain the use of each of the
below commonly used products:
1.1 Fish and chips are wrapped in paper.
1.2 Cooler boxes are often made of polystyrene (a type of plastic).
1.3 A diver has a layer of water trapped between his body and the wetsuit.
1.4 Pots made from iron.
2 List the metallic properties of a piece of copper.
Exam words
3 Compare the number of metal elements on the periodic table with the
non-metals. list: write the names,
4 Explain why some elements are called metalloids. numbers or things asked for
one below the other, each
5 How does the conductivity of metals and metalloids vary with increasing
on a new line
temperature?
compare: describe what is
6 Explain what property of metalloids is used in electronics.
similar and what is different
7 Briefly explain how you can conduct a simple experiment to show that about two or more things or
iron is a better thermal conductor than plastic. situations

Unit 2 States of matter
Physical states of matter

The physical state of matter is one of the ways to classify it. All matter occurs in
one of three physical states, namely: solid, liquid and gas state.
Table 1 Characteristics of states of matter

Did you know?
State Illustration Characteristics of state
Matter can exist in a fourth
state called plasma which Solid • Solid substances have definite
can only exist at very high shape and volume
temperatures, for example, • Substances will resist forces that try
inside the Sun.
and change the volume or the shape
Liquid • Liquid substances have definite

volume, but can change shape
• Liquids flow and take the shape of
container
Gas • Gaseous substances have no

definite volume or shape
• Gases expand to fill container
Physical state of a substance

The physical state that a substance is in at a certain temperature and atmospheric
New words pressure depends on its boiling point, melting point and freezing point.
• The freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid changes its
freezing point: temperature physical state and becomes a solid.
at which a liquid freezes • The temperature at which a solid changes completely into a liquid is called
melting point: temperature the melting point.
at which a solid melts
• The temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas (or vapour), is called
boiling point: temperature the boiling point of a substance.
at which a liquid boils
The atmospheric pressure can influence the temperature at which a substance

Did you know? changes state. We find that the greater the pressure, the higher the boiling
point of a substance.
The freezing point of a
substance occurs at the For example, it takes longer for water to boil at sea level than above sea level.
same temperature as its In Cape Town, which is at sea level, the pressure is greater. The boiling point is
melting point.
higher, so water takes longer to boil. In Johannesburg, there is less pressure, so
the temperature of boiling is lower. It takes a shorter time for the liquid to
reach boiling point.
Temperature is measured with a thermometer. Temperature can be measured
using different units of measurement. The most common unit of measurement
of temperature in South Africa is the degree Celsius (°C).

Water has a melting point of 0 °C and a boiling point of 100 °C. At room
temperature (20 °C), water is a liquid. Nitrogen gas boils at –196 °C and is a gas
MODULE 1
at room temperature. Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature and needs to be
cooled to below –114 °C to change to the solid state.
Table 2 Melting and boiling points of substances

Identify the physical state of
Activity 1 substances Melting Boiling
Substance
point (°C) point (°C)
Refer to Table 2 and answer the questions below. Water 0,0 100,0
1 List the substance with the: Nitrogen –210 –196
1.1 highest melting point Naphthalene balls 80,3 218,0
1.2 lowest boiling point. (moth balls)
2 Write down the substances in the order of the highest Carbon dioxide –55,6 –78,5
boiling point to lowest. Gold 1 064,4 2 940,0
3 Identify the substances that will be: Lead 327,5 1 740,0
3.1 a solid at room temperature (20 °C)
Ethanol –114 78,0
3.2 a gas at room temperature.
Aluminium 660,5 2 467
4 Identify the physical state of ethanol at:
Silicon 1 410,0 2 355
4.1 0 °C
Chlorine –101 –34,6
4.2 100 °C
Sodium chloride 808,0 1 465,0
(table salt)
Changes of state
A change of state occurs when a substance moves from one physical state
(solid, liquid or gas) to another. It is accompanied by:
• a change in the arrangement of the particles
• the absorption or release of energy.
Melting
The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting. An example of New word
melting would be when ice melts and turn into water. When a solid is heated,
intermolecular: between
the particles vibrate more vigorously. molecules
For a solid to melt, the energy of the particles must increase enough to
overcome the intermolecular forces holding the particles together. A solid held
together by strong forces will have a higher melting point than one where the
forces are weak. More energy (heat) is needed to break the intermolecular forces.
Evaporation and boiling

The process whereby a liquid changes to a gas at temperatures below its boiling
point is called evaporation. Some of the particles near the surface of the liquid
have sufficient energy to break away from the surface of the liquid and enter the
gas state. A liquid is boiling if there are changes from the liquid to the gas state
occurring throughout the liquid. This happens when water in a kettle is heated
to its boiling point and bubbles of steam rise up. At this temperature the particles
have sufficient energy to break the intermolecular forces.
Figure 1 Water condenses
on the outside of a glass
Condensation containing ice cubes.
The change of state from gas to liquid is called condensation. While this is
happening the particles lose potential energy. The intermolecular forces of
attraction become stronger. A typical example of condensation is the formation
of water droplets on the outside of a cooldrink glass containing ice cubes.
Unit 2 States of matter 31

Freezing
The change of state from liquid to solid state is called freezing. When the
temperature is at the freezing point of the particles, they lose potential energy and
the intermolecular forces of attraction between them become much stronger.
Sublimation
New words
The direct change from a solid to a gas on heating, and from a gas to a solid
sublimation: direct change on cooling is called sublimation. The substance does not go through the
of state from solid to gas liquid state. Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) sublimes directly from solid to gas.
phase
When solid iodine is heated it changes directly to violet iodine vapour.
heating curve: graph
showing changes in heat added
temperature over time for a
substance being heated melting evaporation and boiling
cooling curve: graph solid liquid gas

showing changes in freezing condensation
temperature over time for a
substance being cooled heat removed
Figure 1 Phase changes
Experiment 2 Determine the heating and cooling curve of water
In this experiment you will investigate the phase changes and determine the
heating curve and cooling curve of water.
MATERIALS METHOD
• five ice cubes Step 1 Draw up a suitable table to record your results.
• 250 ml beaker Step 2 Place the tripod and gauze over the Bunsen burner.
• 100 ml tap water Step 3 Put 100 ml of water in a 250 ml beaker and add the ice cubes.
• Bunsen burner (or Step 4 Stir for 10 seconds with the glass rod.
spirit burner) Step 5 Put the thermometer in the beaker and take the temperature reading.
• tripod Step 6 Light the Bunsen burner.
• gauze Step 7 Place the beaker on the tripod over heat source and start the stop watch.
• glass stirring rod Step 8 Stir the ice water all the time.
• alcohol Step 9 Take a temperature reading every 10 seconds. Record the readings in
thermometer a table. Continue taking readings until the water starts to boil.
• stopwatch
SCIEnTIFIC REPORT
Write up the experiment in the form of a scientific report. Include the following:
• Aim
• Design and background information
• Investigation question
• Hypothesis
• Independent and dependent variables, Caution
as well as the constants
• Apparatus and method • Take care not to burn
yourself when working
• Results table with an open flame.
• Graph of the results (on graph paper) • Wear protective gloves
whenever you handle a
• Conclusion
Figure 2 Apparatus used to beaker containing a hot
determine the heating curve • Discussion of the shape of the graph liquid.
of water. • Bibliography

EXTEnSIOn
Cooling curve of water: Bring approximately 70 ml of water to the boil in
MODULE 1
a beaker. Then place beaker into a larger container filled with ice that is
below 0 °C. Allow the water to cool until it freezes. Measure the temperature
every 30 seconds and record the readings in a table. Draw a graph of the results.
Cooling curve
If you start with hot water and cool it down you
obtain the graph in Figure 3. This is the cooling curve liquid
of water. As the liquid cools the temperature decreases. liquid + solid
Temperature (ºC)
The particles move slower and have less kinetic energy.
Since temperature is a measure of the average kinetic 0
energy, the temperature drops. As the state changes
from water to ice, the temperature does not change. solid (ice)
The energy released does not cause the particles to lose
kinetic energy at this point. The loss of energy causes
an increase in the intermolecular forces that hold the
particles together. The temperature remains constant. Time (minutes)
This heat is called latent heat. Figure 3 The cooling curve for water
Activity 3 Answer questions on the heating curve New word

latent heat: heat
Ice is heated and the temperature is measured. Figure 4 shows a typical graph of released or absorbed
the temperature of the water against time as the energy of the particles increases. during a change of state;
temperature of substance
F stays constant
D
E
Temperature (ºC)
B
C
Time (minutes)
Figure 4 Typical heating curve for water
1 Select the points A–F on the graph which show the melting point of water.
2 Select the points A–F which show the boiling point of water.
3 Select the points A–F which show the condensation point of water.
4 Explain the shape of the graph at points D to E.
Exam word
5 Explain the shape of the graph at points E to F. select: choose
Unit 2 States of matter 33

Unit 3 Kinetic molecular theory
Scientist use theories to explain things that they cannot prove as fact. Matter
New words consists of very small particles that we cannot see. We use theories to develop
theories: set of ideas models of what we think matter looks like.
proposed by reasoning
from known facts to explain
something
Kinetic molecular theory
particle model: scientific
theory that explains the
All matter occurs in one of three states, namely solid, liquid and gas. The
properties of solid, liquids
and gases, and also that properties of the three states of matter are explained with the kinetic or
matter is made up of tiny particle model of matter. This model also describes how matter can change
particles from one state to another.
Kinetic molecular theory states the following:

• Matter is made up of particles that are constantly moving.
• All particles have energy, but the amount of energy depends on whether
the substance is a solid, liquid or gas.
• The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy
of the particles. The energy of each individual particle will be slightly
different within the substance.
• A change in state may occur when the energy of the particles is changed.
• There are spaces between the particles of matter.
• There are attractive forces between particles and these become stronger
as the particles move closer together. However, when the particles are
extremely close, repulsive forces start to increase.
Verifying the particulate nature of matter

Brownian motion and diffusion provide evidence of the particulate (particle)
nature of matter.
Brownian motion
The random movement of small particles in water or air is called Brownian motion.
Brownian motion is the random movement of microscopic particles

Visit this web site suspended in a liquid or gas.
www.practicalphysics.org/
fileLibrary/wmv/brownian_ The movement is caused by collisions with the molecules of the surrounding
motion.wmv gas or liquid. This random movement supports the kinetic molecular theory.
Did you know?

Brownian motion is named after the botanist Robert Brown (1827) who observed the random
motion of tiny pollen grains on the surface of water.
34

Practical activity 1 Observe and confirm Brownian motion
MODULE 1
In this practical activity you will observe and confirm Brownian motion.
METHOD MATERIALS
Step 1 Fill the cell with smoke using a smouldering piece of paper. • smoke cell,
Step 2 Cover it with a glass cover-slip. incorporating a light
Step 3 Place the cell on the microscope stage and connect to a 12 V power supply. source and lens
Step 4 Start with the objective lens of the microscope near the cover-slip. While • light microscope
looking through the microscope, slowly adjust the focus, moving the • 12 V DC power
objective lens away from the cover-slip, until you see tiny dots of light. supply
Step 5 Watch the particles carefully and note what you see. • microscope cover-slip
• smoke source (for
Alternative to the smoke cell example, paper and
If you do not have a smoke cell, place some pollen grains on the surface of a drop of water. The
matches)
drop of water can be placed on a glass slide and viewed under the microscope.
DISCuSSIOn
• The smoke particles are in constant motion.
• The motion does not form a pattern but is random.
• Molecules of air collide with the smoke particles and cause them to
move randomly.
Diffusion
Both gases and liquids will mix spontaneously without mechanical or outside
help. The particles move from areas of high concentration to areas of low
concentration. This process is called diffusion.
Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of a substance from an area of

high concentration of that substance to an area of lower concentration.
Figure 1 Particles move

Gases diffuse much faster than liquids. This supports the kinetic theory as spontaneously from an area
of high concentration to an
particles must move to mix and particles move faster in a gas. area of low concentration.
Observe diffusion in a liquid and

in air
In this practical activity you will observe diffusion.
METHOD MATERIALS
Step 1 Pour some water in the beaker. Drop a large crystal of potassium • 250 ml beaker
permanganate into the water. Watch what happens. • 100 ml water
Step 2 Spray the air freshener in the front of the classroom. Learners should • potassium
raise their hands to indicate when they smell the scent. permanganate
crystals
• air freshener spray
Unit 3 Kinetic molecular theory 35

DISCUSSION
• The purple colour of the potassium permanganate crystals spreads out by
itself from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
The particles spread out into the spaces in between the water molecules.
• After a few minutes the air freshener can be smelt at the back of the
classroom. The scent particles diffuse and spread throughout the room.
Characteristics of the three states using the kinetic model

The kinetic model can be used to show the difference between a solid, liquid
and a gas. Table 1 summarises these characteristics.
Table 1 General characteristics of the three states using the kinetic model
Property of matter Gas Liquid Solid

Spaces between Very big Much smaller than gases but Small spaces between the
particles usually larger than solids particles
Energy of particles High energy Less energy than gases Low energy
Movement of particles The particles move all over Particles rotate and vibrate at Particle have very little
the place at the same time the same time movement and only vibrate
on the spot
Attractive forces Weak to no forces between Stronger forces than a gas; Very strong intermolecular
between the particles the particles (intermolecular the particles are held tightly forces; the solid keeps its
forces) because they are so enough so that they can be shape
far apart poured but not so tight that
they cannot move
Phase change A gas changes phase when A liquid becomes a solid A solid becomes a liquid
cooled; the energy of the when cooled and a gas when when heated; the particles
particles decreases and heated start moving faster and move
they start moving closer to away from each other; this
each other; attractive forces weakens the attractive forces
increase; movement decreases between the particles
Activity 3 Answer questions on the kinetic model

1 Use the kinetic model of matter to explain why:
1.1 a metal rod expands when heated
1.2 the volume (size) of a sealed balloon decreases when put in a fridge.
2 Figure 2 represents a liquid in a closed container. Draw similar diagrams
to show the space between the particles in the gas and solid states.
3 Use the kinetic model to explain each of the following statements:
3.1 Metals are good thermal conductors.
3.2 The alcohol in a thermometer drops when the thermometer is placed in
a cold liquid.
3.3 A hot air balloon rises into the air when the gas is heated.
3.4 When you place your finger on the plunger of a syringe containing some
water, it does not depress noticeably.
3.5 When you place your finger on the plunger of a syringe containing some
Figure 2 A representation of
liquid water. air, it depresses to less than half its original volume.
36

Unit 4 Atoms and atomic models
Atoms: building blocks of all matter

Atoms make up all matter, both living and non-living. Atoms are the basic building
blocks of every single object in our universe. Objects include your body, a soccer New words
ball, a cell phone or even the air that you breathe. It is important to understand atomic: to do with an atom
what an atom is in order to predict how they will behave in different conditions. or atoms
BCE: before the common
era or years before the birth
Models of the atom of Jesus
atomic theory: theory that
You were introduced to the idea of models in Science in the Skills for Physical explains that all matter is
Sciences section on page 9 of this book. Atoms are too small to see and scientists made up of atoms
use the atomic model to explain what they look like. The atomic model of the
time is based on what we know about atoms at a given time in history.
Purpose of atomic models

The models of the atom do not provide a complete understanding of the
atom. Nevertheless, the models help us to make useful predictions about how
matter will behave. Did you know?
The word atom comes from
the Greek word atomos
Atomic model timeline meaning “uncuttable”.
We have seen several changes to the atomic model. As scientists made new
discoveries, they had to adapt the existing model of the atom. This was done
so that the new discovery could be explained by the new model of the atom.
Many scientists contributed to our understanding of the modern atomic model
used today. There are five major discoveries that influenced our view of the atom.
The first ideas of atoms

Democritus (470–380 BCE), a Greek philosopher, developed the first idea
of atoms. He said that matter is made up of individual particles. He called Figure 1 John Dalton
these particles atoms. For more than 2 000 years nobody made new discoveries
about the model of the atom. It was not until the early 1800s that people
again questioned the structure of matter.
The very first atomic theory

John Dalton (1766–1844), a British chemist and physicist, proposed the first
atomic theory in 1808. He saw the atom as a solid sphere. His model of the atom
is also known as the “billiard” ball model. Dalton’s atomic theory proposed that:
• All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms, which cannot be broken up.
• All the atoms of a particular element are the same. Atoms of different
elements are different.
• When atoms combine, they form “compound atoms” that we call Figure 2 Dalton’s solid
compounds. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. sphere atomic model.
Unit 4 Atoms and atomic models 37

Discovery of the electron
Joseph J Thomson (1856–1940), a British scientist,
discovered electrons in 1897. He saw the atom as a
positive sphere where the electrons were randomly
spread out inside the atom. This model was to
be known as the “plum-pudding” model. The
Figure 3 Joseph Thomson Figure 4 Thomson’s plum electrons were dotted throughout the positive atom
pudding atomic model. like raisins in a Christmas pudding.
New words Discovery of the proton and the nucleus

radioactivity: property In 1896 Henri Becquerel (1852–1908) a French scientist, discovered
of atoms that break up radioactivity in uranium salts. These radioactive rays were called Becquerel
spontaneously and send rays. Marie Curie decided to investigate these Becquerel rays and discovered
out radiation capable of that the atom generated the radiation.
penetrating opaque bodies
She showed that radiation was given off by radioactive materials such as
radiation: emission and
uranium, polonium and radium. The atoms of the radioactive elements break down
transmission of energy
(much of which is invisible) spontaneously and release energy in the form of radiation. Becquerel identified
three types of radiation namely: alpha (a), beta (β) and gamma (γ) radiation.
spontaneously: happening
without external cause The atom was regarded as an indestructible entity ever since the days of
Dalton. The discovery of radioactivity showed that the atom could break down
into smaller particles. The era of “modern physics” had begun.
Rutherford’s gold foil experiment

In 1911 Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937), a British physicist, used the discovery
of an alpha particle to do further experiments on the atom. The alpha (a)
particle has the same mass as a helium atom but has a positive charge.
Rutherford directed a beam of alpha particles at a thin gold foil so that he could
explore the inside of the atom. This experiment is referred to as the alpha particle
scattering experiment. The details of this experiment are discussed on page 41.
Rutherford made the following conclusions about the structure of the atom:
• Almost all of the mass of the atom is found in a very small positively
charged nucleus in the centre of the atom. He later found the positive
charge comes from protons.
• The space around the nucleus is empty except for the negatively charged
+ electrons to be found there.
This model became known as Rutherford’s nuclear atomic model.

Rutherford’s model had one major drawback. Opposite charges attract each
Figure 5 Rutherford’s nuclear other and the electrons should gradually lose energy and spiral inward toward
atomic model. the positive nucleus. No experiment could prove that this was happening.
Discovery of electron movement around the nucleus

In 1912, a Danish physicist, Niels Bohr (1885–1962), came up with a theory
that said the electrons do not spiral into the nucleus. The main ideas of Bohr’s
model of the atom are:
38

• Electrons move in orbits (or energy levels) around
the nucleus. This is similar to the way the planets
MODULE 1
orbit the Sun.
• Electrons with the same energy move around in
the same orbit.
• Electrons in orbits that are further away from
the nucleus have a higher energy than the orbits
closer to the nucleus.
Figure 6 Niels Bohr
Figure 7 Bohr’s planetary
This atomic model is referred to as the Bohr’s model.
planetary atomic model.
Discovery of the neutron New word

James Chadwick (1891–1974), an English scientist, worked closely with Niels orbit: curved path around
Bohr. In 1932 he discovered particles with no charge in the nucleus and called an object
these neutrons.
The modern atomic model

Many scientists have contributed to our understanding of the modern day model
of the atom. Some of the more famous are: Erwin Schroedinger, Albert Einstein,
Luis de Broglie, Max Planck, Frank Hertz, James Clerk Maxwell and Enrico Fermi.
This modern atomic model is called the quantum mechanical model or electron
cloud model. An atom consists of a nucleus and electrons spinning around the
nucleus. The electrons move in a cloud around the nucleus. We cannot tell exactly
where the electrons are at any given time. We do know that they exist more
frequently in certain regions around the nucleus than others. This view of the Figure 8 James Chadwick
atom is a model and therefore it can still change as new discoveries are made.
Activity 1 List key discoveries about atomic structure

Visit these websites
Choose one of the people listed below:
www.angelfire.com/mb2/atoms/
J J Thomson, E Rutherford, M Curie, J C Maxwell, M Planck, A Einstein, hi.fi.tripod.com/timeline/
N Bohr, L V de Broglie, C J Davisson, L H Germer, J Chadwick, W Heisenberg, craigjm.tripod.com/physics.html
M Born, E Schrodinger, J Dalton, R Boyle, H Cavendish, A Lavoisier, J Proust, www.timeline-help.com/atom-
H Becquerel, Lucretius, Empedocles, Leucippus, Democritus, Epicurus, Zosimus, timeline.html
Maria the Jewess, Geber, Rhazes. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_
of_chemistry
• Visit a library or the websites listed alongside to find out about the www.timetoast.com/
timelines/69109
research that the person conducted. State the scientist’s idea about the
atom and how it contributed to our understanding of atoms in one www.columbia.edu/itc/
chemistry/chem-c2507/navbar/
sentence. Remember to record the date at which their work was done. chemhist.html
• The class can combine their research into a flow chart or timeline www.mrenns.com/Docs-
of discoveries. PowerpointsWeb/Ppoint-
AtomicModel.pdf
Unit 4 Atoms and atomic models 39

Unit 5 Atomic mass and diameter
Did you know? Atomic mass

• Until the early twentieth Atoms are extremely small. Grams and kilograms are much too big to be
century, chemists and
physicists had no accurate useful for measuring the mass of atoms. A different unit is needed. This unit
means of isolating atoms of measurement is called the atomic mass unit, abbreviated amu or u. In 1961,
to find their mass.
scientists agreed that a particular type of carbon atom called carbon–12 has a
• According to the 1961
agreement, 1 u is mass of exactly 12 u. From this they were able to determine that:
1
officially ––
12
the mass One atomic mass unit (1 u) is equal to 1,66 × 10–24 g.
of a carbon-12 atom
whose exact value is
1,6653873 × 10–24 g. Relative atomic mass
It is useful to be able to compare the average mass of atoms of each element with
each other.
Relative atomic mass (Ar) is the ratio of the average mass per atom of an
element to 1 of the mass of a carbon–12 atom.
12
Relative atomic mass is a ratio and so it is without units. Hydrogen atoms have
a relative atomic mass of 1 which means that they have the same mass as 12 1 of
1
a carbon-12 atom. For iron, Ar = 56 so atoms of iron are 56 times the mass of 12
of a carbon-12 atom. They are also 56 times the mass of an average hydrogen
atom. Other examples of relative atomic mass are: carbon Ar = 12; nitrogen
Ar = 14 and uranium Ar = 238. From this we can see that the mass of uranium
atoms is 17 times that of nitrogen atoms but a nitrogen atom has not much
more mass than a carbon one.
Worked example 1
Calculate the mass (in grams) of an atom of iron with an atomic mass of 56 u.
Variables Answer
1 u = 1,66 × 10–24 g Mass = 56 × (1,66 × 10 –24 g)
Ar(Fe) = 56 = 9,3 × 10 –23 g
Activity 1 Calculate the mass of an atom

Exam word
calculate: work out 1 The heaviest atom listed on the periodic table is ununhexium, with an atomic
following a method mass of 292 u. Calculate the mass (in kilograms) of one atom of ununhexium.
Atomic diameter
The volume or size of the atom is large compared to its mass. Rutherford
showed that the atom is mostly made up of empty space, with its mass
concentrated in the centre of the atom.

The alpha particle scattering experiment
MODULE 1
Rutherford placed very, very thin sheets of gold in a beam of alpha particles.
He made the following three observations during his experiment:
• Most α-particles moved through the gold foil unchanged.
• Some α-particles changed direction.
• A very few α-particles almost reversed direction completely. The alpha
particles were being bounced off at large angles. In fact, one out of every
20 000 hit something and bounced back.
More measurements convinced Rutherford that there was something very

tiny (much smaller than an atom) and positively charged in the middle of the
metal atoms. He concluded that over 99,9% of the mass of an atom, and all its
positive charge, was squeezed into a tiny nucleus at its centre. The rest of the
atom’s volume was taken up by the circling electrons.
Rutherford found that the nucleus was very small, one 10 000th the size
of the atom itself. If you think of a soccer stadium representing the atom,
a marble placed in the centre will represent the nucleus, and the full-stops
printed on the spectators’ programmes will represent the electrons. The rest of Figure 1 The tiny central
the atom is empty space. nucleus reflects the alpha
Atoms have diameters of 2 to 3 × 10–10 m, and nuclei around 1 × 10–14 m. particle.
microscope
zinc
sulfide
screen
deflection
alpha
particles
gold foil
vacuum
radium source
in lead box
Figure 2 Rutherford’s
scattering experiment Figure 3 Imagine a marble on the centre spot of this soccer stadium.
Activity 2 Atoms to scale
1 Imagine a circle with a diameter of 2 km. If this represents an atom, which

answer would best represent the nucleus? Choose the correct answer.
A A table tennis ball (diameter: 2 cm)
B A tennis ball (diameter: 7 cm)
C A volley ball (diameter: 20 cm)
D A soccer ball (diameter: 25 cm)
2 If the nucleus of an atom was the size of a medium-sized orange
(diameter: 6 cm), calculate the diameter of the atom in kilometres (km).
Answer to numerical questions

Activity 1 (page 40): 1 4,85  10 –22 kg
Activity 2 (page 41): 2 0,6 km
Unit 5 Atomic mass and diameter 41

Unit 6 Structure of the atom
The structure of the nucleus

Rutherford and his team of scientists realized that the nucleus consists of
protons and neutrons. The protons are positively charged. The neutrons have
New words
no charge but are almost the same mass as the protons.
atomic number: number
of protons in the nucleus of Information about the nuclei of atoms is summarised by the following:
the atom of an element
• The atomic number (symbol Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of
mass number: number of an atom. This equals the number of positive charges it contains. All atoms
neutrons and protons in an
of the same element have the same atomic number. It is different from the
atomic nucleus
atomic number of any other element.
• The mass number (symbol A) is the atomic number (Z) plus the number
of neutrons (symbol N) in the nucleus of an atom. Mathematically this can
Ar
be shown as A = N + Z.
40
18 • Protons and neutrons together in the atom are known as the nucleons.
Figure 1 Mass number and
atomic number for argon. The atomic number and mass number are often written with an element’s symbol:
mass number
atomic number Symbol or AZ X
The relative atomic mass, atomic number and symbol for an element can be
found on the periodic table of elements (see inside book cover).
Electrons and the charge of an atom

New words In a neutral atom, the number of protons (Z) is equal to the number of electrons
neutral (electricity): zero around the nucleus. An atom can become charged by gaining or losing electrons.
net charge; the object has When an atom gains electrons, it has more electrons than protons and thus is
as many positive charges as negatively charged. When an atom loses electrons, it has more protons than
negative charges
electrons and has a positive charge. An atom with a charge is called an ion.
anion: negatively charged Negative ions are also called anions and positive ions are called cations.
ion; formed when an atom
gains electrons
Worked example 1
cation: positively charged
ion; formed when an atom Determine the following for the ion 27
13
Al3+
loses electrons 1 mass number 4 number of electrons
2 atomic number 5 number of neutrons
3 number of protons
Answers
1 Mass number (A) = 27
2 Atomic number (Z) = 13
3 Number of protons (Z) = 13 protons
4 The atom had 13 electrons when it was neutral. The atom has lost
three electrons to gain a charge of 3+.
Number electrons = 13 – 3
= 10 electrons
42

5 Number of neutrons (N) = mass number (A) – atomic number (Z)
MODULE 1
= 27 – 13
= 14 neutrons
Isotopes
In nature pure elements contain atoms with different masses, for example, the
masses of magnesium atoms are 24, 25 and 26 u. These atoms have the same
atomic number and therefore differ in the number of neutrons. These atoms
are called isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number (Z) but different atomic Did you know?
mass number (A). Scientists use an
instrument called a mass
spectrometer to measure
The isotopes of magnesium are written as: 24
12
Mg, 25
12
Mg and Mg.
26
12
the mass of atoms
extremely accurately.
Calculate the average mass of isotopes of an element
The average atomic mass of the isotopes of an element can be calculated by
multiplying the mass of each isotope by the percentage it occurs in nature.
Then add these and divide the final answer by 100.
Example: The percentages of the three isotopes of magnesium in nature are
approximately 80%, 10% and 10% respectively.
Average mass of the magnesium atom = (24 × 80) + (25 × 10) + (26 × 10)
100
= 2 430
100
= 24,3 u
The atomic mass number found on the periodic table is the average atomic
mass of the element.
Activity 1 Draw diagrams and answer questions on

atomic structure
1 Draw a fully labelled diagram to represent the structure of the atom.
2 Redraw and complete the table below in your workbook.
Mass Atomic
No Name Symbol Nucleons Protons Neutrons Electrons
number number
1 Magnesium Mg 24 12
2 Magnesium ion Mg 2+
12 12
3 O 2–
16 8
4 Na+ 23 11
5 S 16 32
6 Potassium 39 19
7 Bromide ion Br– 45 36
3 Lithium occurs as two isotopes in the proportions shown: Lithium-6 (7%) Answer to numerical question
and Lithium-7 (93%). Calculate the average mass of the two isotopes. 3 6,93 u
Unit 6 Structure of the atom 43

Unit 7 Electron configuration
New words In Bohr’s model, the negative electron moves around the nucleus of an atom
in a fixed orbit. Werner Heisenberg, a German scientist, found it impossible to
momentum: quantity of determine the position and the momentum of the electron at the same time.
motion affecting an object;
the greater the velocity of
In 1925 he formulated his uncertainty principle.
an object, the greater its
momentum
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to determine
orbital: region of space
both the position and momentum of a particle at any given point in time.
around the nucleus where
there is a 90% chance of
finding an electron
While determining the position, the momentum will change and vice versa.
s-orbital: spherical orbital So the idea of an electron moving in fixed orbits had to be looked at again.
p-orbital: double teardrop
shaped orbital
Atomic orbitals
In 1927 Erwin Schroedinger developed the modern atomic model. In
accordance with Heisenberg’s principle, electrons will not move in fixed orbits,
but will move mostly in an area around the nucleus. An orbital describes the
space where there is a 90% chance of finding an electron.
To represent orbitals we draw the space where the electron is likely to be found:
• Figure 1 shows the spherical shape of s-orbitals. Electrons in the 2s-orbitals
are further away from the nucleus than those in a 1s-orbital. Those in a
3s-orbital are further away from the nucleus than those in a 2s-orbital.
• Figure 2 shows the double teardrop shape of the p-orbitals. The p-orbitals
are made up of three sub-orbitals: px, py and pz.
z z z
y y y
x x x
1s 2s 3s
Figure 1 The shape of the s-orbitals
z z z z
y y y y
x x x x
px py pz
Figure 2 The shape of the p-orbitals

Arrangement of electrons in the orbitals
MODULE 1
Rules for assigning electrons to orbitals are given below:
Electrons occupy orbitals so that the energy of the atom is minimised. The
orbital with the least energy is the 1s-orbital. This is the first orbital to be
filled. The number 1 indicates that the orbital is in the first energy level
around the nucleus of the atom. After the 1s-orbital there is the 2s-orbital,
which is also spherical, but bigger. It is found in the second energy level
around the nucleus. The electrons that occupy orbitals further away from the
nucleus have more energy.
After the 2s-orbital there is a set of p-orbitals. These orbitals have more Figure 3 Spatial orientation of
energy than the 2s-orbital but are still in the second energy level of the atom. orbitals around the nucleus.
Figure 3 shows how the orbitals are arranged.
The order of the orbitals is as follows: 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz 4s
New word
Orbital box diagrams energy level: fixed energy
that a system (such as an
The energy levels and arrangement of the orbitals around the nucleus is
atom) can have
represented in the energy diagram in Figure 4.
4 4s
3px 3py 3pz

Potential energy (J)
3 3s
2px 2py 2pz
2 2s
1 1s
nucleus
Figure 4 Energy level diagram of the orbitals in the atom.
Each orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons. These electrons

spin in opposite directions. This rule is called Pauli’s exclusion principle.
Pauli’s exclusion principle states that only two electrons can occupy an
orbital and these must spin in opposite directions.
When orbitals of identical energy are available, electrons are placed in

individual orbitals before they are paired up. This rule is called Hund’s rule.
Hund’s rule states that, when filling sublevels of p-orbitals, electrons are
placed in individual orbitals before they are paired up.
Unit 7 Electron configuration 45

Aufbau diagrams
New word
Aufbau principle: gives the We use the Aufbau principle to place electrons in an atom. The Aufbau
order in which orbitals are principle is as follows:
filled • The lowest energy orbitals fill up first.
• A maximum of two electrons may be placed in an orbital, provided they
spin in opposite directions.
Did you know?
• No pairing in p-orbitals before there is at least one electron in each orbital.
The term Aufbau means “to • Electrons are represented by arrows in opposite directions ( ) to indicate
→
→
build up”.
the spin of each electron.
A hydrogen atom (11H) has one electron. This electron is placed in the lowest
energy level. The Aufbau diagram is shown in Figure 5.
2
2s
1 1s
Figure 5 The Aufbau diagram for a hydrogen atom.
A helium atom ( 42 He) has two electrons. The Aufbau diagram for a helium atom
is shown in Figure 6. The first electron is placed in the first energy level. There
is still space in the 1s-orbital for the second electron as each orbital can contain
a maximum of two electrons. The second electron is placed in the 1s-orbital as
the lower energy levels must be filled first according to the Aufbau principle.
The second electron is placed in this orbital but must spin in the opposite
direction to the first according to Pauli’s exclusion principle. The electron is
represented by an upside down arrow. This indicates that the second electron
spins in the opposite direction to the first electron already placed in the
1s-orbital.
2
2s
1 1s
Figure 6 The Aufbau diagram for a helium atom

demonstrates Pauli’s exclusion principle.
46

Worked example 1
MODULE 1
A nitrogen atom (147N) has seven electrons. It has five valence electrons and
two inner-electrons. Draw an Aufbau diagram for this atom.
Method
• Place the first two electrons in the 1s-orbital. They should spin in
opposite directions according to Pauli’s exclusion principle.
2p
2
2s
1 1s
• Place the third electron in the second energy level as the first energy
level is full. The fourth electron is placed in the 2s-orbital and not the
2p-orbital. The 2s-orbital has a lower energy than the 2p-orbital and
the lower energy orbital must be filled first.
2p
2
2s
1 1s
• Place the fifth electron in the first 2p-orbital.

2p
2
2s
1 1s

• Place the sixth and seventh electrons in the second and third
2p-orbital respectively. These are not paired with the previously placed
electron. This is according to Hund’s rule which states that there is no
pairing in p-orbitals until there is at least on electron in each p-orbital.

2p
2
2s
1 1s
The Aufbau diagram for a sulfur atom is shown in Figure 7. A sulfur atom has
16 electrons.
4 4s
3p
3
3s
2p
2
2s
1 1s
Figure 7 The electron arrangement of a sulfur atom.
Electron configuration notation

Instead of using the Aufbau diagram, we can use the electron configuration
New word notation. The number of electrons in each orbital is indicated with a
superscript. We can represent sulfur’s electron structure as:
electron configuration:
arrangement of electrons in Expanded notation: 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2 3s2 3px2 3py1 3pz1
the orbitals of an atom Condensed version: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Neon (Ne) is the noble gas before sulfur on the periodic table. Its energy levels
are full. We can represent the configuration of neon as [Ne] and only add the
electrons that are filled in the energy levels afterwards.
Short-hand version: [Ne] 3s2 3px2 3py1 3p1z or [Ne] 3s2 3p4
Note Draw Aufbau diagrams and electron

Activity 1
Electron configurations configurations
are usually written in
condensed form when
1 Draw Aufbau diagrams for the first 20 elements on the periodic table.
listed in tables. 2 Write the condensed electron configuration notation below each diagram.
48

Using flame tests to identify cations Visit these websites
MODULE 1
An atom that has lost electrons has a positive charge (cation). The easiest way en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_
test
to find whether certain metal cations are present in a sample is to do a flame
chemistry.about.com/od/
test. Some metal ions will give a specific colour when heated in flame. The
analyticalchemistry/a/flametest.
electron configuration of each metal ion is responsible for its characteristic htm
colour. The metal will burn with the same colour as its ion. The colours can www.youtube.com/watch?v=5B
be seen on the inside front cover of the book. I6qXaJtuo&feature=related
Experiment 2 Conduct flame tests
In this experiment you will determine the colour flames produced by different
metal ions.
METHOD MATERIALS
Step 1 Take the nichrome wire and bend the end into a small loop. • small watch glass
Step 2 Add a little hydrochloric acid to the small watch glass. • hydrochloric acid
Step 3 Light the Bunsen burner. Adjust the air vent of the Bunsen burner • piece of nichrome
until the flame is as close to colourless as possible. wire (about 30 cm)
Step 4 Clean the looped end of the nichrome wire by dipping it in • Bunsen burner
concentrated HCl. • a pair of tongs
Step 5 Hold the wire in the hottest section of the Bunsen flame for about • distilled water
ten seconds. • various metals:
Step 6 Repeat Steps 4 and 5 and then rinse the wire in distilled water. copper powder (Cu),
Step 7 Dip the looped section of the wire in the solid metal powder zinc powder (Zn),
or metal salt. iron powder (Fe),
Step 8 Hold the loop in the Bunsen burner flame. Observe the colour of the magnesium powder
flame for ten seconds. (Mg)
Step 9 Draw up a table to record your results. • various metal salts:
Step 10 Compare your results with the accepted colours in Table 1. sodium chloride
(NaCl), potassium
Table 1 The flame colour of some common cations chloride (KCl),
Metal ion Flame colour copper chloride
(CuCl2), calcium
Lithium ion (Li ) +
Deep red
Caution chloride (CaCl2)
Sodium ion (Na+) Golden yellow
Hydrochloric acid is
Potassium ion (K+) Lilac corrosive. Avoid contact
with the skin and eyes at
Rubidium ion (Rb+) Bluish red all times. Wear a laboratory
coat to protect your skin
Caesium ion (Cs+) Blue
and clothing. Safety
Calcium ion (Ca2+) Brick red goggles are recommended
to prevent acid from
Strontium ion (Sr2+) Blood red spattering into the eyes.
Barium ion (Ba ) 2+

Apple green
Copper(II) ion (Cu2+) Bluish green
Magnesium ion (Mg ) 2+
No colour
Figure 8 Heated metal

DISCuSSIOn ions produce light with a
The metals burn with the same colour as their ions. characteristic colour.

Unit 8 The periodic table
The structure of the periodic table

The periodic table displays the elements in order of increasing number of protons
(or ascending atomic number). A complete periodic table is given on the inside
back cover of this book.
Table 1 Group numbers and their common names
Groups
New word Elements are arranged in 18 vertical Group number
columns called groups that are Common name
group (periodic table): Modern Traditional
numbered 1–18. Traditionally, the
vertical column of elements 1 IA Alkali metals
groups were numbered using Roman
2 IIA Alkaline-earth metals
numerals (IA–0) and these can still be
16 VIA Chalcogens
seen on many periodic tables. Some of
17 VIIA Halogens
the groups have names. The names are
18 0 Noble gases
listed in Table 1.
50

Periods
The seven horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. The New words
MODULE 1
periods are numbered 1–7 from top to bottom. The first period contains period (periodic table):
only two elements, hydrogen and helium. horizontal row of elements
core electrons: electrons
Finding an element that fill the inner energy
levels
You can find an element by moving across the groups and down the periods. For valence electrons:
example, aluminum can be found in Group 13, Period 3 on the periodic table. electrons in outermost
energy level of atom
The periodic table and electron configurations

Groups and periods organise all the elements with related electron configurations
together. The electrons that fill the inner energy levels are called core electrons.
The electrons that occupy the outermost energy level of an atom are called
valence electrons.
Did you know?

Dimitri Mendeleev developed the original form of the periodic table in 1869.
Unit 8 The periodic table 51

Valence electrons and group numbers
Elements within the same groups have similar chemical properties because
they have the same number of valence electrons.
You can work out the number of valence electrons in each element from the
Aufbau diagrams drawn in Unit 7. You will notice that there is a pattern. Table 2
shows how the group number links to the valence electrons. The number of valence
electrons corresponds to the traditional group number (in Roman numerals).
The group number also tells us which orbital the last valence electrons
are in and the number of valence electrons in the orbital. The Aufbau
diagrams show a general pattern. Group 1 elements have the valence
electron the orbital s1, and Group 2 in the orbital s2. Table 2 shows the
orbital of the last valence electrons in each group.
Table 2 The number of valence electrons in each group and the orbitals they occupy.
Number of valence Orbital of valence

Group number
electrons electrons
1 1 s1
2 2 s2
13 3 s2 p1
14 4 s2 p2
15 5 s2 p3
16 6 s2 p4
17 7 s2 p5
18 8 s2 p6
Energy levels and period numbers

The electrons of an atom are arranged in energy levels. The period number
tells us in which energy level an atom has its valence electrons. For example,
the element phosphorus is in Group 15 and Period 3. This tells us that it
has five valence electrons in its outermost energy level, which is the third
energy level. The valence electrons are 3s2 3p3. (The other 10 electrons are core
electrons and will take no part in chemical reactions.)
Activity 1 Answer questions using the periodic table
1 State how many valence electrons each element has and the energy level
in which they are found.
1.1 carbon
1.2 fluorine
1.3 aluminium
1.4 potassium
1.5 strontium
1.6 sulfur
1.7 helium
2 Find the element described below, state how many valence electrons it
has and write down the electron configuration notation for each one:
2.1 element in Period 1, Group 18
52

Periodicity in properties of elements New word
MODULE 1
The periodic table is built up of repeating patterns that conform to certain periodicity: gradual change
rules. The properties of elements vary periodically. Periodicity refers to the of physical and chemical
gradual change of physical and chemical properties as we move across the properties in the periodic
table that repeats itself
periodic table.
The periodic law states that many of the physical and chemical properties
of the elements tend to follow a pattern with increasing atomic number.
The periodic table shows how the periodicity of the physical and chemical
properties of the elements relates to their atomic structure.
Visit this website
Atomic radius www.webelements.com/
periodicity/
The atomic radius of an element is the term used to describe the size of an atom. www.chemicool.com/elements/
The atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus to the outermost stable
electron orbital.
The sizes of atoms are repeated periodically and are measured using X-rays.
Figure 1 shows their atomic radius measurements in picometres (1 pm =
1 × 10–12 m).
The size of atoms decreases as you go across a period because, while new
electrons are being added to the atoms, new protons are also being added to their
nuclei. This increased positive charge holds the negative electrons more tightly.
At the beginning of the next period, electrons enter a whole new energy level
and the atom increases in size. Atomic radius increases down a group as new
energy levels are added in each new period.
Figure 1 Atomic size decreases across a period, but increases down a group.

Melting point, boiling point and density of elements
The physical properties of elements – such as the melting point (m.p.), boiling
point (b.p.) and density – vary periodically. All three factors increase steadily
New word in the elements from Group 1 to Group 14 (see Tables 3 and 4). Then there is
a sudden drop in Group 15 and the values increase through Groups 16 and 17
anomalies: irregularities; to Group 18. There are some anomalies to this pattern, for example, the high
something which does not
boiling point and density of aluminium.
fit a pattern
It is important to recognize the general trends and the periodic repetition
of properties.
Table 3 Physical properties of elements in Period 2
Element Symbol Atomic Group Atomic Melting Boiling Density

number radius (pm) point (°C) point (°C) (g/cm3)
Lithium Li 3 1 145 180 1 347 0,53
Beryllium Be 4 2 112 1 278 2 970 1,85
Boron B 5 13 85 2 300 2 550 2,34
Carbon C 6 14 70 3 500 4 827 2,26
Nitrogen N 7 15 65 –210 –196 1,25
Oxygen O 8 16 60 –218 –183 1,43 × 10–3
Fluorine F 9 17 50 –220 –188 1,7 × 10–3
Neon Ne 10 18 38 –249 –246 0,9 × 10–3
Table 4 Physical properties of elements in Period 3
Atomic Atomic Melting Boiling Density (g/

Element Symbol Group
number radius (pm) point (°C) point (°C) cm3)
Sodium Na 11 1 186 98 883 0,97
Magnesium Mg 12 2 150 639 1 090 1,74
Aluminium Al 13 13 125 660 2 467 2,7
Silicon Si 14 14 110 1 410 2 355 2,33
Phosphorus P 15 15 100 44 280 1,82
Sulfur S 16 16 100 113 445 2,07
Chlorine Cl 17 17 100 –101 –35 3,21 × 10–3
Argon Ar 18 18 71 –189 –186 1,78 × 10–3
Source: Israel Science and Technology, www.science.co.il/PTelements.asp
Activity 2 Compare melting and boiling points
Consider the trends shown in Tables 3 and 4, and compare the melting and
boiling points of different elements.
1 Which element has the higher melting point: germanium (Group 14) or
calcium (Group 2)?
2 Which element has the higher boiling point: bromine (Group 17) or
arsenic (Group 15)?
54

Writing chemical formulae New word
MODULE 1
The number of bonds that an atom can form is called the valency of the valency: number of bonds
atom. The valency of an atom may be determined using the following: an atom can form
• Groups 1 and 2: The valency is the same as the group number.
• Groups 13 and 14: The valency is the same as the last digit of the group
number. For example, Group 13 has a valency of 3.
• Groups 15–17: Subtract the group number from 18. For example, the valency
of Group 16 is 2.
A positive valency indicates that the element will lose electrons and form
positive ions. A negative valency indicates that an atom will gain electrons
and form negative ions. Figure 2 shows the valency of each group.
Valency in Groups 3–12

Groups 3–12 can have more than one valency. These elements always have a
positive valency. The valency is indicated with Roman numerals in brackets
after the name of the element in the formula. For example, the valency of iron
in iron(III) oxide is 3+ and whereas the valency of iron in iron(II) oxide is 2+.
1+
1 2+ variable 3+ 4 3– 2– 1– 0 valency
H 2 3 – 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg transition metals Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca
Figure 2 The valency of each group
When writing chemical formula:

• Determine the simplest ratio of positive and negative ions that are needed
to produce a neutral compound. This ratio is written as subscripts.
• A compound name ending in -ate or -ite contains a compound ion
containing oxygen. (See name of compounds in Unit 1 of this module.)
The table of anions on page 290 shows the negative compound ions.
• If there is more than one compound ion in the formula ratio, it is placed
in brackets.
• Ammonium ion (NH4+) is the only positive compound ion.
Worked example 1
Write down the formula of aluminium oxide.
Answer
The compound is made up of aluminium and oxygen. Aluminium is in
Group 13 and has a valency of 3+. Oxygen is in Group 16 and has valency
of 2–.
We need two Al3+ (total charge 6+) and three O2– (total charge 6–) so that the
charges can balance out.
Check: (6+) + (6–) = 0
The formula is Al2O3

Worked example 2
Write down the formula of copper(II) phosphate.
Answer
The compound is made up of Cu2+ and PO43–. We need three Cu2+ and two
PO43– for the charges to balance out.
Check: (6+) + (6–) = 0
The formula is Cu3(PO4)2
Periodicity in formulae of halides and oxides

Halides
New words
When an element in Group 17 (halogens) bonds with a metal, a halide is formed.
halide: compound of a • Group 1 metals bond in a ratio of 1 : 1 with a Group 17 element.
halogen and a metal • Group 2 metals will bond in a ratio of 1 : 2 with a Group 17 element.
oxide: compound of oxygen • Group 13 elements bond in a ratio of 1 : 3 with the halogen group.
and a metal
For example, when the metals of Period 3 combine with chlorine the
following chlorides are formed: NaCl, MgCl2 and AlCl3.
Oxides
An oxide is formed when metals of Groups 1, 2 and 13 combine with oxygen.
The oxygen atom has a valency of 2– and so forms two bonds.
• Group 1 elements bond in a ratio of 2 : 1 with oxygen.
• Group 2 elements bond in a ratio of 1 : 1 with oxygen.
• Group 13 elements bond in a ration of 2 : 3 with oxygen.
The oxides of the metals of Period 2 are Li2O, BeO and B2O3.
Activity 3 Write chemical formulae
1 Write the formulae of the following compounds:

1.1 sodium chloride
1.2 potassium sulfide
1.3 magnesium iodide
1.4 lithium bromide
1.5 potassium hydroxide
1.6 calcium hydroxide
1.7 sodium sulfite
1.8 copper(II) nitrate
1.9 aluminium sulfate
1.10 carbon monoxide
1.11 ammonium phosphate
1.12 calcium phosphate
56

1.13 calcium chlorate
MODULE 1
1.14 ammonium chlorite
1.15 barium nitrate
1.16 lithium oxide
1.17 ammonium chlorate
1.18 iron(III) oxide
1.19 iron(II) oxide
1.20 ammonium carbonate
2 Describe the pattern when Period 3 metals join with atoms in Group 17.
Periodicity in ionisation energy

New word
It takes energy to remove an electron from an atom. This type of energy is
mole: unit of amount of
called ionisation energy and it is measured in kilojoules per mole (kJ.mol–1). substance
Ionisation energy depends on the arrangement of electrons. To remove the
first electron from the atom, we measure the first ionisation energy.
The first ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the most
loosely held electron from an atom in the gas state.
Along each period there is an increase in first ionisation energy. As you go

across a period, the atoms are getting smaller and thus the negative electrons
are closer to the positive nucleus. Also the size of the positive charge in the
nucleus is getting bigger. The result is that the valence electrons are held more
tightly by the nucleus. Thus the first ionisation energy has to be bigger to
remove a first electron. The first ionisation energy reaches a maximum with
Group 18 elements.
Did you know?
Down each group there is a decrease in first ionisation energy. As you go down
a group, the valence electrons in the outermost energy level of the atoms are The mole (symbol mol)
is the SI unit of amount
further away from the positive nucleus. The valence electrons are screened of substance. One mole
(or shielded) from the positive nucleus by the core electrons. This means that of a compound has a
the electrons are held less tightly as you go down a group, and less energy is mass equal to its relative
molecular mass in grams.
needed to remove one.
Answer questions on ionisation energy and

Activity 4
atomic radius
1 Refer to Table 5 on page 58 and draw a graph of ionisation energy
(y-axis) vs. atomic number (x-axis). Connect successive dots with straight
lines. Use your graph to answer the following questions.
1.1 Name the elements that are found on the peaks of the graph. (There
should be three.)
1.2 Name the elements that are found in the valleys of the graph. (There
should be three.)

1.3 Describe the pattern of these observations. Explain.
Exam word 2 Draw a graph of atomic radius (y-axis) vs. atomic number (x-axis) using
describe: give the details the information in Table 5. Connect successive dots with straight lines.
and facts of something in Use this graph to answer the following questions:
full sentences without giving 2.1 Name the elements that are found on the peaks of the graph.
reasons
2.2 Name the elements that are found in the valleys of the graph.
2.3 Is there a pattern to these observations? Explain.
3 Describe the relationship between atomic radius and ionisation energy.
4 Explain the following: Elements in the same group of the periodic table have
the same chemical properties.
Table 5 Ionisation energies and atomic radius of the first 20 elements.

First ionisation Atomic radius
Atomic number Element
energy (kJ.mol–1) (pm)
1 H 1 312 25
2 He 2 372 31
3 Li 520 145
4 Be 899 112
5 B 801 85
6 C 1 086 70
7 N 1 402 65
8 O 1 314 60
9 F 1 681 50
10 Ne 2 081 38
11 Na 496 186
12 Mg 738 150
13 Al 578 125
14 Si 786 110
15 P 1 012 100
16 S 100 100
17 Cl 1 251 100
18 Ar 1 521 71
19 K 419 220
20 Ca 590 180
Influence of periodicity on electron affinity and

electronegativity
Periodicity affects the energy needed to gain an electron and the attraction for
electrons.
Electron affinity
An atom can gain an electron to form a negative ion. This is mostly coupled
with a decrease in the energy of the atom.
58

Electron affinity is the energy change that occurs when an atom or
MODULE 1
molecule gains an electron to form a negative ion.
When gaining an electron the atom gives off energy so the energy change is
negative. The greater the amount of energy released (the more negative the
energy value), the more likely an atom will want to gain an electron.
Electron affinities become more negative as we move from left to right
across a period. The noble gases (Group 18) do not follow this trend as their
electron affinities are positive. Noble gasses are very stable because they have
full energy levels. They do not gain or lose electrons. Electron affinities change
little moving down a group, though they do generally become slightly more
positive (less attractive toward electrons).
Electronegativity
The attraction for the electrons in a chemical bond is called the atom’s
electronegativity. It is affected by both its atomic number and the distance of its
valence electrons from the nucleus.
Electronegativity (EN) is a measure of how strongly the atom attracts the

shared pair of electrons in a chemical bond.
Electronegativity generally increases moving across a period and decreases

moving down a group.
Fluorine (F) in Group 17 and Period 2 is the most electronegative of the
elements. Electronegativity plays a very large role in the chemical bonding.
Chemical bonding and electronegativity are discussed in Unit 10.
Answer questions on electronegativity and

Activity 5
electron affinity
1 Explain the difference between electron affinity and electronegativity.

2 Arrange the following elements in order of increasing electronegativity:
2.1 bromine, iodine, chlorine
2.2 calcium, selenium, arsenic
2.3 oxygen, fluorine, nitrogen
2.4 potassium, sodium, lithium
3 I am an element. I have a high electron affinity (highly negative value)
and my atomic number is X. The element with atomic number X – 1 has
a lower ionisation energy and a lower electron affinity. The element with
atomic number X + 1 has a higher ionisation energy and basically no
electron affinity (positive value). I am toxic in my elemental state, but I
am very commonly found in my nontoxic ionic form. Within my group,
I have the second highest ionisation energy. Who am I? (Support each
step of your reasoning.)

Unit 9 Chemical properties of Groups 1, 2, 17 and 18
The chemical properties of elements in the same group are similar. This is
because valence electrons determine the chemical properties of an element.
Electron arrangement
Each element in a group has the same number of valence electrons. The
valence electrons of each element in a group are arranged in similar orbitals
around the nucleus. This is discussed in Unit 8 of this module.
A full outer energy level with eight electrons is relatively stable, so many
atoms lose or gain electrons to obtain an electron configuration like that
of the nearest noble gas. This is called the octet rule. Except for helium (with
a filled 1s energy level), noble gases have eight electrons in their valence
energy level.
The octet rule states that atoms tend to combine in such a way that they
each have eight electrons in their outer energy level, giving them the same
electron configuration as a noble gas.
Reactivity of the Groups 1, 2, 17 and 18 elements

Reactivity is a measure of how vigorously an atom will react with another
substance. This is usually determined by how easily electrons can be removed
(ionisation energy) or how strongly the element attracts the other atom’s
electrons (electronegativity).
Group 18 elements do not react. These elements are very stable. They are
New word said to be inert.
In Group 1 and 2, reactivity decreases as you go from left to right across a
inert: element that is not
period and increases as you go down a group. In Group 17, reactivity decreases
chemically reactive
as you go down the group.
Chemical properties of Group 1 elements: the alkali metals

The alkali metals are all highly reactive and are never found in elemental
forms in nature.
These elements are stored under oil. If alkali metals come into contact with
oxygen (in the air) or water (also water vapour in the atmosphere) they react
vigorously and spontaneously.
• When an alkali metal reacts with oxygen it will form a metal oxide.
Example: sodium (Na) + oxygen (O2) → sodium oxide (Na2O)
60

• When an alkali metal reacts with water, it will form a metal hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
MODULE 1
Example: potassium (K) + water (H2O) → potassium hydroxide (KOH) +
hydrogen gas (H2)
• The alkali metals also react readily with the halogens to form a metal halide.
Example: potassium (K) + bromine (Br2) → potassium bromide (KBr)
Sodium reacts vigorously with water, melting and moving on the surface. The
hydrogen gas that is formed may start to burn. Lithium reacts less vigorously
and potassium bursts into flame. This shows that the chemical reactivity
increases down the group. Figure 1 Sodium stored in oil
Chemical properties of Group 2 elements: the alkaline-

earth metals
The alkaline-earth metals are not as reactive as the alkali metals and can be
stored in their elemental form in sealed containers.
Alkaline-earth metals react slowly with the oxygen in the air to form a layer
Did you know?
of metal oxide on the surface:
• The alkaline-earth metals burn easily when in powder form or as a flat The alkaline-earth metals
are named after their
ribbon if placed in a flame. oxides, the alkaline earths.
Example: beryllium (Be) + oxygen (O2) → beryllium oxide (BeO) These oxides are basic
• They react easily with halogens to form metal halides. (alkaline) when combined
with water. “Earth” is an
Example: magnesium (Mg) + chlorine (Cl2) → magnesium chloride (MgCl2) old term applied by early
• They react with water, though not as rapidly as the alkali metals do, to chemists to nonmetallic
substances that are
form metal hydroxides.
insoluble in water and
Example: beryllium (Be) + water (H2O) → beryllium hydroxide (Be(OH)2) resistant to heating.
• The elements lower down the group (Ca, Sr or Ba) react with water to form
a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Example: calcium (Ca) + water (H2O) → calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) +
hydrogen gas (H2)
The Group 2 metals become more reactive towards water as you go down the
group. The reactions become easier due to a decrease in ionisation energy as
you go down the group.
Chemical properties of Group 17 elements: the halogens New words

Halogens, which are non-metals, are always found as diatomic compounds diatomic: molecules
in nature. Their molecules exist as elements with two atoms each. Fluorine is composed of only two
atoms; either the same or
a pale yellow gas that is poisonous. Chlorine is also poisonous and is a pale
different chemical elements
green gas. Iodine is a black shiny solid and, when heated, it forms a violet
volatile: evaporating easily
vapour. Bromine is a brownish liquid, which is extremely volatile and is
at normal temperatures and
also toxic. Astatine is a solid, but it is highly radioactive thus it is difficult pressures
to observe its properties. The halogens have very high electronegativities.
Fluorine has the highest electronegativity of all the elements.
Did you know?

There are seven elements that are diatomic when in their elemental form. They are fluorine (F2)
chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), Iodine (I2), hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2).
Unit 9 Chemical properties of Groups 1, 2, 17 and 18 61

The halogens are very reactive with the alkali metals and alkaline earths. When
halogens react with hydrogen, they form compounds known as hydrogen
halides. These hydrogen halides are extremely strong acids.
Example: chlorine (Cl2) + hydrogen (H2) → hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Did you know?

The term halogen implies “salt former” and compounds that contain halogens are commonly
referred to as salts.
New word Chemical properties of Group 18 elements: the

monoatomic: element in
noble gases
which the atoms are not
The noble gases are all found in minute quantities in the atmosphere. They
bound to each other; single
atoms are all odourless, colourless, monoatomic gases. They are inert and do not
react chemically.
Elements of Groups 3–12: the transition metals

The elements in Groups 3–12 form a block of elements called the transition
elements. The periodic table on the inside back cover shows the transition metals.
They are all metals. These elements are very hard, with high melting points and
boiling points. They are generally less reactive than Group 1 and 2 metals.
Answer questions on chemical properties of

Activity 1 Groups 1, 2, 17 and 18
1 Explain the trend in melting and boiling points as you move down the
group of halogens. How does the trend affect their physical state as you
go down the group?
2 The molecules of halogens consist of diatomic molecules. What does
this mean?
3.1 Write down the reaction (in words) for chlorine reacting with:
3.1.1 hydrogen
3.1.2 lithium
3.1.3 magnesium
3.2 Give the chemical formula for the product of each reaction.
4 Complete the word equation for the reactions:
4.1 lithium burns in oxygen
4.2 potassium + water
4.3 magnesium + … → … + hydrogen gas
5 Arrange the following sets of three elements in order of increasing
reactivity:
5.1 iodine, chlorine, bromine
5.2 potassium, caesium, sodium
5.3 barium, calcium, magnesium
5.4 fluorine, carbon, neon
5.5 boron, lithium, beryllium
62

Unit 10 Chemical bonding and Lewis diagrams
Chemical bonds New words

The concept of chemical bonding lies at the heart of chemistry. A chemical bond chemical bond:
forms when two or more electrons are simultaneously attracted to two nuclei. electrostatic force of
Atoms are held together in molecules by chemical bonds. Similarly ions are attraction holding atoms
together in a molecule or
held together in crystals. A chemical bond is an electrostatic force of attraction a crystal
between atoms due to a sharing of electrons or the complete transfer of electrons.
Lewis diagram: diagram
There are three main types of bonds namely ionic, covalent and metallic bonds. where dots represents
valence electrons
Lewis diagrams
Lewis diagrams are used to represent the valence electrons of an atom. They Content link
also show the electrons involved in the chemical bond between two atoms. The Lewis diagrams for
When we write a Lewis diagram for an atom, the chemical symbol for the compounds and ions are
discussed in Units 11
element is used to represent the element and its core electrons. The valence and 12.
electrons are represented by dots arranged around the core. The electrons that
are paired in an orbital are shown as a pair of dots. Electrons that are unpaired
in the orbital are shown as a single dot. Use the electron configuration and
Aufbau diagrams to help draw Lewis diagrams.
Worked example 1
More examples of the Lewis
Write down the electron configuration notation of the valence electrons notation for atoms:
and draw the Lewis diagram for sulfur.
• calcium in Group 2
Answer • nitrogen in Group 15
The long-hand notation for sulfur is: 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
• oxygen in Group 16
The short-hand notation for sulfur is: [Ne] 3s2 3px2 3py1 3pz1 • iodine in Group 17
S
Figure 1 Lewis diagrams for
Sulfur has six valence electrons.
some elements.
Chemical bonding and electronegativity

When atoms collide into each other, the outermost electrons of the atoms
come into contact with one another first. The nucleus (positively charged)
New word
of each atom pulls on the valence electrons. The electrostatic force between electrostatic force: force
the atoms is a result of the simultaneous attraction of the two nuclei for the charged particles exert on
shared pair of electrons. This is the chemical bond. If the electrostatic forces each other
are nearly the same, then the electrons will be shared equally by the atoms. If
the one nucleus has a greater attractive force on the electrons, it will take the
electrons closer to it.
Unit 10 Chemical bonding and Lewis diagrams 63

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a scale ranging from 0,7 to 4,0. Thus, there is a range of
about 3,3. This scale does not have units. The higher the electronegativity, the
greater the force an atom exerts on the electrons forming the chemical bond.
Fluorine has the highest electronegativity at 4 and francium the lowest at 0,7.
The electronegativity values of the main group elements can be found in Figure 5.
force of force of
attraction repulsion atom that
similar forces of attraction has lost one
electron
atom that
much stronger has gained
atoms move slowly together shared electrons force of attraction one electron
Figure 2 Each electron is Figure 3 A pair of Figure 4 One atom takes the electron from
attracted to both nuclei. electrons is shared another
1 18
2 13 14 15 16 17
Figure 5 The electronegativities of the main group elements
Difference in electronegativity and chemical bonding

The difference in electronegativity values between bonding atoms plays a role in
the type of chemical bond or interatomic force that occurs between the atoms.
• Pure covalent bond: 0 ≤ electronegativity difference < 0,9
• Polar covalent bond: 0,9 ≤ electronegativity difference < 2,1
• Ionic bond: electronegativity difference ≥ 2,1
The flow diagram in Figure 6 shows that there are three main types of bonds: ionic,
metallic and covalent. Polar covalent bonds will be discussed in detail in Grade 11.
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding are covered in Units 11–13 respectively.
64

Atoms approach each other
MODULE 1
Electronegativity values Electronegativity values
of two atoms similar of two atoms different
Atoms from metal

Atoms from same metal Atoms from non-metals
and nonmetal
Metallic bond Covalent bond Ionic bond
Electronegativities are very Electronegativities are different

close (between 0 and 0,9) (between 0,9 and 2,1)
Pure covalent bond Polar covalent bond
Figure 6 Flow diagram showing the three main types of bonds
Worked example 2
Determine the type of bond that forms between beryllium and fluorine.
Answer
• Beryllium is a metal and fluorine is a non-metal.
• The electronegativity of beryllium is 1,5 and the electronegativity of fluorine is 4,0.
• The difference in electronegativity is: 4,0 – 1,5 = 2,5 (This is a large difference.)
• The bond between beryllium and fluorine is ionic.
Draw Lewis diagrams and answer questions on

Activity 1
electronegativity
1 In the following pairs, which of the two atoms will have a stronger
electrostatic force on the electrons in the bond?
1.1 potassium and chlorine 1.4 calcium and bromine
1.2 carbon and oxygen 1.5 oxygen and oxygen
1.3 magnesium and sulfur 1.6 hydrogen and chlorine
2 Write down the chemical formula for the compounds that will form in
Questions 1.1–1.6.
3 Explain how you can predict what type of bond will form between
two elements in Questions 1.1–1.6. Also write down the type of bond
that is formed.
4 Write the electron configuration of the following atoms and draw the
Lewis diagram of each:
4.1 oxygen 4.3 helium
4.2 sodium 4.4 bromine
Unit 10 Chemical bonding and Lewis diagrams 65

Unit 11 Covalent bonding
Covalent bonds
Covalent bonds form mainly between the atoms of non-metals.
Covalent bonds are formed when electrons are shared between two atoms.
A covalently bonded substance is called a molecule. Each atom obtains a noble

gas structure in this way.
Single covalent bonds

A single covalent bond forms when each atom shares one electron and attains
a noble gas structure. Hydrogen (H) atom has one valence electron. When two
hydrogen atoms collide, their valence orbitals overlap. The two atoms then
form a molecule, which is held together by the shared pair of electrons. Each
Figure 1 The orbitals of the H atom now has the noble gas electron configuration of helium (He). The pair
hydrogen atoms overlap and
electrons are shared. of shared electrons forms a single covalent bond (see Figure 1).
Ammonia (NH3) forms single covalent bonds between the nitrogen atom
and the hydrogen atom. Nitrogen has five valence electrons of which three are
H unpaired. It shares each of these unpaired electrons with the valence electron
of hydrogen. The nitrogen atom now has a full energy level as does the
N H hydrogen atom. The Lewis diagram of ammonia is shown in Figure 2.
H Double covalent bonds

Figure 2 The Lewis structure Double covalent bonds involve two shared pairs of electrons. For example,
of ammonia (NH3)
oxygen (O2) has six valence electrons. Atoms share two pairs of electrons
with each other in order to have an octet. See Table 1 on page 67 for its
Lewis diagram.
Triple covalent bonds

Triple covalent bonds form when there are three shared pairs of electrons. An
example is nitrogen (N2). See Table 1 on page 67 for its Lewis diagram.
Representing covalent bonds

The shared pair of electrons can be represented by a line between the two
atoms. This is called a Couper structure. In Table 1, the lines between the two
atoms represent the single, double or triple bond.
Draw molecules with covalent bonds by following the steps below:

Step 1 Identify the valence electrons of the atoms of each element.
Step 2 Draw the two atoms next to each other.

Step 3 Write the Lewis structure of each atom. Use dots as valence electrons
for one element and crosses for the other.
MODULE 1
Step 4 Share the unpaired electrons to form a covalent bond between the two
atoms. Show how the electrons are shared by using a cross for the electrons
of one atom and a dot for the electrons of the second atom.
Step 5 Check that the structure is correct by counting the valence electrons.
There should be eight electrons surrounding each atom.
Table 1 Examples of compounds and representations of the covalent bonds

Type of covalent
Molecule Lewis structure Couper structure
bond www.visionlearning.
com/library/flash_viewer.
Fluorine (F2) Single bond php?oid=1348&mid=55
www.youtube.com/watch?v=oN
F F BzyM6TcK8&feature=related
Oxygen (O2) Double bond
O O
Nitrogen (N2) Triple bond
N N
Relative molecular mass of a covalent compound

In Unit 5 on page 40 you learnt about the relative atomic masses (Ar) of
elements. We use these to calculate the relative mass of a compound.
The relative molecular mass (Mr) is equal to the sum of all the relative
atomic masses of the atoms present in the molecule.
The symbol for relative molecular mass is Mr and has no units.
Worked example 1
Calculate the relative molecular mass of ammonia (NH3).
Answer
Mr(NH3) = Ar(N) + 3Ar(H)
= 14,0 + (3 × 1,01)
= 17,03
Unit 11 Covalent bonding 67

Activity 1
covalent bonding
1 Answer the following multiple choice questions. Write only the letter
(A – D) of the answer.
1.1 Select the group where all the substances contain covalent bonds:
A Water, chlorine gas, sodium chloride
B Carbon monoxide, nitrogen gas, calcium fluoride
C Potassium, carbon dioxide, ammonia
D Water, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen gas
1.2 Which one of the following compounds consists of molecules?
A NaCl
B BF3
C CaCl2
D FeS
2 Water is essential for life.
2.1 How many valence electrons does hydrogen have?
2.2 How many valence electrons does oxygen have? Write down the electron
configuration for an oxygen atom.
2.3 Draw the Lewis and Couper diagrams for water.
2.4 Calculate the relative molecular mass of water.
2.5 Make a model of the water molecule. Use sticks with jelly tots on them
to represent the valence electrons and a potato to represent the nucleus
and core electrons.
3 Draw the Lewis diagrams for:
3.1 Cl2
3.2 PH3
3.3 hydrogen sulfide.
4 Draw Lewis and Couper diagrams for the following molecules:
4.1 hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
4.2 hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
5 Element X appears in Group 16 of the periodic table. In nature, the element
exists as a diatomic gas. Draw Lewis and Couper diagrams for X2.
6 The Lewis diagrams for X and Y are:
xx
X x
Y
xx
x
x
6.1 Write down the formula for the compound between X and Y.
6.2 What type of bond forms between X and Y? Explain.
6.3 Draw a Lewis diagram of the compound.

2.1 1; 2.2 6; 2.4 18,02
68

Unit 12 Ionic bonding
Formation of ionic bonds

Ions are formed by the loss or gain of electrons. When an atom loses an
electron it forms a cation (positive ion). When an atom gains an electron it
forms an anion (negative ion). The number of electrons that an atom loses or
gains depends on its valency.
When an atom forms an ion, its electron structure becomes like that of the
noble gas closest to it. Like the noble gases, ions tend to be stable and do not
readily react with other molecules.
Content link Ionic bonds are formed when one or more electrons are transferred from a
Valency is discussed in metal to a non-metal.
Unit 9 of this module.
Ionic bonds and valence electrons
[O[ 2– Oxygen has six valence electrons. An oxygen atom therefore gains two electrons
to obtain an octet, a full outer energy level. The electron configuration of the
oxygen ion is 1s2 2s2 2p6. The electron configuration of O2– resembles the noble
Figure 1 The Lewis diagram gas neon. The Lewis diagram for O2– is shown in Figure 1.
for an oxygen ion. Magnesium has two valence electrons. A magnesium ion has two less
electrons than protons and has a 2+ charge. The valence electrons are given
[ [ 2+ away and the energy level is now empty of electrons while the energy level
Mg just below has an octet. The electron configuration of the magnesium ion is
1s2 2s2 2p6. The electron configuration of Mg2+ resembles the noble gas neon.
Figure 2 The Lewis diagram The Lewis diagram for Mg2+ is shown in Figure 2.
for a magnesium ion.
Polyatomic ions
New word An ionic bond can form between polyatomic ions. Refer to page 290 at the
end of the book for the table of positive and negative polyatomic ions.
polyatomic: formed from The bond between the ammonium ion and the sulfate ion is an ionic bond:
several atoms
NH4+ + SO42– → (NH4)2SO4
Formation of an ionic crystal lattice

The formation of a positive ion (cation) is always coupled with the formation
of a negative ion (anion). A metal loses electrons to form a positive ion while
a non-metal gains these electrons to become a negative ion. The positive metal
ions then attract the negative non-metal ions to form the ionic bond.
The formation of table salt (NaCl) is an example of an ionic bond. Sodium
has one valence electron and chlorine has seven valence electrons. The
sodium gives its valence electron to the chlorine. The sodium ion now has
a 1+ charge and chloride ion a 1– charge. The positive ions now attract the
negative ions.
Unit 12 Ionic bonding 69

The attraction between millions of Na+ and Cl– ions forms the NaCl crystal
New word lattice. This crystal lattice is held together by strong electrostatic forces. Most
crystal lattice: three- ionically bonded substances form giant crystal structures. This is discussed in
dimensional (3-D) regular Module 3.
pattern of atoms, molecules,
ions in a crystalline
substance
Na Cl Na+ Cl–
Figure 3 The formation of the sodium chloride ionic bond.
Ion pairs
A pair of ions that bond do not form a molecule but an ion pair. They form
a compound made up of ion-pairs. The Lewis diagrams for sodium oxide and
Figure 4 NaCl crystal lattice aluminum fluoride are shown in Figure 5. The electronegativity difference
forms a cubic structure.
for the bond between sodium and oxygen in the compound sodium oxide is:
O(3,5) – Na(0,9) = 2,6.
The electronegativity difference is large. This confirms that an ionic bond
Note
will form.
When a Group 17 atom
(halogen) forms an ion it
–
[O[ 2–
[ [
is called a halide ion. For
[Na[+ 3
example: I– is called an +
iodide ion (not an iodine x [Al[
x
F 3
ion). Cl– is called a chloride
ion and Br– a bromide ion.
2 x
Figure 5 The Lewis diagram for Na 2O and AlF3.
The formation of the ionic bond between beryllium and bromine shows the
transfer of the metal’s valence electrons to the non-metal.
Figure 6 The formation of the compound beryllium bromide.
Ionic bonds between metal atoms and compound ions

Compound or polyatomic ions form a stable group of atoms which carries a
charge (positive or negative). The group of atoms as a whole acts as a charged
particle in forming an ionic compound with an oppositely charged ion. The
compound ions are discussed in Unit 1 and the writing of formulae in Unit 8
of this module. The bond between Mg2+ and SO42– in the compound MgSO4 is
an ionic bond.
70

Relative formula mass of an ionic compound
MODULE 1
To determine the relative formula mass of an ionic compound, simply add up
all of the relative atomic masses for the atoms that make up the formula of
the compound.
Content link
The relative formula mass is equal to the sum of the relative atomic Atomic mass is discussed
in Unit 5 of this module.
masses of atoms in the chemical formula.
Worked example 1
Calculate the relative formula mass of aluminium sulfide.
Answer
First work out the chemical formula of the compound: Al2S3
Aluminium (Al) has a valency 3+. Sulfur (S) has a valency of 2–.
We need two atoms of Al and three atoms of S for the valency to balance:
2(3+) + 3(2–) = 0
Read the relative atomic masses from the periodic table.
Relative formula mass = Ar two atoms of Al + Ar three atoms of S
= 2Ar(Al) + 3Ar(S)
= (2  26,98) + (3  32,07)
= 150,17

Activity 1
ionic bonding
1 Draw “before” and “after” diagrams (outer electrons only) to show how
ionic bonding takes place in the following compounds:
1.1 lithium fluoride (LiF)
1.2 magnesium sulfide (MgS)
1.3 sodium oxide (Na2O)
1.4 magnesium nitride (Mg3N2).
2 What is the electronegativity difference of the atoms forming each bond?
3 Calculate the relative formula mass of each compound in Questions 1.1–1.4.
4 Calcium hydroxide is used in the purification of water and sewerage.
4.1 Which element forms the cation?
4.2 Write the formula for calcium hydroxide and calculate its relative
formula mass.
5 Make a 3-D model of a metal in Group 2. The model must show the
valence electrons. Make a 3-D model of an element in Group 7. The
model must show the valence electrons. Use these models to show the
transfer of electrons. Make small “flags” using pins and sticky labels to
N
label and describe the sections of your models. Figure 7 Lewis structure for
6 What is the formula of the particle in Figure 7? Question 6

2.1 3,0; 2.2 1,3; 2.3 2,6; 2.4 1,8; 3.1 25,94; 3.2 56,4; 3.3 62; 3.4 100,9; 4.2 74,12
Unit 12 Ionic bonding 71

Unit 13 Metallic bonding
Bonding in metals
Atoms of the same metal form metallic bonds. The valence electrons of metal
New word atoms become detached from the atom and roam freely through the metal.
These electrons move away from the individual atoms causing a net deficiency
delocalised: not limited to a
particular place of electrons around each atom, leaving the atom as a positive ion. A metal
consists of positive ions and a “pool” of delocalised valence electrons.
Metallic bonds are formed when a delocalised electron “pool” is shared

among positive ions in a metal.
To say that the valence electrons are delocalised means that they belong to all the
positive ions in a metallic lattice. No valence electron belongs to a specific atom.
The electrons and the positive ions of the metal have a strong attractive
force between them.
Metals form giant structures of many metal atoms held together in this way.
Figure 1 shows the metallic bonding in sodium (Na) metal.
e– e–
Na+ Na+ Na+
e– e–
e– e– e–
Na+ Na+ Na+
–
e– e–
e
Figure 1 Metallic bonding in sodium (Na)
Metallic bonds and properties of metals

The metallic bond model explains the properties of metals.
• Conduction of heat and electricity: The free-moving valence electrons
act as carriers of heat and electricity.
• Malleability and ductility: If you hit a piece of metal with a hammer, the
positive ions shift over each other, but the delocalised valence electrons
move between them and prevent the positive ions from getting too close
and then repelling each other. This stops the metal from breaking.
• High density: Metal ions can be packed very close together because
electrons are very small.
• Metallic lustre: Valence electrons are free and do not belong to one
specific atom. These free electrons can absorb and give back light of any
frequency. Metals thus gleam in any light.
72

Alloys
MODULE 1
If we add different metals together, heat them until they melt and mix, an
alloy is formed. Commonly used alloys include:
• stainless steel: a mixture of iron, chromium and nickel.
• brass: composed of about two-thirds copper atoms and one-third zinc atoms
• sterling silver: composed of about 93% silver and 7% copper.
Activity 1 Answer questions on metallic bonds
1 Redraw and complete the table. Predict the type of bond that forms.
Element 1 Element 2
Compound (metal or (metal or Bond type
non-metal) non-metal)
1.1 NO2 N = non-metal O = non-metal Covalent
1.2 NaCl
1.3 SO2
1.4 PO43-
1.5 CaO
1.6 H2O
1.7 K2O
1.8 Cu-Zn alloy
1.9 O2
1.10 CuCl2
1.11 TiO2
1.12 HF
1.13 Rb2S
1.14 Au-Ag mixture
1.15 Fe2O3
2 The following statements are false, write down the correct statements.
2.1 An alloy is a compound.
2.2 A metallic bond forms when an atom transfers its electrons forming a
positive ion.
2.3 A metal is a good conductor of heat because the positive ions easily
transfer the heat along the metal.
3 Sterling silver is an alloy composed of about 93% silver and 7% copper.
3.1 What type of bonding takes place in the alloy?
3.2 Describe the bonding model mentioned in Question 3.1
3.3 Is the alloy an element, a compound, a heterogeneous mixture or a
homogeneous mixture? Explain.
Unit 13 Metallic bonding 73

Module
1 Summary
States of matter Periodic table of elements

• The kinetic molecular theory states that matter • Melting point (m.p), boiling point (b.p.) and
is made up of tiny particles that are constantly density increase steadily in the elements from
moving. The particles have spaces between Group 1 to Group 14, then there is a sudden
them and they exert forces of attraction on drop in Group 15. Values increase again
each other. through Groups 16 and 17 to Group 18.
• Brownian motion is a random movement of • The number of bonds that an atom can form is
microscopic particles suspended in a liquid or called the valency of the atom.
gas, caused by collisions with molecules of the • The first ionisation energy is the energy
surrounding medium. required to pull one electron off each atom of a
• Diffusion is the process in which there is mole of atoms in the gas phase. Across a period
movement of a substance from an area of high there is an increase in ionisation energy, and
concentration to an area of lower concentration. down groups it decreases.
• Melting point and freezing point are the • Electron affinity is the energy change that
temperature at which a phase change between occurs when an atom or molecule gains an
solid and liquid takes place. electron to form a negative ion.
• Relative atomic mass (Ar) is the ratio of the • Electron affinities become more negative from
average mass per atom of an element to 1 of left to right across a period and generally
12 become slightly more positive down a group.
the mass of a carbon–12 atom.
• Atomic number is the number of protons in • Electronegativity is a measure of an atom’s
the nucleus of an atom. The mass number is attraction for the bonding pair of electrons. It
the number of protons (Z) plus the number of increases from left to right across a period and
neutrons (N) in the nucleus of an atom. decreases down a group.
• Isotopes are elements with the same atomic • Reactivity increases down Group 1 and 2 but
number but different mass number. decreases down Group 17. Reactivity decreases
• An orbital describes the space where there is a across the period with the metals and then
90% chance of finding an electron. The order increases across the period with non metals.
of the orbitals in the energy levels is as follows:
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz 4s Chemical bonding
• Pauli’s exclusion principal states that only two • A covalent bond is the sharing of electrons
electrons can occur in an orbital and that these between the nuclei of atoms. It forms between
must spin in opposite directions. two non-metal atoms.
• Some metal ions will give a specific colour • An ionic bond forms between a metal and a
when heated in the flame. non metal. Electrons are transferred forming
• The electrons that occupy the outermost energy ions. These exert an electrostatic force of
level of an atom are called the valence electrons. attraction on each other.
• Atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus • A metallic bond forms between the atoms of
to the outermost stable electron orbital. The a metal. It is an electrostatic force between the
size of atoms decreases as you go across a period positive ions and the delocalised “pool”
and increases down a group. of electrons.
74
Module 1 Summary

Module
1 Revision and extension
Kinetic molecular theory use the same Time

1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following person to take Temperature
(minutes)
descriptions: the temperature 2,0 44,3
1.1 The “zig-zag” motion of particles suspended readings for the 2,5 44,1
in a gas. whole experiment. 3 44
1.2 The energy of a particle due to its movement. 2.4 Identify the error in 3,5 44
2 Answer the following multiple choice questions. the table of results. 4 44
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. 2.5 Plot a graph for 4,5 44
2.1 When a piece of iron is heated without the data. 5 44
melting… 2.6 Describe the 5,5 44
A the particles vibrate faster. physical change 6 44
B the particles start to flow. that was taking 6,5 44
C the orderly crystal lattice is broken down. place from 7 44
D the attractive forces between the t = 3 minutes to
7,5 43,7
particles increase. 7 minutes.
8 43,5
2.2 The diffusion rate for the three states of 2.7 Explain why
8,5 43,3
matter increases from… the temperature
9 43
A solid to liquid to gas. remain the same
9,5 42,6
B gas to solid to gas. from t = 3 minutes
10 42,3
C gas to solid to liquid. to 7 minutes.
10,5 41,9
D liquid to gas to solid. 2.8 Explain why
11 41,5
the temperature
States of matter resumes decreasing
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following after 7 minutes.
descriptions:
1.1 The temperature at which a liquid changes its Models of the atom
state to become a gas. 1 Decide whether each of the following statements
1.2 The sloping line on the heating curve for water. is true or false. Correct the false statement(s):
2 A sample of a pure, solid substance lauric acid 1.1 Democritus also believed that there was only
(C12H22O2) is slowly heated in a warm water one kind of atom.
bath until the sample is melted. Next, the 1.2 Bohr said that electrons with the same energy
liquefied sample is allowed to cool in a cool move around in the same energy level or orbit.
water bath until the sample solidifies (freezes). 1.3 Rutherford used alpha particles and tin foil to
The temperature of the sample is measured do his scattering experiment.
every 30 s and the data is recorded and listed 2 Match the person, or group of people, with
in the table below. their role in the development of chemistry.
2.1 Select a
Time Column A Column B
hypothesis for the Temperature
(minutes) 2.1 JJ Thomson A Atoms of different
investigation.
0 55 elements are different
2.2 List the
0,5 52,6 2.2 John Dalton B Discovers the positively
independent and charged nucleus
1,0 49,5
dependent variables.
1,5 45,5 2.3 Ernest Rutherford C Electrons found in orbits
2.3 Explain why it around the nucleus
is advisable to 2.4 Niels Bohr D Discovered the electron
Module 1 Revision and extension 75

The atom 1.1.1 has the highest ionisation energy
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following 1.1.2 will form a positive ion the most readily
descriptions: 1.1.3 has the greatest attraction for the shared
1.1 The distance from the nucleus to the outer pair of electrons
most electron in an atom 1.1.4 belongs to Group 2
1.2 Atoms with the same atomic number but 1.1.5 has the greatest atomic radius
different mass numbers 1.1.6 has the greatest electron affinity.
1.3 Atoms that have gained electrons 1.2 Is the ionisation energy of A lower or higher
2 Answer the following multiple choice questions. than that of F?
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. 1.3 Is the electronegativity of B lower or higher
2.1 Three isotopes of hydrogen are known. They … than that of C?
A have the same mass number. 1.4 Use the letters assigned to each electron
B differ with respect to their number of configuration, write down the chemical
electrons. formula when the following bond:
C have the same atomic number. 1.4.1 A and B
D have a different number of protons in 1.4.2 C and G
the nucleus. 1.5 Choose the substance whose electron
2.2 An atom of chlorine that has 18 electrons has … configuration resembles F2+.
A become a negative ion. 1.6 Choose the substance that forms diatomic
B become a positive ion. elements.
C become a neutral atom.
D an equal number of protons. Chemical bonding
3 Carbon’s relative atomic mass is 12,011. 1 Tabulate the similarities and differences
Determine the percentage occurrence of each between covalent and ionic bonds.
of the isotopes if we assume that carbon only 2 A compound forms when the atoms of
occurs as C-14 and C-12 (Hint: Assume that different elements form chemical bonds.
x% C-12 and y% is C-14.) 2.1 Write the formulae of the following
compounds:
Electron configuration, periodic table and 2.1.1 iron(II) bromide
chemical properties 2.1.2 iodine pentafluoride
1 The list A–H gives the electron configuration 2.1.3 aluminium sulfate
of neutral atoms. 2.1.4 chlorine dioxide
A 1s2 2s2 2.2 Next to the formula of each compound listed
B 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 in Questions 2.1.1–2.1.4, write down the type
C 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 of bonding: ionic, covalent. Also indicate if
D 1s2 2s1 the compound is made up of molecules, ions
E 1s2 2s2 2p1 or atoms.
F 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 2.3 Calculate the relative formula mass or relative
G 1s2 2s2 2p5 molecular mass for each compound in
H 1s2 2s2 2p6 Questions 2.1.1–2.1.4.
1.1 From the list choose and briefly explain
which atom(s):

The atom: 3 X = 99,5% and Y = 0,5%
Chemical bonding: 3.3 Mr FeBr 2 = 215,65 u; Mr IF4 = 202,9 u; Mr Al2(SO4)3 = 342,17 u; Mr ClO2 = 67,45 u
76
Module 1 Revision and extension

MODULE
2
Waves, sound and light
When you think of waves you might picture a hot summer’s day on the beach,
but water waves are not the only kind of waves that can and do affect us. Two
kinds of human senses, for example, make use of waves. We hear because of
sound waves and we see because of light waves.
Musical instruments operate by using waves and information is sent from
place to place via radio waves. Waves are useful both in the kitchen when food
is cooked in a microwave oven and also in medicine where ultrasound waves
are used to obtain images of a developing foetus.
In this module we shall discuss the characteristics of waves.
Waves, sound
and light
Transverse Electromagnetic
pulses radiation
Longitudinal Electromagnetic
Superposition Transverse waves
waves spectrum
Sound Wave nature Particle nature
Ultrasound Photons
Module 2 Waves, sound and light 77

Unit 1 Transverse pulses
A pulse
If you make a single movement with a substance, such as a rope, the
disturbance causes a pulse to travel along it.
A single disturbance is called a pulse.

Figure 1 Slinky spring
Figure 1 shows a slinky spring that can be used to demonstrate how

transverse pulses travel or propagate from turn to turn. You can also use a
rope. The spring or rope is the medium that the pulse travels along. Figure 2
shows the spring stretched out in the rest or equilibrium position.
Practical demonstration 1 Observe transverse pulses on a

slinky spring
In this demonstration you will make a transverse pulse and observe how the
turns of the slinky spring move as the pulse travels along the spring.
Materials METHOD
• slinky spring Step 1 Stretch a slinky spring on a bench (see Figure 2). In order to see the
(or a heavy rope, movement of single turns of the spring clearly, tie short pieces of
or hose pipe) ribbon or string to some of the turns.
Step 2 Fix one end so that it cannot move. While the spring is not moving,
we say that it is in the rest position (or equilibrium position).
Step 3 Now move the spring to the side and back again once in order to
make a pulse. Observe what happens (see Figure 3).
direction of
propagation of pulse
transverse motion
of the turns
Figure 2 A slinky in the rest position. Figure 3 Diagram of a transverse pulse moving along a slinky.
DISCUSSION
The pulse travels along the spring to the other end. However, the turns of the
spring move at right angles to the direction in which the pulse is moving.
This is how the pulse travels along the spring. Your hand moves the end turn
of the spring sideways. When the end turn moves, it moves the next turn
which then moves the one next to it. The sideways movement goes along the
spring from turn to turn.
78
Module 2 Waves, sound and light

Transverse pulses New words
The pulse travels along the spring, but the turns of the spring do not. They transverse: across or at
move at right angles to the direction in which the pulse is moving. right angles
medium: substance
through or along which
In a transverse pulse the particles of the medium move at right angles to
something moves or is
the direction of propagation of the pulse through the medium. transmitted
The direction of propagation of a pulse is the direction that the pulse is

moving along the spring.
Describing a pulse
MODULE 2
Figure 4 shows some names that we use to describe pulse length
a transverse pulse:
amplitude
• pulse length – the distance from the one end
of the pulse to the other end disturbance (displacement) of
• disturbance (or displacement) – how far and y particle (Δy)
in what direction a point or particle in the rest position
medium has moved from the rest position x
• amplitude – a measure of how big a pulse is.
Figure 4 Terminology for describing a pulse. This graph
The more energy the particles are given the shows the disturbance of particles from the rest position on
further they can move from the rest position. the y-axis and the position of the pulse on the x-axis.
Amplitude is the maximum disturbance of a particle from its rest (or

equilibrium) position.
Activity 2 Answer questions on transverse pulses
1 Write definitions for: Exam words

1.1 pulse define: explain accurately
1.2 transverse pulse to give full meaning, as in
1.3 amplitude. a dictionary
2 Describe how to produce a transverse pulse using a slinky. describe: give details of
3 A transverse pulse moves from turn to turn along a slinky. something in sentence
3.1 Compare the movement of the turns with the direction that the pulse form without any
explanation
is moving.
compare: describe what
3.2 Explain how the movement of the turns propagates the pulse.
is similar and what is
4 Draw a graph to show a transverse pulse. Label the axes as well as pulse different about two or
length, amplitude and rest position. more things or situations
Unit 1 Transverse pulses 79

Unit 2 Superposition of pulses
Interference
Figure 1 shows two transverse pulses approaching
+ 120 mm + 80 mm
each other along a slinky spring. Their disturbances
Figure 1 Transverse pulses travel towards each other from each
end of the slinky. The disturbances are to the same side. are both to the same side. When they cross, the
disturbance of the spring increases (see Figure 2).
This is an example of interference.
Interference is when two or more pulses (and

waves) interact with each other in the same
space and at the same time.
Figure 2 Where the two pulses cross, the disturbance
increases. Superposition leads to constructive interference.
Notice in Figure 3 that after crossing each other,

each pulse carries on unchanged in its original
direction of motion.
Figure 3 After crossing, the two pulses carry on unchanged.
New word Superposition

superposition: placed on The word superposition means “placed on top of each other”. We can
top of each other understand what happens when pulses cross by having a picture in our minds
of the pulses on top of each other when they cross.
Principle of superposition
Where pulses cross, the combined disturbance at any point is equal to the
sum of the disturbances.
– 80 mm
+ 120 mm
Figure 4 These two pulses travel towards each other Figure 5 Pulses with disturbances in opposite directions
with the disturbances in opposite directions. cancel each other out when they cross. Here, superposition
leads to destructive interference.
Constructive and destructive interference

When pulses interfere, the direction of the disturbances must be taken into
account. In Figure 2, superposition leads to a larger amplitude. In Figure 5 it
leads to a smaller amplitude.
If the disturbances are in opposite directions, we say that one is positive and
the other is negative. When you add a positive and a negative number, the
size gets smaller.
80

Constructive interference takes place when the disturbance of the combined
pulses is greater than the individual disturbances (see Figure 2).
Destructive interference takes place when the combined disturbance is
smaller than the individual disturbances (see Figure 5).
Worked example 1
1 Calculate the amplitude of the combined pulses in Figure 2.
2 Calculate the amplitude of the combined pulses in Figure 5.
Answers
1 The amplitudes of the pulses in Figure 2 are +120 mm and +80 mm respectively. Using the
Principle of superposition:
Combined amplitude = +120 mm + (+80 mm) = +200 mm (above the rest position)
2 The amplitudes are on opposite sides of the rest position, so one amplitude is positive and the
MODULE 2
other is negative.
Combined amplitude = +120 mm + (−80 mm) = +40 mm (above the rest position)
Observe interference and

Experiment 1
superposition in two dimensions
In this experiment you will observe interference and superposition. MATERIALS
• ripple tank (or a
METHOD basin of water)
Step 1 Fill the ripple tank with water to a depth of approximately 10 mm. • ruler
Step 2 Make two plane pulses by dipping two rulers into the water. • water
Step 3 Observe what happens when and after the pulses cross.
DISCUSSION
Interference and superposition take place at the time and place where the
pulses cross. The pulses then pass on unchanged.
Activity 2 Answer questions on interference and superposition
1 Explain what is meant by the following words or terms: interference,

Figure 6 Two wavelets
superposition, constructive interference, destructive interference. undergo interference when
2 State the principle of superposition. they cross on the beach.
3 Describe what happens when a pulse in a rope meets another pulse
travelling in the opposite direction. Table 1 Amplitudes of pulses
4 A pulse of amplitude −15 mm is moving to the right and one of
Amplitudes
amplitude +20 mm is travelling to the left.
Pulse Pulse
4.1 Draw separate diagrams to show the pulses approaching each other; Superposition
A B
crossing and then moving away from each other. +23 mm +16 mm 5.1
4.2 Calculate the amplitude of the disturbance when they cross. +14 mm −30 mm 5.2
5 Table 1 shows the amplitudes of a number of pulses that approach other −12 cm −8 cm 5.3
and then superpose as they cross. Calculate and give the direction of the −10 cm 5.4 −25 cm
missing amplitudes. (Positive (+) indicates the upwards direction.) 5.5 −9 m +3 m
Answers to numerical questions in this activity are given on page 83.
Unit 2 Superposition of pulses 81

Unit 3 Transverse waves
Waves
A wave consists of many pulses following evenly after each other. If you throw
a stone into a pond, each ripple that you see is a pulse. Together the pulses
make up a wave. A wave is a succession of pulses.
Figure 1 A wave is a Transverse waves

succession of pulses.
Figure 2 shows a transverse wave in a slinky. The hand at one end of the
slinky moves it from side to side repeatedly. This produces a wave that travels
New words along the spring. The turns vibrate about their rest positions, at right angles
wave: succession of pulses to the direction in which the wave is moving.
vibrate: make a continuous
to and fro movement A transverse wave is a succession of transverse pulses.
The vibration of a guitar string is a transverse wave. Light and radio waves
travel as transverse waves.
direction of wave propagation

wavelength
crest
y wave speed
amplitude
disturbance A B
(displacement) C
rest position x
trough
transverse vibration of turns
Figure 2 Move one end of a slinky from side to side to make a Figure 3 Diagram of a transverse wave. The wave is moving
transverse wave. along the x-axis but the movement of the particles of the
medium is along the y-axis.
Describing a transverse wave

You need to know the following terms that are illustrated on Figure 3:
• disturbance (or displacement) – how far and in what direction a point or
particle in the medium has moved from the rest position
• amplitude – the maximum (largest) disturbance of a particle from its
rest position
• crest – the highest point in a wave (Maths: called a maximum)
• trough – the lowest point in a wave (Maths: called a minimum)
• rest position – the position where the particles of the medium stop when
they are in a state of balance (equilibrium)
• wavelength – the distance between two successive crests or two successive
troughs. The symbol for wavelength is λ and it is pronounced “lambda”.
82

Phase
Phase describes what a wave motion is doing at a particular time.
Imagine that two learners beat on drums exactly in time with each other.
Their movements are in phase. However, if the one beats the drum slightly
after the other one, their movements are out of phase.
• Two points on a wave are in phase if they move in such a way that they are
at similar positions on a wave (for example, the crest) at the same time and
are moving in the same direction. Points A and B on Figure 3 will reach
a crest at the same time and are therefore in phase. Points on troughs are
also in phase.
• Two points on a wave are out of phase if they move in such a way that they
are not at similar positions. A point on a crest is therefore out of phase with
a point on a trough. In Figure 3, points B and C are out of phase.
MODULE 2
Waves and energy
As waves travel they also transfer energy. Waves on the sea gain energy from Figure 4 Waves transmit
the wind and transfer it across the ocean. energy!
Activity 1 Answer questions on transverse waves
1 Write a definition for a transverse wave.

2 Explain what is meant by the following terms: Exam word
2.1 crest 2.2 trough 2.3 wavelength.
3 A transverse wave travels along a rope. Describe how the particles of the explain: describe giving
reasons
rope move relative to the direction of propagation of the wave.
4 Figure 5 shows a transverse wave travelling along a rope.
y
3
A B D
4
x
C
1 2
Figure 5 Diagram of a transverse wave in a rope
4.1 Write down a label for each of the numbers 1 to 4.

4.2 Explain the terms in phase and out of phase.
5 The letters A to D on Figure 5 identify points on the wave.
5.1 Write down a pair of points that are in phase and give a reason
for your choice.
5.2 How many pairs of points are out of phase with each other?
6 Look at Figure 5. Think how the rope moves up and down as the wave travels
along it. In what direction (up or down) are the following points moving?
6.1 A 6.2 C

Activity 2 (page 81): 4.2 +5 mm; 5.1 +39 mm; 5.2 −16 mm; 5.3 −20 cm; 5.4 −15 cm; 5.5 +12 m
Unit 3 Transverse waves 83

Unit 4 Wave speed
Frequency
The frequency of the wave that you generate in a slinky is the number of
New word times that you shake it from side to side each second. Each repeat of the
cycle: a repeat of a motion motion is called a cycle.
such as from one crest to
the next of a wave
Frequency (f ) is the number of cycles of a wave per second.
For high frequencies, the Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) – named after Heinrich Hertz, who
following multiples are discovered radio waves in the 1880s. Think of hertz as meaning “per second”.
often used:
If three cycles of a wave on a rope pass you in one second, then there are
1 kilohertz (1 kHz)
= 1 000 Hz
three cycles per second and the frequency is 3 Hz.
For example:
3,8 kHz = 3,8 × 103 Hz
= 3 800 Hz Period
1 megahertz (1 MHz)
= 1 000 000 Hz The time it takes for the slinky to move from side to side in a cycle is called
For example:
the period of the wave that travels along it. It is measured in seconds (s).
2,7 MHz = 2,7 × 106 Hz
= 2 700 000 Hz
Period (T) is the time taken to complete a single cycle of a wave.
Frequency and period relationship

There is a simple mathematical relationship between frequency and period. If
you divide the period of a wave into 1 second you will calculate the number
of cycles per second. This is its frequency.
1 1
Frequency = or f =
period T
1
Making T the subject of the formula: T =
f
So period and frequency are inversely proportional to each other.
Worked example 1
A learner shakes the end of a slinky spring and makes two vibrations
each second.
1 What is the frequency of the wave that travels along the slinky?
2 Calculate the period of the wave.
Answers
1 2 Hz
1
Variables for Question 2 2 T=
f
f = 2 Hz 1
T=? =
2 Hz
= 0,5 s
84

Wave speed, frequency and wavelength
Wave speed (v) is the distance travelled by a wave (or crest of a wave) in
one second.
Wave speed is measured in metres per second (m.s–1). The units “metres per
second” can be written as m.s–1 or m/s.
There are two ways of calculating wave speed:
distance travelled by a crest of the wave
1 Wave speed (v) =
time interval
2 Wave speed (v) = frequency (f )  wavelength ()
v = f
To understand this, consider the following:
MODULE 2
Figure 1 shows a transverse wave with a frequency of 3 Hz and a wavelength
of 2 m. Figure 2 shows the wave after one second. In this time, three cycles
have been produced. It has covered a distance of 6 m in one second, so the
wave speed is 6 metres per second.
Note that: 6 metres per second = 3 cycles per second (Hz) × 2 metres per cycle.
So: wave speed (v) = frequency (f ) × wavelength (l).
Figure 1 This wave has a Figure 2 During one second, the wave travels 3
wavelength of 2 m and a wavelengths of 2 m, which adds up to 6 m. Its speed is
frequency of 3 Hz. 6 m.s−1 (metres per second).
Worked example 2
1 A wave has a wavelength of 320 m and a frequency of 0,08 Hz.
Calculate its speed.
2 A small wave on a dam has a frequency of 2 Hz and a speed of
1,2 m.s–1. What is its wavelength? Variables for Question 1
λ = 320 m
Answers f = 0,08 Hz
1 v = f λ 2 v = fλ v=?
= 0,08 Hz × 320 m v
\λ=
= 25,6 m.s–1 f Variables for Question 2
1,2 m.s–1 f = 2 Hz
=
2 Hz v = 1,2 m.s–1
= 0,6 m λ=?
Unit 4 Wave speed 85

Worked example 3
Two learners hold the ends of a long rope that is stretched between them.
The one learner starts to shake the end of the rope from side to side. If the
speed of the wave is 3 m.s−1 and its crests are 1,2 m apart, calculate how
long it takes for the learner to produce a single cycle of the wave.
Problem-solving method
Interpret the above information:
• Wave speed (v) = 3 m.s−1
• If the crests are 1,2 m apart, the wavelength (λ) of the wave is 1,2 m.
• How long it takes to produce a single cycle of the wave is the period (T).
None of the equations in this unit has the variables v, λ and T in a single
equation. However, the problem can be solved in two parts by using two
equations.
Part 1 Calculate the frequency of the wave using the equation v = fλ.
Part 2 Calculate the period of the wave by substituting the frequency
1
from Part 1 into the equation T = .
f
Answer
Variables Part 1
v = 3 m.s−1 v = fλ
λ = 1,2 m v
f=
f=? λ
3 m.s−1
T=? =
1,2 m
= 2,5 Hz
Part 2
1
T=
f
1
=
2,5 Hz
= 0,4 s
The period of the wave is 0,4 s.
Alternative method
Combine the two equations to make a new equation before substituting values.
Part 1 Make f the subject of the equation v = f λ
v
f=
λ
86
Module 2 Sound, light and waves

v 1
Part 2 Substitute f = into the equation T =
λ f
1
T=
f
v
=1÷
λ
λ
=1× (simplify)
λ v
=
v
1,2 m
= (substitute values)
3 m.s−1
= 0,4 s
Note: In an examination you may not use an equation that you obtained by
combining two other equations unless you show how you combined them.
MODULE 2
Activity 1 Answer questions on wave speed
1 Explain what is meant by:

1.1 frequency
1.2 period
1.3 wave speed.
2 Write two equations that can be used to calculate wave speed.
3 A vibration has a period of 0,000 5 s (5 × 10 –4 s). Calculate its frequency.
Give the answer in Hz as well as in kHz.
4 A guitar string vibrates with a frequency of 250 Hz. What is the period
of the vibration?
5 A wave generated on a slinky has a frequency of 5 Hz and a wavelength
of 0,75 m. Calculate its speed.
6 One end of a hose-pipe is tied around a pole. The other end is being
shaken by a young boy. He generates a wave at a frequency of 0,8 Hz and
a speed of 2,4 m.s–1. Calculate:
6.1 the wavelength of the wave
6.2 the period of the wave.
7 Ripples (very small waves) with a wavelength of 18 mm and a speed of
0,2 m.s−1 travel across a pool. Calculate:
7.1 the period of the ripples
7.2 how long in seconds it takes each ripple to travel 1 m.
8 A fisherman sitting at the end of a pier watches the crests of an ocean
wave passing by. He notices that a wave crest passes him every 8 s and
estimates that the crests are 100 m apart. Use two methods to calculate
the speed of the wave. Exam word
9 A wave generated on a slinky has a period of 0,25 s and a speed of 3,0 m.s−1. calculate: work out
Calculate its wavelength. following a method

3 2 000 Hz or 2 kHz; 4 4 × 10−3 s; 5 3,75 m.s−1; 6.1 3 m; 6.2 1,25 s; 7.1 0,09 s; 7.2 5 s;
8 12,5 m.s−1; 9 0,75 m.s−1
Unit 4 Wave speed 87

Unit 5 Longitudinal waves
Introduction to longitudinal waves

Another type of wave is the longitudinal wave. It is easy to demonstrate these
on a slinky spring but not on a rope.
Observe a longitudinal wave in a

Practical demonstration 1
spring
In this demonstration you will generate a longitudinal wave in a spring and
draw a diagram of the wave.
Materials METHOD
• slinky spring Step 1 Move a slinky spring forward and backward once to make a
longitudinal pulse, as shown in Figure 1. Observe how the turns move.
single hand movement pulse movement
push then pull
rarefaction compression fixed end
Figure 1 In a longitudinal pulse the turns move forward and then backward in the
same line as the direction of the pulse.
Step 2 Now make a longitudinal wave in the spring as shown in Figure 2.

Move the end of the spring forward and backward repeatedly in line
with the spring.
repeated hand movements wave movement

push then pull fixed end
rarefactions compressions
1 wavelength 1 wavelength
vibration of turns turns
Figure 2 A longitudinal wave in a slinky. Each turn of the spring vibrates backwards and
forwards about its rest position in the same line as the direction that the wave travels.
Figure 3 A longitudinal wave in a slinky spring
Step 3 Draw a diagram to represent the longitudinal wave. Show the direction of
motion of the wave relative to the direction in which the particles move.
88 Module 2 Waves, sound and light

Describing a longitudinal wave
Although the wave travels from one end of the spring to the other, the turns
do not (see Figure 3). They vibrate forwards and backwards.
In longitudinal waves, particles vibrate in the same line as the direction

that the wave travels or propagates.
As the vibrations pass from turn to turn, a series of compressions and

rarefactions travels along the spring.
• compression – where the turns or particles are close together (compress
means to squeeze together)
• rarefaction – where the turns or particles are further apart (rarefy means
to make less dense or less solid)
MODULE 2
• wavelength (λ) – for a longitudinal wave, its wavelength is the distance
between two successive compressions or two successive rarefactions; this
means that just as for other types of waves, it is the distance between two
successive points that are in phase
• amplitude – the maximum disturbance of a particle from its rest position.
Activity 2 Answer questions on longitudinal waves
position
rest
1.1 rarefaction
1.2 compression
1.3 wavelength of a longitudinal wave
1.4 amplitude of a longitudinal wave.
2 Define what a longitudinal wave is. amplitude
3 A longitudinal wave travels along a slinky spring. For each of the

following, state whether the turns of the spring are in phase or out
of phase:
3.1 a rarefaction and a compression
3.2 two compressions
3.3 two rarefactions.
4 A learner uses a spring to investigate longitudinal waves.
4.1 Explain how the learner will generate a longitudinal wave in
the spring.
4.2 Describe how the turns of a spring will move when a longitudinal
wave moves through it. Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate wave
direction
your answer.
4.3 What must the learner do to increase the amplitude of the wave?
5 Figure 4 shows the motion of a particle because of a longitudinal Figure 4 This diagram for
wave that is moving to the right. Question 5 shows a single
5.1 Is the particle stationary (stopped) at the rest position when it is vibrating? particle of a medium. Its motion
is caused by a longitudinal
5.2 At what times is the particle’s disturbance equal to its amplitude? wave that is moving to the right.
5.3 Over what time interval is the particle’s disturbance opposite to the The dots show the position of
direction of the wave? the particle at 0,1 s intervals. Its
vibration has a period of 0,8 s.
Unit 5 Longitudinal waves 89

Unit 6 Longitudinal waves and sound
Period, frequency and wave speed

Just as is the case with transverse waves, we can carry out calculations to
describe the behaviour of longitudinal waves:
• frequency (f ) – the number of cycles or vibrations per second, measured
in hertz (Hz). It is the number of compressions per second.
• period (T) – the time taken to complete a single cycle of a wave, measured
in seconds (s). It is how long it takes from one compression to the next to
pass a point.
1
• f= – the relationship between frequency and period
T
• v = f – wave speed is how fast a wave travels through the medium. It is
not the same as the speed of a particle in the medium. The speed of the
particles constantly changes as they vibrate.
Sound waves
We shall investigate how sound is produced.
Practical demonstration 1 Make a sound with a vuvuzela
In this demonstration you will blow a vuvuzela and discuss how it makes a sound.
Materials METHOD
• vuvuzela Step 1 Blow on a vuvuzela so as to produce sound.
Step 2 Blow on the vuvuzela in such a way that it does not produce sound.
Step 3 Compare Steps 1 and 2 and decide what you had to do to create a
loud sound.
Step 4 See what happens if you blow in the same way as you did in Step 1
but against a finger and not into a vuvuzela.
DISCUSSION
It is likely that you will find that:
• W hen your breath vibrates the vuvuzela
makes a loud sound.
• If you allow your breath to flow evenly
no sound is made.
• Making the breath vibrate without
bringing the vuvuzela to your lips does
not result in a loud sound.
Figure 1 How does a vuvuzela produce sound?
90

Production and propagation of sound Experiment idea
A vuvuzela produces vibrations in the air which are a series of compressions Investigate why drums,
guitars and other musical
and rarefactions. These move outwards in the same direction as the vibrations instruments have sound
of the air molecules and so it is a longitudinal wave. The air pressure is slightly boxes. What effect does
higher in a compression and slightly lower in a rarefaction. the shape and size of our
mouth have on our voices?
Sound waves are longitudinal waves caused by vibrations that produce a

regular variation in pressure in the medium.
A guitar string, drum skin and our vocal cords all produce sound waves by vibrating.
Air is not the only medium that sound travels through. It travels through all
New words
other gases, liquids and solids, so long as there are particles that vibrate and
form pressure waves. However, it cannot propagate (travel) through a vacuum. vacuum: space in which
MODULE 2
there is no matter
musical note: name
Activity 2 Longitudinal wave calculations and sound given to a sound with a
specific frequency
1 Explain what is meant by a sound wave.

2 A person sings the musical note middle C, which has a frequency of 256 Hz.
2.1 How many times do the person’s vocal chords vibrate each second?
2.2 Write one word that means the time taken for a single vibration.
2.3 Calculate how long it takes for the person’s vocal chords to make a
single vibration.
2.4 If the speed of sound in air is 340 m.s−1 at 15 °C , calculate the
wavelength of middle C in air.
3 If the wavelength in air of the loudest note made by a vuvuzela is
1,46 m, calculate the period of its vibration. Assume that the speed of
sound in air is 340 m.s−1.
4 A learner makes a longitudinal wave on a spring by making a complete
vibration every 0,8 s and the distance between the two successive
compressions is 0,25 m. Calculate the speed of the wave.
5 A learner makes a longitudinal wave on a spring by making successive
compressions 0,6 s after each other. If the speed of the wave is 0,8 m.s−1,
calculate its wavelength.
6 A rapidly changing electric current causes the cone or surface of the
loudspeaker in Figure 2 to vibrate and produce a sound wave. It vibrates
outwards to the right and inwards to the left of the figure. Explain how
this can create a sound wave.
cone
7 Explain why sound waves cannot travel through a vacuum.
8 Unlike Earth, the Moon has hardly any gas surrounding it. Imagine you Figure 2 The loudspeaker
cone vibrates outwards to the
are on the surface of the Moon and a vehicle is brought to a stop in front right and inwards to the left to
of you. Explain whether you would hear it or not. produce a sound wave.

2.3 3,91 × 10−3 s; 2.4 1,33 m; 3 4,29 × 10−3 s; 4 0,31 m.s –1; 5 0,48 m
Unit 5 Longitudinal waves and sound 91

Unit 7 Sound phenomena
Properties that affect the propagation of sound

Sound is a pressure wave that passes from particle to particle of a medium. The
Table 1 Speed of sound in
different media
properties of the particles affect how well and how fast sound travels through it.
The speed of sound is slowest in gases. In the gas phase the molecules are
Speed far apart and the intermolecular forces are extremely weak.
Medium of sound
In solids and liquids, the particles (atoms, molecules and ions) are close
(m.s–1)
together and transmit sound well. Also, the more springy or elastic a substance
Air (at 15 °C) 340
is the faster the speed of sound. As a result, we usually find that the speed
Water 1 500
of sound in substances in the solid phase is faster than in substances in the
Steel 5 900 liquid phase.
Practical activity 1 Make a string telephone
In this practical activity you will make a string telephone.
Materials METHOD
• two 340 ml cool Step 1 Remove the top of one end of each can with a tin opener.
drink cans or tins Step 2 Use the hammer and nail to make a hole in the base of each tin.
• tin opener Step 3 Push one end of the string through the hole in one of the cans. Tie
• nail a knot so that it cannot pull out again. Attach the other end of the
• hammer string to the other can.
• 4 m of string (or Step 4 You and a partner hold the cans with the strings stretched tightly as
thin wire) shown in Figure 1. One of you speaks into the can while the other
listens. See if using the string telephone helps you hear better.
Step 5 Discuss how the string telephone transmits the sound from the one
person to the other.
DISCUSSION
You should find that you hear the other person better with the string
telephone than without it. The vibrations of the speaker’s voice make
Figure 1 Investigate how well two cans with the end of the can vibrate. The string transmits the vibration along
a string stretched between them propagate the string to the other can which produces sound waves in the air
sound.
that the listener can hear.
Table 2 Pitch and frequency Pitch

Frequency
Pitch The pitch of a sound is how high or low it is and
(Hz)
depends on the frequency of the sound. If you pluck
High Upper limit of human hearing 20 000
two guitar strings, the one that vibrates with a higher
High note (soprano) 1 000
frequency has a higher pitch. As you can see in Table 2,
Low Low or deep note (bass) 100
a soprano in the choir sings with a higher pitch and
Lower limit of human hearing 20 the sound has a higher frequency than a bass voice.
92

Loudness
Loudness is related to two factors.
• Amplitude: A sound with a large amplitude sounds louder than one with New word
a small amplitude. The harder you pluck a string of a guitar, the greater the pitch: how high or low a
amplitude of the vibration is and the louder it sounds. It has greater volume. sound is; depends on its
• Sensitivity of the human ear: Our ears are more sensitive to some frequencies frequency
than to others so they sound louder. We may think that a soprano sings louder
than a bass voice even though the voices have the same power.
Compare the sound of musical

instruments of different sizes
In this practical activity you will compare the sound made by musical
instruments of different sizes.
MODULE 2
METHOD
Materials
Step 1 Blow on vuvuzelas of different lengths.
• three vuvuzelas of
Step 2 Listen and compare the sound that each vuvuzela produces.
different lengths
Alternative
If vuvuzelas of different lengths are not available, use tuning forks of differing frequencies.
DISCUSSION
The length of the vuvuzela affects the pitch that it produces. A shorter
vuvuzela produces a higher pitch than a longer one. Investigate whether this
applies to stringed instruments, such as pianos and guitars, and percussion
instruments, such as drums. See if other variables such as the tension in the
Figure 2 Compare the sound
string also affect the pitch.
of vuvuzelas of different sizes.
Compare the sound of various

musical instruments
In this practical activity you will compare the sound made by various musical
instruments.
METHOD Materials
Step 1 A standard size vuvuzela makes the note B-flat. Play the same note on • vuvuzela
a number of instruments such as the flute, guitar and piano. • flute
Step 2 Compare whether the instruments sound the same. • tuning forks
• guitar
Alternative • piano (or keyboard)
If various musical instruments are not available, use recordings of the instruments.
DISCUSSION
Each instrument makes a distinctive sound. This is called its tone.
Unit 7 Sound phenomena 93

Tone of musical instruments
New word Even when musical instruments play the same note, different instruments
produce additional frequencies that differ from instrument to instrument. As
tone: distinctive sound of a
musical instrument a result they have a different tone or distinctive sound. A guitar and a flute
producing the same note sound quite different.
Use a function generator and an

oscilloscope to observe waveforms
MATERIALS In this practical activity you will confirm the conclusions of Practical activities 1,
• function generator 2 and 3.
• loudspeaker (if
not built into the Alternative
function generator) An audio frequency signal generator that can be used in place of a function generator can be
• oscilloscope downloaded from: www.ringbell.co.uk/software/audio.htm
• connecting cables
and leads Part 1 Setting up the apparatus
• microphone Step 1 Connect the output of a function generator to the input of an
• selection of musical oscilloscope. If the function generator does not have a built in
instruments loudspeaker connect one in parallel with the oscilloscope.
Step 2 Switch on the function generator and adjust it to produce a sine
wave of approximately 400 Hz. This is a smoothly changing voltage.
Figure 4 shows what the shape of a sine wave looks like.
Step 3 Adjust the volume of the function generator’s output until the
loudspeaker provides a sound level that you can hear.
Step 4 Switch on the oscilloscope and allow it to warm up. Adjust the
time/div control until a stationary sine wave is visible. Adjust the
Figure 3 The function generator
volt/div control until the wave is similar to Figure 4.
provides a signal for the
loudspeaker which is displayed
on the screen of the oscilloscope. The waveform on the oscilloscope screen looks like a transverse wave. Yet
you know that sound waves produced by the loudspeaker are longitudinal.
This is because the oscilloscope shows a graph of voltage vs. time of the signal
from the function generator. However, the same change of voltage makes the
loudspeaker cone vibrate backwards and forwards and produce a longitudinal
pressure wave.
Part 2 Observe waveforms of sound of differing pitch

Figure 4 The oscilloscope
screen shows a waveform. This
Step 1 Increase and then decrease the frequency of the function generator.
shape is called a sine wave. Keep the amplitude constant.
Step 2 Record your observations. What do you hear changing and how does
the graph on the oscilloscope change?
DISCUSSION
When the frequency of the function generator is increased, the pitch of the
sound increases. The wavelength of the graph on the oscilloscope decreases
which means that the frequency of the waves has increased.
Figure 5 A wave shape for
sound with a higher pitch has a
higher frequency than in Figure 4.
94
Module 2 Sound, light and waves

Part 3 Observe waveforms of sound of differing loudness (volume)
Step 1 Increase and then decrease the amplitude of the function generator.
Keep the frequency constant.
Step 2 Record your observations. What do you hear changing and how does
the graph on the oscilloscope screen change?
DISCUSSION Figure 6 A wave shape for

The amplitude of the wave on the screen is greater when the sound is louder a louder sound has a larger
amplitude than Figure 4.
and smaller when the sound is softer.
(a)
Part 4 Compare the waveforms of sounds produced by different musical
instruments
Step 1 Disconnect the loudspeaker and function generator from the
oscilloscope and connect a microphone to its input instead.
Step 2 Play a note on each of the instruments that you have available and
MODULE 2
draw its waveform.
Step 3 Compare the waveforms.
(b)
DISCUSSION
The waveforms have different shapes which result from the additional
frequencies produced by the instrument. Nevertheless the basic shape is
similar (called the fundamental).
Activity 5 Answer questions on sound phenomena Figure 7 Waveforms for sound

produced by (a) a guitar and
(b) a piano.
1 Explain what is meant by the following terms as used in music:
1.1 pitch 1.2 tone.
2 Explain why the speed of sound in air is less than in steel. Did you know?
3 Which sound from a source does a listener hear first, sound transmitted
Baleen whales use sound
by a metal or by air?
to communicate over
4 Two sounds have the same frequency, but one is louder than the other. distances of over 100
In what way do the sound waves differ? kilometres under water.
5 Explain what happens to the pitch of a voice if its frequency is increased.
6 Why are humans unable to hear when elephants communicate at
frequencies below 20 Hz?
7 The musical note middle C has a frequency of 256 Hz and its wavelength
in air is 1,33 m. The note of C that is one octave above middle C has a
frequency of 512 Hz. Calculate its wavelength if the speed of sound in
air is 340 m.s–1. Compare your answer with the wavelength of middle C.
8 Draw a waveform to represent a sound wave seen on an oscilloscope.
8.1 Draw a waveform to represent a sound that is softer than the original one
(not as loud). Describe the difference between the two sounds in words.
8.2 Draw a waveform to represent a sound that has a lower pitch than the
original one. Describe the difference between the two waveforms in words. Figure 8 An elephant can
9 Refer to Figure 7. Describe in what way the waveforms for a guitar and a hear sounds from other
members of the herd even
piano playing the same note are: if they are kilometres away.
9.1 similar 9.2 different. They communicate at very low
frequencies – below 20 Hz.
Answer to numerical question
7 0,66 m
Unit 7 Sound phenomena 95

Unit 8 Ultrasound and beyond human perception
Ultrasound
Ultrasound is sound that has frequencies that are higher than the range of
human hearing. The range of ultrasound is from 20 kHz to 100 kHz.
Why ultrasound is useful

The high frequency of ultrasound means that it has a much shorter
wavelength than other sound waves. You can see this from the relationship
Figure 1 Bats emit squeaks
in the ultrasound range that between frequency and wavelength in the equation v = f λ.
reflect off objects. From the Just as a water ripple with a short wavelength reflects off a small stone
reflections (called echoes) they
but a wave with a large wavelength passes over it, the short wavelength
can tell exactly where objects
and prey such as insects are. of ultrasound enables us to detect small objects. Although we cannot hear
ultrasound we can invent machines that use it.
New words Ultrasound image

ultra–: beyond or on the An ultrasound scan creates an image of the internal organs of the body or of
other side of a foetus (unborn baby) in the womb. When an ultrasound wave comes to a
reflects: bounces off boundary between different media – such as muscle and bone or muscle and
ultrasound scan: image fat – part of the wave is reflected. Part is absorbed and the rest is transmitted
of the internal organs into the next medium. The reflected waves are detected and a computer
of the body made using constructs an image of the interior of the body. This allows early diagnosis,
ultrasound
for example, of an organ that is enlarged or is damaged.
transmitted: passed on
diagnosis: identification of
a medical problem Safety of ultrasound in medical applications
A big advantage of ultrasound in medicine is that it does not damage the soft
tissue of human organs. It is often preferred to X-rays which can do damage. For
this reason a pregnant woman is not given X-rays for fear of injury to the foetus.
Ultrasound treatment in medicine

• Physiotherapists use ultrasound to help to reduce swelling.
• Ultrasound can transmit enough energy to break up kidney stones.
saline gel (to provide

ultrasound
good contact)
probe
Figure 2 Ultrasound scan of a foetus. Figure 3 An ultrasound image of a foetus
96

Activity 1 Answer questions on ultrasound
1 Describe what ultrasound is.

2 Explain how an ultrasound scan can create an image of the internal
organs of the body.
3 Explain why ultrasound is often preferred to other methods of finding
out what is happening inside the body.
4 Other than an ultrasound scan, give two other uses of ultrasound
in medicine.
Can animal behaviour predict natural disasters?

There are limits to human perception. As we have seen, there are animals that
MODULE 2
can hear frequencies that are outside the hearing range of our ears.
Earthquake prediction
In 373 BCE many animals, such as rats and snakes,
deserted the city of Helice in Greece a few days before
it was struck by a severe earthquake. Many other
stories have been told of natural disasters where
animals behaved strangely shortly beforehand.
Earthquakes occur when vast masses of rock move
even by small amounts under the Earth’s surface.
This produces strong pressure waves that spread out
across the Earth and can cause enormous damage
near where the movement took place. Figure 4 A seismograph records the vibrations of earthquakes
and tremors.
Tulbagh earthquake
There are reports that, in 1969, pets such as cats and dogs were very fearful
just before this South African town was struck by an earthquake. Were the
animals aware of vibrations in the ground that were too weak for humans to
feel? Perhaps there were vibrations in the ultrasound range. In other parts of
Africa it is known that elephants pick up very low frequency and that their
behaviour can be a warning sign of danger.
Earthquake prediction in China

China is a country that experiences severe earthquakes so it is in their interest to
Figure 5 Earthquakes can
be able to predict them before they happen. Chinese scientists have made a careful cause considerable loss of life
study of possible links between animal behaviour and earthquakes. Although they and damage to structures.
have had some success earthquakes still strike without any warning.
Countries have installed very sensitive instruments to record pressure
waves in the ground. Sometimes they detect weak fore-shocks shortly before Visit these websites
an earthquake takes place. In 1975, this enabled the Chinese authorities to
www.usgs.gov/science/science.
evacuate the city of Haicheng. It is estimated that up to 150 000 casualties php?term=304
were avoided when a severe earthquake struck soon afterwards. There were www.ceri.memphis.edu/
also reports of unusual animal behaviour before the earthquake. awareness/myths.html
Unit 8 Ultrasound and beyond human perception 97

Unit 9 The nature of electromagnetic radiation
Propagation of waves in a vacuum

We have seen that a sound wave requires a medium consisting of particles.
However some types of energy can also travel across empty space. Much of
this energy transfer is invisible and is a type of radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation
Some types of radiation such as radio waves, light and X-rays have similar
properties. For example, they travel at the same speed through a vacuum. They
are called electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation) or electromagnetic waves.
Figure 1 Light radiates out

Dual nature of electromagnetic radiation
from the Sun and travels across
empty space. This transfers We cannot see what is going on in electromagnetic radiation, so we use
energy to the Earth. scientific models to help us to understand its behaviour.
Wave model of EM radiation

New words When we want to explain how light passes through the lens of an eye, the
dual: two forms wave model of matter gives a good explanation. The lens of the eye bends
waves of light so that they form an image on the retina at the back of the eye.
accelerate: rate of change
of velocity; involves
a change of speed and Particle model of EM radiation
kinetic energy To explain how light transfers energy to the cells in the retina, a particle
electric charge: a property model of how small quantities of energy activate the cells is useful.
of some particles that gives
rise to electrical phenomena Wave-particle duality
magnetic field: a region or Some aspects of the behaviour of electromagnetic radiation can best be
space where a magnet or
explained using a wave model, while other aspects can best be explained using
ferromagnetic material will
experience a force a particle model. This is the dual nature of electromagnetic radiation. If we
can explain a phenomenon with the wave model of EM radiation, the particle
model does not do so, and vice versa.
direction of the wave Source of electromagnetic waves

The source of electromagnetic radiation is
magnetic field
accelerating electric charge.
An electric charge that is moving has a
magnetic field around it. But if it accelerates, it
disturbs the electric and magnetic fields around
it. This causes the fields to oscillate and produce
electric field electromagnetic radiation.
Figure 2 An electromagnetic wave. The oscillating electric and Examples of this are when electrons lose energy
magnetic fields are at 90° to each other. in an atom or electrons are made to oscillate by a
TV transmitter.
98

Propagation of electromagnetic waves New words
Figure 2 shows an electromagnetic wave that is travelling in a straight line. electric field: region or
• At right angles to the direction of propagation is an electric field. It is space where an electric
oscillating with a transverse wave motion and at right angles to it is an charge experiences a force
oscillating magnetic field. regenerate: create or
• But how does the wave keep going? The oscillating electric field in the one produce again
plane produces the oscillating magnetic field at right angles to it. This, in
turn, produces the oscillating electric field and the wave motion repeats
itself and keeps moving onward.
• They are mutually regenerating fields. This means that they keep on
producing each other. This is why they do not need a medium with
particles for propagation.
Speed of electromagnetic waves
MODULE 2
In space, all electromagnetic waves travel at 3 × 108 m.s–1. This is also called the
speed of light in a vacuum. The speed of light is represented by the symbol c.
Activity 1 Answer questions on electromagnetic radiation

1.1 radiation 1.2 electromagnetic radiation 1.3 wave-particle duality.
2 Explain how electromagnetic waves are produced.
3 What is the speed of EM radiation in a vacuum?
4 Explain – in words and with a diagram – how EM waves propagate.
5 Calculate how many seconds it takes light to travel 1,5 × 108 km from
the Sun to the Earth.
6 Electrons in the antenna of one radio transmitter oscillate with a
frequency of 600 kHz while in another the frequency is 100 MHz. Answer to numerical
Which electromagnetic wave has the higher frequency? question
5 500 s
Japanese myth about Earthquakes

A giant catfish lived in mud beneath the Earth. over the catfish, the earth was still. But when he
The catfish liked to play pranks and could only relaxed his guard, the catfish thrashed about,
be restrained by Kashima, a god who protected causing earthquakes.
the Japanese people from earthquakes. So long as Source: Centre for earthquake research and information,
Kashima kept a mighty rock with magical powers www.ceri.memphis.edu/awareness/myths.html
A possible explanation
Catfish are very sensitive to weak electric currents in the water. Observers
have said that, just before an earthquake, catfish come to the surface very
agitated. Perhaps an explanation of the myth is that catfish are not the cause
of earthquakes but instead are sensitive to changes in electric fields and Figure 3 Catfish are sensitive
electromagnetic radiation caused by the earthquake. to changes in electric fields.
Unit 9 The nature of electromagnetic radiation 99

Unit 10 Electromagnetic spectrum
New word The electromagnetic spectrum

spectrum: a range of The electromagnetic spectrum consists of all the frequencies of electromagnetic
frequencies or wavelengths radiation arranged in order. In Figure 1 you can see that there are bands of
of radiation arranged
frequencies that have similar properties. You need to memorise the names as
in order
well as their sequence in order of both frequency and of wavelength.
The frequency and wavelength relationship in

electromagnetic waves
Look at Figure 1. The frequency of gamma rays is much higher than that of
radio waves but its wavelength is much shorter. Just as with other waves, the
frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional. Electromagnetic waves
obey the wave speed relationship:
c = fλ
where c = the speed of light in a vacuum, 3 × 108 m.s–1
f = frequency
l = wavelength
In media, such as glass, the speed of light is lower than in a vacuum.
Worked example 1
The frequency of the radiation in a microwave oven is 2,45 GHz. Calculate
its wavelength.
Answer Variables
c = fλ GHz stands for gigahertz
Rearranging: or 109 Hz
c f = 2,45 GHz
λ=
f = 2,45 × 109 Hz
3 × 108 m.s–1
= c = 3 × 108 m.s–1
2,45 × 109 Hz
λ=?
= 0,12 m (120 mm)
Penetrating ability of electromagnetic radiation

Radiation with a high frequency penetrates matter further than low frequencies
do. For example, ultraviolet penetrates into the skin. X-rays which have higher
frequency go right through the body but there is some absorption, especially by
the bones. The highest frequency gamma rays pass right through the body.
Dangers of radiation
Figure 1 The electromagnetic Waves transfer energy and we have to protect ourselves from those that have a
spectrum high penetrating ability as they can cause damage to the molecules in our cells.
100

For example, the higher frequencies of ultraviolet damage the skin and eyes,
exposure to X-rays has to be limited and gamma radiation is very dangerous.
Radiation from cell phones

The radio frequency used by cell phones is relatively low and has low penetrating
power. However, because the phone is held close to the head a small amount of
energy does penetrate it. There is on-going research to see if it is a health hazard.
Uses of electromagnetic radiation

Electromagnetic radiation has many different uses (see Table 1).
Table 1 Characteristics and uses of different types of electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic
Characteristics and uses
MODULE 2
radiation types
Radio waves • Radio signals have the lowest frequency and longest wavelength of the EM spectrum
TV waves • Television signals are high frequency radio waves
Microwaves • In microwave ovens these waves transfer energy to water molecules in food and heat it up
• Air traffic controllers use radar to locate the position of aircraft
Infrared • This radiation transfers energy or heat and gives us the sensation warmth on our skin when we
stand in front of a heater
• Infrared radiation is also used to detect objects or people in the absence of visible light; this
property is used in modern military technology
Visible light • Our sense of sight detects visible light
Ultraviolet (UV) • Some of the printing on South African bank notes only shows up under ultraviolet light. The
ink absorbs the energy of the ultraviolet light and re-emits it as visible light in a process called
fluorescence. This enables banks to detect fraud
X-rays • Used to produce X-ray photographs of the internal organs of the body, especially of the bones
Gamma rays • Very high energy radiation used to sterilise medical equipment, such as scalpel blades
Activity 1 Answer questions on electromagnetic spectrum
1 Explain what is meant by electromagnetic spectrum.

2 Arrange ultraviolet radiation, radio waves, X-rays and visible light in
order of increasing frequency.
3 Arrange infrared radiation, gamma rays, microwaves and visible light in
order of increasing wavelength.
4 Calculate the:
4.1 frequency of an X-ray with a wavelength of 1 nm
4.2 wavelength of a radio wave with a frequency of 100 MHz.
5 Sunlight and welding arcs are sources of ultraviolet that can affect the
skin and eyes.
5.1 Why does ultraviolet radiation cause harm? Exam word
5.2 Suggest ways of protecting yourself against harmful radiation.
suggest: give ideas,
6 Why does the operator of an X-ray machine stand where she cannot solutions or reasons for
receive any radiation? something

4.1 3 × 1017 Hz; 4.2 3 m
Unit 10 Electromagnetic spectrum 101

Unit 11 Photons
Quantisation
In experiments we often measure out quantities of water. You may think that
– with the right apparatus – there is no limit to how small an amount you
can measure. It looks like a smooth continuous substance. However, water is
made up of enormous numbers of very small molecules. You cannot keep on
dividing it up. This is the idea behind what we call quantisation.
• Quantisation means that a quantity comes in amounts that cannot be
made smaller and smaller. Such an amount is called a quantum.
• A quantum is an indivisible amount of a physical quantity.
Quantisation of energy
In 1900, Max Planck realised that energy is released from a hot body as very
small quanta or packets of energy. (Quanta is the plural of quantum.)
The photon
Albert Einstein used the particle model to explain that electromagnetic
radiation propagates in quanta which we call photons. This is in contrast with
the wave model of electromagnetic radiation.
E = hf
A photon is a quantum (or wave packet) of electromagnetic radiation. It
has zero mass and travels at the speed of light.
According to the particle model, electromagnetic radiation is a stream of photons.
E = hf Energy of a photon
The energy (E) of a single photon increases with the frequency of the wave.
Figure 1 Electromagnetic A gamma ray photon, therefore, has more energy than a lower frequency
radiation is a stream of photons
each having energy E = hf. photon of ultraviolet radiation. The relationship between the energy of the
photon and its frequency can be determined as follows:
The energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of the wave. In

New words symbols: E ∝ f
Planck’s constant: A proportionality constant called Planck’s constant (h) – in honour of Max
proportionality constant Planck – changes the relationship to an equation.
relating the energy of a
photon to its frequency
Energy of a photon, E = hf …Equation (1)
joule: unit of energy
where E = the energy of the photon, measured in joules (J)
f = frequency of the photon, measured in hertz (Hz)
h = Planck’s constant, measured in joule seconds (6,63 × 10−34 J.s)
102

All electromagnetic radiation travels at the speed of light. Frequency (f ),
Did you know?
wavelength (λ) and the speed of light (c) are related by: f = c
λ Rod cells in the retina of
Substitute for f into equation (1): our eyes are so sensitive
Energy of a photon, E = hc …Equation (2) to weak light that they
λ are able to detect a single
where c = speed of light in a vacuum (3 × 108 m.s−1) photon of light.
λ = wavelength, measured in metres (m)
Worked example 1
Calculate the energy of a photon of blue light of frequency 6,4 × 1014 Hz.
Answer
E = hf Variables
= (6,63 × 10−34 J.s) × (6,4 × 1014 Hz) f = 6,4 × 1014 Hz
= 4,24 × 10−19 J (This is a very small amount of energy) h = 6,63 × 10−34 J.s
E=?
MODULE 2
Worked example 2
1 Calculate the wavelength of a photon of energy 1,9 × 10 −18 J.
2 Refer to Figure 1 on page 100 to identify the type of EM radiation.
Answers
hc
1 E=
λ Variables
Rearranging: E = 1,9 × 10−18 J
hc h = 6,63 × 10−34 J.s
λ=
E c = 3 × 108 m.s−1
(6,63 × 10 −34 J.s) × (3 × 108 m.s−1) λ=?
=
1,9 × 10 −18 J
= 1,05 × 10 m
−7
2 Ultraviolet
Activity 1 Answer questions on photons

1.1 quantisation 1.2 photon.
2 What is the name of the proportionality constant h in E = hf ?
3 Refer to Figure 1 on page 100 and give a reason why an infrared photon
has less energy than an ultraviolet one.
4 Suggest why a photon of red light has less penetrative ability than a
gamma ray photon.
5 Calculate the:
5.1 energy of a photon with frequency 5 × 1020 Hz
5.2 energy of a photon with wavelength 3 × 10 −2 m
5.3 wavelength of a photon with energy 3,3 × 10 −19 J
5.4 frequency of a photon with energy 1,33 × 10 −18 J.
6 Write the above photons in ascending order of energy and identify what
type each one is from Figure 1 on page 100.

5.1 3,32 × 10−13 J; 5.2 6,63 × 10−24 J; 5.3 6,03 × 10−7 m; 5.4 2,01 × 1015 Hz
Unit 11 Photons 103

Module
2 Summary
Transverse pulses on a string or spring • The speed of sound differs from medium to
• A single disturbance is called a pulse. In a medium. Sound waves travel the slowest in
transverse pulse, the particles of the medium gases, faster in liquids and the fastest in solids.
move at right angles to the direction of • The pitch of sound changes with a change in
propagation of the pulse. frequency. The loudness of sound changes with
• If two or more pulses cross, they will interact amplitude.
(or interfere) with each other. • Musical instruments differ in tone.
• The Principle of Superposition states that • Ultrasound is sound with frequencies between
when pulses cross, the combined disturbance 20 kHz to 100 kHz. It is outside the range of
at any given point is equal to the sum of the human hearing.
disturbances. • Ultrasound scans are useful to detect medical
• Constructive interference takes place when conditions as the ultrasound waves do not
the combined disturbance is bigger than the damage soft tissue.
individual disturbances. • Animals have the ability to hear frequencies far
• Destructive interference takes place when the beyond that of human perception, as well as
combined disturbance is smaller than the sense electromagnetic radiation outside the visible
individual disturbances. range. Can animal behaviour warn humans of
imminent natural disasters such as earthquakes?
Transverse waves
• A wave is a succession of pulses. Electromagnetic radiation
• Transverse waves can be described using • Some aspects of the behaviour of
the following terminology: disturbance (or electromagnetic radiation can best be explained
displacement), amplitude, crest, trough, rest using a wave model but others using a particle
position, wavelength (l). model – it has a dual nature.
• Points on waves move in phase if they reach a • The source of electromagnetic radiation is
crest at the same time or out of phase if they accelerating electric charge.
reach a crest at different times. • An EM wave propagates when an electric field
• The mathematical relationship between the oscillating in one plane produces a magnetic
frequency (f ) a wave and its period (T) is: f = 1 field oscillating in a plane at right angles to it.
T
and T = 1 The fields are mutually regenerating.
f
• Wave speed (v) = f λ. • The speed of light in a vacuum (space) is
c = 3 × 108 m.s–1.
Longitudinal waves and sound • Wave equation: c = f λ
• In a longitudinal wave, the particles vibrate • The electromagnetic spectrum consists of all
backwards and forwards in the same line as the the frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
direction that the wave travels. arranged in order.
• Longitudinal waves can be described using • Radiation with a high frequency penetrates
the following terminology: compression, matter further than low frequency do.
rarefaction, amplitude and wavelength (l). • A photon is a quantum (or wave packet) of
• Sound waves are longitudinal waves caused by electromagnetic radiation.
vibrations in the direction of propagation. The hc
• Energy of a photon E = hf = , where Planck’s
vibrations cause regular variations in pressure λ
constant (h) = 6,63 × 10 −34 J.s
in the medium.
104 Module 2 Summary

Module
Transverse pulses and waves 3.1 Draw a labelled diagram of the pulse that
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following shows the above information.
descriptions. (Note that a term can consist of 3.2 Describe the motion of a point on the rope as
more than one word.) the pulse moves past it.
1.1 A substance through which something is 3.3 At the same time as you produce the pulse,
transmitted. someone at the other end of the rope
1.2 The maximum displacement of a particle produces another pulse that moves towards
from the rest position. you. The disturbances of the pulses are in the
1.3 The phenomenon that happens when two same direction. Describe what happens:
waves interact with each other. 3.3.1 when the two pulses meet
2 Answer the following multiple choice questions. 3.3.2 after the two pulses have met.
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. 3.4 Draw diagrams to illustrate your answer to
2.1 Consider the diagram of two pulses below. Questions 3.3.1 and 3.3.2.
4 Study the wave below and then answer the
– 20 mm questions that follow.
18 m
Displacement y (m)
+ 30 mm X
A B C
When the two pulses in the diagram cross, 0
6 t (s)
the type of interference and amplitude of the
disturbance are… Y
A destructive; amplitude 10 mm
B destructive; amplitude 50 mm 4.1 Write labels for points X and Y on the graph
C constructive; amplitude 10 mm of a transverse wave.
D constructive; amplitude 50 mm 4.2 Use the data on the diagram of the wave to
2.2 Study the wave below. calculate its frequency.
4.3 Use a method of your choice to calculate the
Displacement y (m)
0,3 m speed of the wave.

4.4 Check your answer to Question 4.3 by using
0
0,5 1,0 1,5 t (s)
another calculation method.
4.5 Which of points A, B and C are in phase?
The period of the above wave is… Longitudinal waves and sound
A 2,0 s 1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following
B 0,6 s descriptions:
C 0,5 s 1.1 How high or how low a sound is.
D 0,3 s 1.2 The parts of a sound wave where the pressure
3 You produce a transverse pulse in a rope is less than elsewhere.
by moving one end of the rope quickly 1.3 The distinctive sound of a trumpet compared
to one side and back again. The pulse has with that of a guitar playing the same note.
a pulse length of 30 mm and amplitude 2 Answer the following multiple choice question.
of 25 mm. Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer.

2.1 People are able to hear sound waves with a Electromagnetic radiation
frequency of …
A 1 Hz 1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following
B 10 Hz descriptions.
C 100 Hz 1.1 The type of electromagnetic radiation that has
D 100 000 Hz a frequency just below that of visible light.
3 A learner produces a longitudinal wave in a 1.2 A quantum of electromagnetic energy.
slinky spring. 2 Answer the following multiple choice question.
3.1 How does the learner move the end of the Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer.
spring to create the wave? 2.1 Which of the following groups of
3.2 Compare the movement of the vibrating electromagnetic radiation is printed in order
(oscillating) turns in a longitudinal wave with of increasing wavelength?
those in a transverse wave. A visible light, microwaves, UV, X-rays
3.3 Draw a simple diagram of a longitudinal B microwaves, visible light, UV, X-rays
wave in a slinky spring. Provide the following C UV, X-rays, microwaves, visible light
labels: direction of motion of the wave, D X-rays, UV, visible light, microwaves
rarefaction, compression and wavelength. 3 Over 100 years ago scientists thought that
4 An experimenter has measured the speed of there must be an invisible substance in
sound in copper, air and sea water at 0 °C. space that enables light to travel from the
The results are written the Table 1 but the Sun to the Earth. We now know that such a
names of the substances have been omitted. substance is not necessary for the propagation
Match the substances to the speeds and give a of electromagnetic radiation.
reason for each choice. 3.1 Describe what an electromagnetic wave is.
3.2 Explain why electromagnetic waves do not
Table 1 Speed of sound in different media require a medium for propagation.
Substance Speed of sound (m.s−1) Reason 3.3 Name a quantity that is the same for light and
4.1 330 4.2 for all other types of electromagnetic radiation.
1 531 3.4 Calculate the frequency of red light in
4.3 4.4
vacuum having a wavelength of 670 nm.
4.5 3 900 4.6
4 Electromagnetic radiation has a dual nature.
4.1 Which model of electromagnetic radiation
5 If the speed of sound in air is 340 m.s–1 at includes the photon?
15 °C, calculate the wavelength, as well as the 4.2 Calculate the frequency of a gamma ray
period, of sound waves in air at: photon that has a wavelength of 4 × 10 −12 m.
5.1 the upper limit of human hearing, i.e. 20 000 Hz 4.3 A certain photon in the ultraviolet band has
5.2 the lower limit of human hearing, i.e. 20 Hz. an energy of 3,8 × 10 −18 J. Use two methods to
6 A woman with a high-pitched voice is talking determine the energy of a photon of visible
with a man, who has a deep voice. light that has a frequency that is one tenth
6.1 How do the frequencies of their voices differ? that of the ultraviolet photon.
6.2 The woman walks away and the man calls 4.4 Arrange the three types of electromagnetic
after her in a loud voice. If the pitch of his radiation named in this question in order of:
voice stays the same, explain in what respects 4.4.1 increasing frequency
his sound waves: 4.4.2 greater penetrating ability.
6.2.1 change 6.2.2 stay the same. 4.5 Why should one take care not to be exposed to
6.3 If another man calls out, how is the woman high frequency end of the range of ultraviolet
able to tell the difference between the voices? frequencies? Give a reason with your answer.

Transverse pulses and waves: 2.1 A; 2.2 C; 4.2 0,5 Hz; 4.3 3 m.s−1
Longitudinal waves and sound: 5.1 Wavelength: 0,017 m; period: 5 × 10−5 s; 5.2 Wavelength: 17 m; period: 5 × 10−2 s
Electromagnetic radiation: 3.4 4,48 × 1014 Hz; 4.2 7,50 × 1019 Hz; 4.3 3,8 × 10−19 J
106

MODULE
3
Crystals have fascinated people for centuries. You may think that crystals
belong in crowns and jewelry, but they are common structures that are found
and used all around us.
In nature, minerals form beautifully coloured crystals. Our modern world
is also shaped by crystals. They play an important role in the components of
computers, lasers, car engines and even space shuttles.
In this module we will discuss the particles which make up crystals, the
bonds between them and the types of crystals that they form.
Atomic models The atom Matter and materials

(Part 2)
Making models
to represent Chemical bonding
elements and
compounds
Covalent bonding Ionic bonding Metallic bonding
Molecular substances Ionic substances Metallic substances
Covalent molecular structures Covalent network structures Metal crystal structures
Molecular formulae Empirical formulae

Unit 1 Representing atoms and compounds
Atoms
All matter is made up of atoms. A substance that is made up of just one kind of
atom is called an element. Examples include carbon (C), oxygen (O), nitrogen
(N) and helium (He). Only the elements listed in Group 18 of the periodic table are
found as single atoms at room temperature. Helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar),
krypton (Kr) and xenon (Xe) occur in nature as single atoms. Some elements occur
as diatomic molecules (consisting of two atoms), for example, hydrogen gas (H2) or
oxygen gas (O2). Atoms of different elements can combine to form compounds.
Compounds
A compound is a substance that is formed by the chemical combination
of two or more different elements in a fixed ratio. Atoms are attached to
each other by relatively strong forces called chemical bonds. They form the
following types of compounds:
• Molecular compounds (molecules) are formed by covalent bonding.
• Ionic compounds (salts) are formed by ionic bonding.
• Metallic compounds (metals, such as copper and iron) are formed by
metallic bonding.
When atoms form bonds, they join together in definite proportions to form
a compound. This means that the compound carbon dioxide (CO2) consists
of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. The definite proportions are one
carbon atom joined with two oxygen atoms.
New word
Breaking up compounds into elements
electrolysis: decomposition Elements bond together forming compounds to become more stable. In order
of a substance using an
to break these bonds, we need to add energy. One way of doing this is to use
electric current
electrical energy in a process called electrolysis.
Break up compounds into elements

Experiment 1
using electricity
Materials
In this experiment you will break water molecules using electricity.
• 500 ml beaker
• 350 ml dilute
METHOD
sodium sulfate
Step 1 Set up the apparatus shown in Figure 1 on page 109. You are going
(Na2SO4) solution
to pass an electric current through a solution that contains dissolved
• two carbon
sodium sulfate (Na2SO4).
electrodes
Step 2 Fill test tubes with water and turn them upside down in the beaker
• a 9 V or 12 V battery
filled with water. Capture the gas produced at the electrodes in the test
(or power source)
tubes filled with water. The gas displaces the water.
• two test tubes
Step 3 Remove the test tubes from the water and close them with cork stoppers.
• two cork stoppers
Step 4 Test for hydrogen gas. Push a burning splinter into the mouth of the
• wooden splinter
test tube. If hydrogen gas is present, it will ignite with a popping sound.
108 Module 3 Matter and materials (Part 2)

Step 5 Test for oxygen gas. Push a glowing wooden splinter into the mouth of the
test tube. If oxygen gas is present, the glowing stick will start to burn.
DiSCUSSiON aND CONClUSiON

The electric current causes the water molecules to break up. The
following equation shows the reaction that occurs:
2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g) test tube
In water molecules, two hydrogen atoms bond with each oxygen carbon electrode
atom. The definite proportion of hydrogen to oxygen is therefore two sodium sulfate
to one. The equation shows this relationship. There are twice as many solution
hydrogen gas molecules as oxygen gas molecules. Figure 1 Apparatus for collecting gases
released by electrolysis.
Representing elements and compounds

We use different methods to represent elements and compounds.
Chemical formulae
A chemical formula uses symbols to show the proportions of atoms present in
an element or compound. Elements and compounds can be represented using:
an empirical formula, a molecular formula or a structural formula.
Empirical formulae
The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest formula we can write. It
tells us the types of atoms present and their relative numbers.
An empirical formula is a chemical formula that shows the simplest ratio

between the atoms in a compound.
MODULE 3
Often, an empirical formula does not tell us a great deal about a compound.
Acetic acid, formaldehyde (used to preserve biological specimens) and glucose
all have the empirical formula CH2O.
Molecular formulae
A molecular formula tells us the exact number of each kind of atom present in
one molecule of the molecular structure.
A molecular formula is a chemical formula that shows the actual number

and types of atoms in a molecule.
In some cases the empirical and molecular formulae

Table 1 Empirical and molecular formulae of compounds
are identical, for example, formaldehyde (CH2O). In
other cases the molecular formula is a “multiple” of Common Empirical Molecular
the empirical formula. name formula formula
The empirical formula of butane, for example, is Formaldehyde CH2O CH2O
C2H5. A molecule of butane consists of four carbon Acetic acid CH2O C2H4O2
atoms and 10 hydrogen atoms. This is twice the Glucose CH2O C6H12O6
number of the empirical formula. Table 1 shows the Butane C2H5 C4H10
difference between empirical and molecular formulae.
Unit 1 Representing atoms and compounds 109

Structural formulae
O=C=O A structural formula shows the order in which the atoms are bonded together.
Figure 2 Structural formula for
carbon dioxide (CO2)
A structural formula shows the arrangement of atoms and the bonds
H–Cl between the atoms in a compound.
Figure 3 Structural formula for

hydrogen chloride (HCl) Figure 2 shows how one carbon and two oxygen atoms combine to make a
carbon dioxide (CO2) molecule. In Figure 3, a hydrogen atom is bonded to the
chlorine atom forming hydrogen chloride (HCl). A structural formula is useful
for constructing models of elements and compounds.
Models of elements and compounds

We can construct models of elements and compounds using:
• simple circle diagrams. Each circle represents an atom and it shows the
arrangement of atoms in the compound. (It does not show the bonds
between atoms.)
• space-filling models. Each sphere represents the size and position of an
atom. The bonds are hidden where the spheres overlap.
• ball-and-stick models. Each ball represents an atom and the sticks
represent the bonds holding the atoms together.
Table 2 Representing molecules in different ways
Common Chemical Simple circle Space-filling Ball-and-stick

name formula diagrams model model
Water H2O
H H
O
Carbon CO2
dioxide
O C O
Ammonia NH3
H
H N
H
Methane CH4 H
H C H
110
Module 3 Matter and materials (Part 2)

Materials for space-filling models
Play dough recipe
Use polystyrene foam balls and stick them together with little pieces of Prestik
Boil together one cup
to make space-filling models. The polystyrene foam balls represent the atoms salt, one cup flour, one
and the Prestik acts as bonds. Alternatively make atoms from play dough or and a half cups of water,
a tablespoon of cooking
Plasticine clay. Stick the atoms together lightly to avoid the colours mixing. oil, a little food colouring
and a teaspoon of cream
Materials for ball-and-stick models of tartar. Remove from
heat and knead while
An atomic model kit is useful for building models of elements and warm. Use different food
compounds. There are instructions in the kit that explain how to represent colouring to represent
atoms and chemical bonds. different atoms.
Ball and stick models can also be made from different materials, for example:
• polystyrene foam balls or play dough connected with toothpicks
• soft sweets, such as Jelly Tots, can represent atoms.
Answer questions and make models of

Activity 2 elements and compounds Figure 4 Water molecule built
with Jelly tots and toothpicks.
1 List the definite proportions in the compound water (H2O).
2 Explain the difference between an empirical and a molecular formula.
3 Draw simple circle diagrams to represent the following elements and
compounds:
3.1 hydrogen (H2) 3.3 carbon dioxide (CO2)
3.2 oxygen (O2) 3.4 water (H2O)
4 Write down the names and chemical formulae for the following compounds:
Exam words
4.1 4.4 list: write the names,
numbers or things asked for
4.2 4.5 one below the other, each
on a new line
4.3 explain: describe giving
reasons
MODULE 3
draw: show in a visual way
5.1 Copy the table below and fill out the missing information.
Common name Chemical formula Simple circle diagrams
Cl2
Hydrogen chloride
H2O
Carbon dioxide
5.2 Use an atomic model kit (or alternative materials) to build space-filling
models or ball-and-stick models for the compounds in the table.
Unit 1 Representing atoms and compounds 111

Unit 2 Molecular substances
Covalent molecular structures

When atoms share electrons, they form covalent bonds. The structure that is
formed is called a molecule. Molecular substances are usually formed when
non-metals react.
We write molecules as a molecular formula that shows the atoms that are
present in a compound. Covalent molecular structures consist of separate
molecules. For example, O2 represents oxygen gas, but oxygen gas consists of
billions of separate O2 molecules.
Some molecules are very large, for example, buckminsterfullerene which
Figure 1 Buckminsterfullerene
is a very large molecule and is has the molecular formula C60. Table 1 shows examples of covalent molecular
also known as a buckyball. structures and their molecular formulae.
Table 1 Covalent molecular substances and their molecular formulae

Compound (covalent Molecular
Atoms present in the compound
molecular substance) formula
Oxygen O2 Two oxygen atoms
Water H 2O Two hydrogen atoms; one oxygen atom
Carbon dioxide CO2 One carbon atom; two oxygen atoms
Octane (in petrol) C8H18 Eight carbon atoms; 18 hydrogen atoms
Sulfur S8 Eight sulfur atoms
Sugar C12H22O11 12 carbon atoms; 22 hydrogen atoms; 11
oxygen atoms
Buckminsterfullerene C60 60 carbon atoms
Figure 2 Model of an oxygen Figure 3 Model of a water molecule showing covalent bonds
molecule showing a covalent
double bond
Prepare and capture gases

Experiment 1 from compounds
In this experiment you will prepare and capture two molecular compounds.
METHOD
Preparation of hydrogen gas (H2)
Step 1 Set up equipment as seen in Figure 4 on page 113.
112

Step 2 Add water to the water trough. Fill a test tube with water and turn it MaTErialS
upside down in the water trough. • zinc granules
Step 3 Carefully add a little hydrochloric acid to the boiling tube and place a • 30 ml of 1M
few zinc granules into the tube. hydrochloric acid
Step 4 Close the boiling tube with a stopper to which a delivery tube is attached. (HCl)
Step 5 Capture the gas that comes off in the water-filled test tube. The gas • Cal-C-Vita tablet
displaces the water. (or similar
Step 6 Remove the test tube from the water trough and close it with a cork. effervescent tablet)
Step 7 Carefully test the captured gas by lighting it with a match. Record • 100 ml clear lime
your result. water (Ca(OH)2, aq)
• water
• water trough
Caution (or basin)
Do not point the test tube in the direction of another person when testing for hydrogen. • two boiling tubes
• rubber delivery tube
• two test tubes
stopper delivery tube • two stoppers
boiling tube • matches
hydrochloric acid (HCl) test tube
zinc granules
New word
effervescent: giving off
water trough bubbles of gas
water
Figure 4 Hydrogen gas is collected from zinc metal reacting with hydrochloric acid.
Preparation of carbon dioxide

Step 1 Use the same apparatus as for the preparation of hydrogen gas.
Step 2 Drop half a Cal-C-Vita tablet into water in the boiling tube.
Step 3 Capture the gas that comes off in a water-filled test tube. The gas
MODULE 3
displaces the water.
Step 4 Remove the test tube from the water trough and close it with a cork.
Step 5 Test the captured gas by adding a little clear lime water to the gas and
shaking the test tube. Record your result.
CONClUSiON
Preparation and capture of hydrogen gas (H2)
The zinc reacts with the hydrochloric acid to produce zinc chloride and
hydrogen gas:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The hydrogen gas reacts with the oxygen and “explodes” with a popping
sound. This happens in the presence of an open flame. The H : O ratio is 2 : 1.
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
Preparation and capture of carbon dioxide (CO2)

A cloudy powder of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) appears in the clear liquid.
This is the test for carbon dioxide gas.
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
Unit 2 Molecular substances 113

Covalent network structures
In many covalent substances the intramolecular forces between atoms in a molecule
are strong, but the intermolecular forces between molecules are quite weak. This
is why covalent structures with a low molecular mass are often found as a gas or
liquid at room temperature. Solid covalent structures often have low melting points.
In a few substances covalent bonds extend throughout the structure of the
substance. This results in a repeating structure of bonded atoms. The structure
forms a crystal that is held together by strong intramolecular forces. These
types of covalent compounds are called covalent network structures.
In covalent network structures covalent bonds extend throughout

the crystal. They consist of a giant repeating structure of atoms that are
covalently bonded to each other.
Table 2 Covalent network structures, their chemical and

empirical formulae
Table 2 shows the empirical formulae for some covalent
Covalent network Chemical Empirical
network structures. The chemical formula for diamond and
structure formula formula
graphite shows the empirical formula with the letter n in
Diamond Cn C
subscript. This shows that the structure consists of a large
Graphite Cn C
number (n) of carbon atoms. For silicon oxide and boron
Silicon oxide (SiO2)n SiO2
nitride the chemical formula is the empirical formula written
Boron nitride (BN)n BN in brackets with the letter n in subscript.
New word Lattice structures

transparent: see-through The atoms in a crystal are in a regular repeating pattern called a crystal
lattice. A lattice can be arranged in different ways. Each type of lattice
influences the properties of the material. Graphite and diamond are examples
of how different lattices of the same atoms can have different properties. They
each contain only one kind of atom, namely carbon. The difference is in how
those atoms are arranged.
Diamond
Diamond is transparent, strong and has a very high melting point
(above 3 500 °C). It is the hardest naturally occuring substance known and
is an excellent cutting tool. The atoms in diamond are held very strongly in
position. Each carbon atom is bound to four others in a three-dimensional
network (see Figure 5). To change the shape of a diamond or to break it
requires that many of these strong bonds be broken simultaneously.
Figure 5 The rigid covalent
network structure of diamond (C).
Graphite
Graphite is black and soft. The atoms in graphite form strong covalent bonds with
three neighbouring carbon atoms in the same plane. Layers of carbon atoms are
arranged in a hexagonal arrangement (see Figure 6). Bonds within layers are strong,
but between layers they are much weaker. The layers can therefore glide over one
another rather easily. When you draw a line with a pencil, the result is a layer of
black carbon atoms that is flaked off.
Figure 6 The covalent network
structure of graphite (C).
114

Silica compounds
Covalent network structures are also found in silica compounds. Silica is the
basic material that forms glass, quartz and sand.
In silicon oxide (SiO2) each Si atom is bonded to four O atoms and each
O atom to two Si atoms. The bonding between the atoms goes on and on in
three dimensions. This results in a 1 : 2 ratio between Si and O atoms. The
chemical formula of SiO2 is therefore (SiO2)n.
There are three crystalline forms of SiO2. For one of these, the basic
arrangement of Si atoms is rather like carbon in diamond, but with an oxygen
atom between the silicon atoms. In quartz spiral structures are present.
Silica compounds have certain properties that resemble those of diamond.
They are hard with a high melting point and are non-conductors of electricity.
Boron compounds
Boron compounds exist in different crystalline forms. Each compound
therefore has unique properties.
Figure 7 Silicon dioxide
Boron nitride (BN) has an equal number of boron and nitrogen atoms. It exists
in a hexagonal form similar to graphite and in a cubic form similar to diamond.
Boron nitride therefore has similar properties to both graphite and diamond.
Answer questions and draw diagrams

Activity 2
of covalent structures
1 Write empirical formulae for the following molecular formulae:
1.1 Na2O2 1.3 C2H4O2
1.2 C8H18 1.4 S8
2 Draw diagrams to represent the following molecules using circles to
represent atoms.
2.1 H2O 2.5 CH4
2.2 CO2 2.6 Cl2
MODULE 3
2.3 HCl 2.7 O2
2.4 NH3
3 Give suitable molecular formulae of the molecules represented by the
following models:
3.1 H 3.2 H 3.3 H
H
H N C H O
H
H H
4 Write chemical names for the following compounds:

4.1 CBr4 4.3 N2
4.2 SO2 4.4 H2O
5 Write the molecular formulae for the following compounds:
5.1 carbon tetrachloride 5.3 water
5.2 dinitrogen tetra-oxide 5.4 oxygen gas
6 Use Jelly tots and toothpicks (or an atomic model kit) to build all the
molecules in Questions 1 and 2.
7 Explain, using an example, how a crystal structure affects the properties
of the material.
Unit 2 Molecular substances 115

Unit 3 Ionic substances
Ionic bonds
Ions are formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another. A
metal loses electrons to form a positive ion (a cation), while a non-metal gains
these electrons to become a negative ion (an anion). The positive metal ion
attracts the negative non-metal ion to form an ionic bond.
Table 1 Examples of periodic table
groups and their ions The periodic table, groups and ions
Periodic Group 1 metals lose one electron, Group 2 metals lose two electrons and
table Example Group 13 metals lose three electrons to form positive ions. Group 16 non-
group metals gain two electrons and Group 17 non-metals gain one electron and
Group 1 Na → Na+ + 1e– form negative ions. This is discussed in Module 1, Unit 12 on page 69.
Group 2 Be → Be2+ + 2e–
Group 13 Al → Al3+ + 3e–
Group 16 O + 2e– → O2–
Group 17 F + 1e– → F–
before after
Figure 1 Representations of Group 1 atom and a Group 17 atom before and after reacting with
each other.
Formation of ionic substances

When an atom forms an ion, its electron structure becomes like that of the
noble gas closest to it. Like the noble gases, ions tend to be stable and do
not readily react with other molecules. Ions bond with ionic bonds and the
resulting solid is called an ionic substance. (This is also referred to as a salt or
an ionic compound.)
In Module 1 we discussed the formation of table salt (NaCl). When sodium
reacts with chlorine, electrons transfer from sodium atoms to chlorine atoms
to form positive and negative ions.
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is another example of an ionic salt.

The permanganate ion (MnO4–) is a polyatomic ion with a 1− charge. The
positive K+ ions and negative MnO4− ions attract each other.
The salt dissolves in water to give an intense purple solution. When water is
evaporated from the potassium permanganate solution, the salt forms purple-
Figure 2 Oppositely charged
ions are attracted to each other black rhombic crystals. The opposite charges of the positive and negative ions
and form a crystal lattice. hold them together in a network structure called an ionic crystal lattice.
116
Module 3 Matter and materials (part 2)

Ionic crystal lattice
The attraction between millions of ions forms a crystal lattice. This crystal lattice
is held together by strong electrostatic forces. These forces between the ions make
the crystal strong. Ionic crystals are hard and non-conductors of electricity. They
have high melting points and high boiling points. Sodium chloride (NaCl), for
example, has a melting point of 808 °C and a boiling point of 1 456 °C.
Figure 3 Sodium ions and chloride ions form a Figure 4 The cubic crystal lattice of sodium
cube shaped crystal. chloride.
Practical activity 1 Grow sodium chloride crystals
In this practical activity you will grow and examine the shape of sodium
chloride crystals.
MaTErialS
METHOD • hot water
Step 1 Place hot water in the cup or beaker and dissolve table salt in the water. • packet of solid
Step 2 Keep adding salt and stir the solution repeatedly until some solid sodium chloride
remains on the bottom of the beaker. This is a saturated solution. (table salt)
Step 3 Pour the salt solution into the saucer and leave it on a windowsill. As • beaker (or a cup)
the water evaporates, cube-shaped crystals of sodium chloride form. • stirring rod (or
MODULE 3
The faster the water evaporates, the smaller the crystals will be. a spoon)
• saucer (or shallow
DiSCUSSiON dish)
Sodium chloride crystals are shaped like cubes from the moment they start to
grow. As billions of sodium and chloride ions are added they keep this shape.
New word
alTErNaTiVE aCTiViTY
saturated solution: solution
You can grow crystals from other soluble salts such as copper(II) sulfate, alum, that contains the maximum
potassium chlorate, sodium nitrate or potassium permanganate. quantity of solute
Build models and answer questions on

Activity 2 ionic substances
1 Build a model of a cubic sodium chloride crystal. Use an atomic model
set or use play dough to represent ions, and matches or toothpicks to
represent ionic bonds.
2 Write chemical formulae for the following ionic substances:
2.1 lithium chloride 2.4 magnesium sulfide
2.2 potassium oxide 2.5 aluminium trichloride
2.3 calcium bromide
Unit 3 Ionic substances 117

Unit 4 Metallic substances
Bonding in metals
Metals are dense materials in which the atoms are packed close together. In
Module 1 you learnt that the metallic bond influences the property of metals.
e– e– We can explain how the bond in a metal forms by using a model.
Na+ Na+ Na+
e– e– The electron-pool model
e– e– Metals only have a few valence electrons. To form bonds, the valence electrons
e–
become detached from the atom and roam freely through the metal atoms.
Na+ Na+ Na+ The electrons belong to all the positive ions. A metal bond is a lattice formed
e– e– from positive ions and a “pool” of delocalised valence electrons.
e– The electrons and the positive ions in the metal have a strong attractive
Figure 1 Metallic bonding force between them.
Metal crystals
Metal atoms pack closely together in a crystal. The arrangement of metal
atoms to occupy the minimum amount of space is called closest packing.
Crystal structures
When you stack boxes you place them one on top of the other. Atoms are
spheres and if you stack spheres like boxes, there will be unfilled space in
between them. There are two ways to stack spheres with minimum unfilled
space in between them.
The first arrangement is called cubic closest packing. The atoms are packed
less tightly and can form a cube (see Figure 2). The atoms of iron, potassium
and sodium pack in a cubic structure.
The second arrangement is called hexagonal closest packing. Here the atoms
are packed very tightly and each atom is surrounded by six other atoms to
form the hexagonal structure (see Figure 3). Magnesium and zinc are both
examples of metals packed in a hexagonal closest packed structure.
Figure 2 Cubic closest packing Figure 3 Hexagonal closest packing
118
Module 3 Matter and materials (part 2)

Practical activity 1 Arrange atoms in a metal crystal lattice
In this activity you will make a model of the closest packing structures in metals.
METHOD MaTErialS
Step 1 Arrange four spheres as shown in Figure 2. • 18 small spheres
Step 2 Repeat the pattern to form a cubic closest packing metal crystal lattice. (or milk bottle tops)
Step 3 Arrange seven spheres as shown in Figure 3.
Step 4 Repeat the pattern and complete the hexagonal closest packing structure.
DiSCUSSiON
Packing structures are formed by arranging spheres in different patterns.
Structural particles
In this module you have learnt about different types of structural particles
and their bonds between them. Table 1 summarises the particles, the bonds
between them and their properties.
Table 1 Structural particles and their properties
Type of Structural Forces or bonds

Typical properties Examples
substance particles between molecules
Molecular substance Molecules (or Weak attraction forces • Soft CO2, H2O, S8,
atoms of noble • Low melting point He, sugar
gases) • Non-conductors of heat and
electricity
Covalent network Atoms Covalent bonds • Very hard C (diamond
structure • High melting points and graphite),
• Non-conductors of electricity SiO2
(with the exception of graphite)
MODULE 3
Ionic substance Cations and Electrostatic attraction • Hard NaCl, KMnO4,
anions • Moderate to high melting points baking powder
• Non-conductors of electricity as
solids, but conduct electricity
when dissolved or molten
Metallic substance Cations and Metallic bonds • Soft to very hard Mg, Al, Fe, Zn,
delocalised • Lustrous, ductile and malleable Cu, Ag
electrons • Conductors of heat and
electricity
Activity 2 Answer questions about metals
1 When metals form ions they lose electrons. State how many electrons
the following metal atoms will each lose to the “pool” of electrons
between the positive ions:
1.1 aluminium 1.4 zinc
1.2 barium 1.5 copper
1.3 potassium 1.6 magnesium
Unit 4 Metallic substances 119

Module
3 Summary
Representing atoms and compounds Ionic substances

• All matter is made up of atoms. • Ions are formed when electrons are transferred
• The only substances found in atomic form are from one atom to another.
the noble gases. • The attraction between large numbers of ions
• Atoms of different elements can combine to forms an ionic crystal lattice.
form compounds through chemical bonds. • Sodium chloride ions form a cube shaped crystal.
Bonds can be molecular, ionic or metallic. • Crystals always keep their shape.
• Chemical formulae are used to represent atoms
and compounds. Metallic substances
• An empirical formula shows the simplest ratio • The bonding in metals can be explained using
between atoms in a molecule. the delocalised electron “pool” model.
• A molecular formula denotes the number and • Valence electrons in metals are detached from
type of atoms in a molecule. the atom and belong to all the positive ions.
• A structural formula shows the order in which • Metals are dense materials in which atoms
the atoms are bonded together. are packed close together. The electrons and
• We use models to represent elements and positive ions exert a strong attractive force on
compounds. Commonly used models include each other.
circle diagrams, space-filling models and ball- • Metal atoms form crystal structures. Two
and-stick models. examples are cubic or hexagonal structures.
Covalent structures
• Covalently bonded atoms share electrons and
form molecules.
• Molecular substances are usually composed of
non-metallic elements.
• Covalent network structures form when
forces between atoms are strong and extend
throughout the crystal.
• The repeating pattern in a crystal is called a
crystal lattice.
• Different lattice types result in different
properties.
• A carbon atom in diamond is bound to four
others in a three dimensional network. This
makes diamond the hardest naturally occurring
substance known.
• A carbon atom in graphite is bound to three
others in layers of hexagonal planes. This
creates layers that can be rubbed off.
• Silica and boron network structures are
examples of how different lattice types result in
different properties.
120
Module 3 Summary

Module
Chemical bonding Which row in the table below describes each

1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following substance correclty?
descriptions:
P Q R
1.1 A type of chemical bond that involves the
A element compound mixture
transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
B mixture element compound
1.2 The electrons in a metallic bond.
C compound mixture element
1.3 The types of molecules formed by the
D element mixture compound
elements of Group 17 in their elemental state.
2 Answer the following multiple choice question.
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. 2.2 When iron rusts it combines with oxygen in a
2.1 An atom is more stable when it has a noble ratio of 2 : 3. This means…
gas electron configuration. If an atom of A is has the formula Fe2O3.
element D (Z = 20) combines with two B it is not a compound but a mixture.
atoms of element E (Z = 17) to form an ionic C it cannot be an element.
compound, which of the following noble gas D it has the formula Fe3O2.
configurations will the ions have? 2.3 Salt crystals (such as KCl) hold together so well
Ion of D Ion of E because the cations are strongly attracted to…
A neighboring cations.
A Argon Argon
B the protons in the neighboring nucleus.
B Krypton Argon
C free electrons in the crystals.
C Neon Argon
D neighboring anions.
D Neon Krypton
3 The figure below shows the sodium chloride
crystal lattice.
Molecular, ionic and metallic substances
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following
descriptions:
1.1 The bonds between atoms in diamonds.
1.2 Process of breaking down a compound
using electricity.
1.3 The particle that forms when atoms
bond covalently.
1.4 The formula that describes the simplest ratio 3.1 Give the chemical formula for sodium chloride.
of the atoms in a molecule. 3.2 Write down the names of the two particles
2 Answer the following multiple choice questions. which occupy the lattice points of the crystal.
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. 3.3 Identify the type of bond that holds the
2.1 The diagrams P, Q and R show three crystal together.
different substances. 4 Write down the chemical formulae of the
P Q R
following compounds:
4.1
H Cl
atom of element X atom of element Y

4.2 7 Silica sand is a new generation pet litter.
Na O H With its unique inner structure, it is able to
continuously absorb liquid and odour. The
main content is silicon dioxide. The leftover
5 The following diagrams show the structure of can be buried and improves the soil structure.
some substances. It is non-toxic.
A B
C D
7.1 Write down the chemical formula for

silicon dioxide.
7.2 Draw a space-filling diagram for silicon dioxide.
7.3 What type of chemical bond forms between
the silicon atom and oxygen atom?
7.4 Look at the diagram below and explain
E briefly how the silicon dioxide forms large
crystal lattice structures.
5.1 Choose the letter of the diagram that would

best describe:
5.1.1 graphite
5.1.2 sodium
7.5 Explain why the new silicon dioxide cat litter
5.1.3 diamond
is environmentally friendly.
5.1.4 sodium chloride
8 Use Lewis structures to show how a lithium
5.1.5 water.
atom and a chlorine atom react to form ions.
5.2 Write down the letters of two substances that
9 List the properties of ionic solids. Explain the
are different forms of the element carbon.
properties in terms of chemical bonding in
5.3 Name the type of bonding taking place
the crystal lattice.
between the atoms of the substances in
diagrams A–E.
6 Write down the chemical formula for each of
the following compounds and draw a space-
filling diagram for each:
6.1 dinitrogen tetroxide
6.2 ozone.
122

MODULE
4
Chemical change (Part 1)
Every day hundreds of physical and chemical changes take place all around us.
When you boil water for tea, you are witnessing a physical change. As you eat,
chemical changes take place inside your body. These enable you to extract the
nutrients from the food. The petrol that fuels the cars and trucks on our roads
is a mixture of many different chemicals. The burning of these mixtures is a
chemical reaction that provides the energy that moves vehicles forward.
A chemical equation describes what happens in a chemical reaction. The
equation identifies the reactants, the products and the states of each substance.
To describe what happens we need to determine the amounts of each substance.
We do this by establishing the relationship between the quantity of the
reactants and products. The result is called a balanced equation.
In this module we will discuss physical and chemical changes. We will also
discuss the laws that govern how to balance chemical equations.
Chemical change
(Part 1)
Physical change Chemical change
Conservation of Conservation of Representing

mass, atoms and mass and atoms chemical change
molecules
Law of Constant Balanced chemical

Composition equations

Unit 1 Physical change
Physical change and the kinetic molecular theory
We can explain how matter can change from one phase to another using a
model. The kinetic molecular theory was discussed in Unit 3 of Module 1. This
model describes that:
• All matter is made up of particles.
• There are spaces and intermolecular forces between particles.
• The particles attract each other when they are far away and repel each
other when they are close.
• The particles are in constant motion or vibration.
Characteristics of physical change

All particles have energy. A change in the amount of energy can result in a change.
An example of a physical change occurs when a substance moves from one phase
(solid, liquid or gas) to another phase.
A physical change is a change which results in no new chemical

substances being formed.
A physical change is accompanied by:

• a change in the arrangement of the particles
• the absorption or release of energy.
These changes were discussed in Unit 2 of Module 1. We will use the physical
changes of water to explain what happens in a substance during these changes.
Arrangement of particles
When the temperature of water is below 0 °C, it is a solid called ice. The water
molecules in ice are held in position by strong intermolecular forces. The particles
are arranged in an orderly pattern and a solid has a definite shape and volume.
In the liquid phase, the intermolecular forces between particles are weak. A
liquid has a definite volume but no fixed shape. In other words, a liquid can flow
and fills up a container from the bottom.
In the gas phase the particles are far apart and the intermolecular forces are very
weak. The volume of a solid or a liquid depends on how much substance there is.
However, the particles of a gas quickly move to fill up any space available.
Show arrangement of water

molecules during physical changes
In this demonstration you will use marbles to show the arrangement of
particles during physical change.
124
Module 4 Chemical change (Part 1)

METHOD
MaTErialS
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
• marbles
Arrange the marbles in To show a phase change Move the marbles

an ordered arrangement to liquid, move the widely around the
to represent the solid marbles so that they surface to imitate gas
phase. become disordered. phase molecules.
DiSCUSSiON
We use marbles as a macroscopic representation of the microscopic particle
arrangement in matter.
Energy changes during physical change

Physical changes, such as from solid to liquid to gas, are accompanied by
increases in the energy of molecules.
Solid to liquid: When ice is heated to its melting point it becomes a
liquid. Heat energy weakens the intermolecular forces. The molecules become
disordered and can move throughout the liquid. Once the phase change is
complete the temperature of the water increases because the kinetic energy of
the particles increases.
liquid to gas: A liquid evaporates at temperatures below its boiling point.
Near the surface molecules that have higher kinetic energy than others escape
into the air. Water becomes water vapour in the gas phase. Water boils when
molecules throughout the liquid gain sufficient energy to overcome the
intermolecular forces. They form bubbles of water vapour.
During physical changes energy is released or absorbed. These energy changes
are small in comparison with the energy changes of chemical reactions.
Practical demonstration 2 Observe physical changes in water
In this demonstration you will observe the movement of water during physical
changes.
MaTErialS
METHOD • Bunsen burner
Step 1 Place the ice in the beaker on the tripod. • glass beaker
Step 2 Heat the water with the Bunsen burner until it boils. • ice cubes
Step 3 Observe the physical changes that take place and record your observations. • gauze
• tripod
MODULE 4
DiSCUSSiON
As the water changes from solid to liquid and gas, the molecules absorb
energy. Table 1 on page 126 shows the observations of the movement of water
during each phase.
Unit 1 Physical change 125

Table 1 Physical changes of water
Phase Solid Liquid Gas

Physical state Ice Water Water vapour
Illustration
showing
particle
arrangement
Energy Low High
Conservation of mass and number of atoms

Water can change state from a solid to a liquid to a gas. The mass of water
will not change. Atoms or molecules are not changed or destroyed during
a physical change. The mass and the number of atoms and molecules of a
substance always stay the same.
Physical or chemical change

We can differentiate between physical and chemical change using
different techniques.
Distillation, filtration and paper chromatography are techniques that are
useful for separating two substances with different physical properties. During
a physical change the physical properties of a substance do not change. We
can therefore verify if a substance undergoes a physical or chemical change by
using separation techniques.
Activity 3 Answer questions on physical change
1 Ice melts to form liquid water.

1.1 Describe this physical change in terms of the arrangement of the particles.
1.2 Describe the energy change that takes place when ice melts.
1.3 Liquid water is heated to form a gas. Name this process.
1.4 Name the opposite of the process in Question 1.3. Explain whether
energy is absorbed or released in this process.
2 A solid air freshener is opened. The solid sublimes to form a gas which
quickly spreads throughout the room.
Exam words 2.1 Is the sublimation of the solid to a gas a physical change? Give a reason
describe: give details of for your answer.
something in sentence form 2.2 Is energy absorbed or released in this process?
without any explanation 2.3 Compare the following for the solid air freshener and the gas:
name: write down the 2.3.1 arrangement of the particles
names of the things asked 2.3.2 strength of the intermolecular forces
for with no explanation
2.3.3 energy of the particles.
compare: describe what is
2.4 During the phase change the temperature of the substance does not
about two or more things or change. Explain why the temperature does not change even though an
situations energy change is taking place.
126

Unit 2 Chemical change
Chemical change is usually as a result of a chemical reaction.
A chemical change is a change in which atoms are rearranged during a

chemical reaction to form new substances.
A chemical reaction is a process in which one set of substances called reactants

is converted to a new set of substances called products.
The difference between physical and chemical change can be demonstrated
by mixing reactants and observing if a product is formed.
Observe physical and

chemical change
In this demonstration you will observe and demonstrate the difference
between physical and chemical change by mixing sulfur with iron.
METHOD MaTErialS
Step 1 Mix the iron filings and sulfur powder in a crucible. Look at the • iron filings
mixture and record your observations. • sulfur powder
Step 2 Use the magnet to separate the two elements of the mixture. • magnet
Step 3 Put the iron filings back into the crucible with the sulfur powder. • retort stand with
Step 4 Place the crucible on the pipe clay triangle and heat the mixture pipe clay triangle
strongly with the Bunsen burner. • crucible
Step 5 Let the mixture cool down and carefully remove the crucible with the • tongs
tongs. Look at the mixture and record your observations. • Bunsen burner
Step 6 Try to separate the mixture by bringing the magnet close to the new
substance. Record your observations.
Caution
• It is difficult to remove iron filings from a magnet, so try to keep either a piece of plastic or a
piece of paper between the magnet and the filings.
• The reaction mixture gets very hot. Remember to handle the crucible with tongs.
DiSCUSSiON
Iron and sulfur can be mixed at room temperature and no reaction takes place.
The iron retains its magnetic properties. Sulfur is non-magnetic. We can show
that no reaction takes place when we separate the mixture with a magnet.
When the mixture is heated the following reaction occurs: Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)
• The iron and sulfur combine together to form a compound called iron
sulfide. This compound is unlike the iron or the sulfur it is made from.
MODULE 4
• Iron is a silver-grey solid, sulfur is a yellow powder and iron sulfide is black. Figure 1 Set up for Practical
• Iron is magnetic, but iron sulfide is not affected by a magnet. demonstration 1.
These changes show that a chemical change occurred.
Unit 2 Chemical change 127

Characteristics of chemical change
We need evidence before we can say that a reaction has occurred.
When we mix iron and sulfur we demonstrate that the mixture remains
unchanged by showing that the magnetic property of iron is unchanged. The
mixture can be separated by physical separation techniques.
When we heat the mixture we observe two changes: a change in colour of
the substance and a change in properties. We therefore have evidence that a
chemical reaction occurred.
Evidence of a chemical change includes:

• a colour change
• the formation of a gas
• the formation of a solid (precipitation)
• a change in temperature (release or absorption of heat)
• larger energy changes than for physical changes.
New words Types of chemical reactions

During chemical reactions, the individual atoms are rearranged as new
decomposition: breaks
down into component parts compounds are formed. Different types of chemical reactions include:
synthesise: to make or form
• decomposition reactions
• synthesis reactions
catalyst: substance that
changes the speed (rate) of • exchange reactions.
a chemical reaction without
Table 1 Types of chemical reactions
being permanently changed
itself
Type of chemical
Illustration of reaction Symbolic representation
reaction
Decomposition
reaction A B C A B C ABC → AB + C
Synthesis reaction
A B A B A + B → AB
Exchange reaction
A B C A B C A + BC → AB + C
A B C D A C B D AB + CD → AC + BD
In this unit we discuss decomposition and synthesis reactions.
Reaction conditions
In some reactions heat or a catalyst is needed to start the reaction. We write
the reaction condition above or below the arrow in an equation.
The Greek symbol Δ (delta) means that a high temperature is required.

Δ
So: Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)
128

Decomposition reactions
In a decomposition reaction, a single compound breaks down to give two or A B C A B C
more simpler substances. For example, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) decomposes Figure 2 Representation of a
into water (H2O) and oxygen gas (O2). decomposition reaction.
During a decomposition reaction there is a change in the number
molecules. The number of molecules increases as the reactants form the
products. However, the total number of atoms and mass involved in the
chemical change will not change.
Observe the decomposition of hydrogen

Experiment 2
peroxide
In this experiment you will observe the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) as it breaks down into water (H2O) and oxygen gas (O2) using
manganese dioxide (MnO2) as a catalyst.
METHOD MaTErialS
Step 1 Set up equipment as per Figure 3. • 100 ml hydrogen
Step 2 Fill the water trough or glass bowl with water. peroxide (H2O2)
Step 3 Add 5 ml manganese dioxide powder to the Buchner flask. Push a • Buchner flask fitted
thistle funnel through a stopper and close the flask tightly. with a stopper and
Step 4 Add the hydrogen peroxide solution to the manganese dioxide through rubber delivery tube
the thistle funnel. This acts as a catalyst in the decomposition reaction. • thistle funnel
Step 5 Capture the gas that comes off in the test tube which has been filled • 5 ml manganese
with water and inverted in the trough. The gas displaces the water. dioxide powder
Step 6 Remove the test tube from the water trough and close it with a cork. (MnO2)
Step 7 Use a glowing splinter to test the gas. Record your results. • test tube
Step 8 Carefully touch the Buchner flask when the reaction is complete. • 500 ml water in a
Record changes in temperature. trough (or basin)
DiSCUSSiON • wooden splinter
• thermometer
thistle funnel
Caution
Concentrated solutions
oxygen gas
Buchner flask of hydrogen peroxide will
irritate skin and eyes.
Handle them with care.
hydrogen
peroxide
water trough
manganese
dioxide powder
Did you know?
Hydrogen peroxide is used
Figure 3 Set up for Experiment 2. as a bleaching agent in
hair dye.
• Hydrogen peroxide is decomposed into two substances.
MODULE 4
• The increase in temperature shows that this is a chemical reaction and

energy is released.
MnO2
• The reaction is: 2H2O2(l) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

Synthesis reactions
A synthesis reaction is the opposite of a decomposition reaction. During
synthesis reactions, reactants react to form a new product. When your iron
New word gate rusts, a synthesis reaction is taking place. The iron reacts with oxygen to
combustion: chemical form rust (iron oxide). The reaction is:
reaction in which a 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
substance reacts with The reactants can be elements or compounds. For example, as hydrogen
oxygen with the production
of heat and light
gas (H2) burns in the oxygen (O2) in the air, this is called combustion. Water
(H2O) is the chemical which is formed in this reaction:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
During a synthesis reaction there is a change in the number of
A B A B molecules. The number of molecules decreases as the reactants
form the products. However, the total number of atoms and mass
Figure 4 A synthesis reaction
involved in the chemical change will not change.
Synthesise water from oxygen and

Experiment 3
hydrogen gas
In this experiment you will make hydrogen gas (H2) and ignite the gas in
oxygen (O2) to form water (H2O).
Materials METHOD
• zinc granules Step 1 Set up equipment as seen in Figure 5.
• 30 ml of 1M Step 2 Carefully add a little hydrochloric acid to the boiling tube and place a
hydrochloric acid few zinc granules into the tube.
(HCl) Step 3 Close the boiling tube with a stopper to which a delivery tube is attached.
• boiling tube Step 4 Capture the gas that comes off in a dry test tube by the downward
• rubber delivery tube displacement of air.
• test tube with Step 5 Remove the delivery tube and keep the test tube inverted so that the
stopper hydrogen does not escape.
Step 6 Carefully test the gas in the test tube by lighting it with a match. The
mixture will explode with a popping sound. Look to see if there is now
Caution any water on the inside of the test tube.
• Acids are corrosive. Use

diluted acid solution (as
specified) and handle
with care.
• Do not point the test
tube in the direction of
another person when
testing for hydrogen.
Figure 5 Hydrogen gas is collected from zinc Figure 6 Hydrogen reacts

metal reacting with hydrochloric acid. explosively with oxygen in the air.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

• Water is formed as water vapour (H2O, g) which cools on the glass of the
test tube and forms liquid water.
• Hydrogen mixed with air in the test tube causes an explosion. This is an
indication of the energy change that is involved in a chemical reaction.
It is sufficient for hydrogen and oxygen to be used as rocket fuel.
• The reaction is: 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
130

Energy in chemical reactions
Physical and chemical changes involve transfers of energy. In a chemical
change the transfer of energy is far greater than in a physical change.
Energy can be absorbed or released as light, electricity or heat. For example,
burning magnesium releases light energy but photosynthesis absorbs it. The
chemical reactions in a torch cell release electrical energy, while an electric
current passed through water causes a chemical reaction. Burning cooking gas
releases heat but cooking food absorbs heat. We can indicate the transfer of
energy in an equation. For example:
Burning magnesium: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) + energy
Photosynthesis: 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy → C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)
Burning gas: C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) + energy
Reactants require energy to break the bonds in the reactant molecule and free
the atoms. Energy given out with the products is energy given out when new
bonds form between atoms and more stable molecules are made. The energy
appearing in the equations is the difference between bond breaking energy
and bond forming energy.
Two sorts of reactions

New words
If more energy is released than absorbed, the reaction is called exothermic. exothermic: products have
If more energy is absorbed than released, the reaction is called endothermic. less energy than reactants;
there is an overall release of
Some reactions require activation energy to get started but after that, they are
energy (heat)
exothermic, for example lighting a match.
endothermic: products
Whatever happens, the energy is not created or destroyed, it is merely have more energy than the
changing form – being released from storage or being stored. reactants; there is an overall
absorption of energy (heat)
Activity 4 Answer questions on chemical change
1 List four characteristics of chemical change.

2 Two substances A and B are mixed in a beaker. Explain how you can test
if a chemical change occurs. Exam words
3 Zinc is added to a blue solution of copper sulfate. The products of the
list: write the names,
reaction are a colourless solution of zinc sulfate and a reddish brown deposit
of copper. Is this a physical or a chemical change? Explain your answer. one below the other, each
4 Define the terms synthesis reaction and decomposition reaction. on a new line
5 State if the following reactions are synthesis or decomposition reactions: explain: describe giving
Δ reasons
5.1 2Ag2O(s) → 4Ag(s) + O2(g)
define: explain accurately
5.2 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) to give full meaning, as in a
Δ dictionary
5.3 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
state: write a piece of
Δ
5.4 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) information, as asked
MODULE 4

Unit 3 The conservation of atoms and mass
Experimental discovery
In 1774, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) used an accurate
chemical balance to weigh chemicals in an experiment. He found that, if you
made chemical reactions take place inside a sealed container, then the mass of
the reactants was exactly the same as the mass of the products after the reaction
was finished. He called this discovery the Law of Conservation of Mass.
The Law of Conservation of Mass

Antoine Lavoisier said that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products
equals the total mass of the reactants. This means that no atoms are created or
destroyed in chemical reactions, they just form different combinations.
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that the total mass of substances
in a closed system remains constant, no matter what processes are acting
inside the system. In chemistry, the mass of products formed by a chemical
reaction equals the mass of reactants that react.
Experiment 1 Investigate and verify the Law of

Conservation of Mass
In this experiment you will investigate and verify the Law of Conservation of
Mass for chemical changes.
Materials MEthod
• chemical mass meter Reaction of lead nitrate and sodium
• three 100 ml beakers iodide solutions
• 1 M solution lead Step 1 Fill one beaker about quarter-full with lead
nitrate (Pb(NO3)2, aq) nitrate solution, and another beaker about
• 1 M solution sodium quarter-full with sodium iodide solution.
iodide (NaI, aq) Step 2 Put both beakers on the mass meter and
• Cal-C-Vita tablet record the reading.
Step 3 Remove the beakers from the balance and
add the contents of the one to that of the
other, without spilling.
Step 4 Put both beakers back on the balance and Figure 1 Reaction between
record the reading. lead nitrate and sodium iodide.
Caution Cal-C-Vita tablet in water

Step 1 Fill one beaker about quarter-full with water.
Lead nitrate is poisonous.
Do not pour it down Step 2 Drop a Cal-C-Vita tablet in the beaker. Place the beaker on the mass meter
the drain, but store the and record the reading immediately after placing the tablet in water.
remaining solution in a
Step 3 Wait until the Cal-C-Vita tablet has dissolved in the water. Then place
safe place.
the beaker back on the balance and record the reading.
132

rESUlTS
reaction of lead nitrate and sodium iodide solutions
• The reaction between lead nitrate and sodium iodide produces a bright
yellow solid compound. The equation for the reaction is:
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
• The mass of both beakers before and after the reaction is the same.
reaction of Cal-C-Vita tablet in water

• The mass of the beakers before and after the reaction is not the same.
• The reaction between Cal-C-Vita and water produces a gas (CO2).
DiSCUSSiON
The practical results only confirm the law for the reaction between lead nitrate
and sodium iodide solutions. This is because gas escapes from the beaker when
Cal-C-Vita reacts with water. So, the Law of Conservation of Mass cannot be
illustrated if some of the products are allowed to leave the container.
alTErNaTiVE aCTiViTiES
Use the same apparatus and mix hydrochloric acid (HCl) with sodium
New word
hydroxide (NaOH). The two solutions are an acid and a base respectively. Add
an indicator, such as bromothymol blue, to the acid. When the chemicals are indicator: substance used
mixed, the colour of the mixture changes from yellow to blue. This shows that to show the presence of a
chemical substance or ion
the base has reacted with all the acid.
by its colour
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
The reading on the mass meter will confirm the conservation of mass.
Verifying the conservation of mass using relative mass

The mass of the reactants in an equation equals the mass of the products,
because the number of atoms on the left hand side of the equation equals the
number on the right hand side.
We can therefore use relative mass to verify the Law of Conservation of Mass.
In Module 1, Unit 5 you learnt about the relative atomic masses (Ar) of
elements. Then, in Unit 11 of Module 1 we discussed that relative atomic
masses combine when a compound is formed. This is the relative molecular
mass (Mr) of a compound.
Worked example 1
Verify the Law of Conservation of Mass in a reaction between lead nitrate
and sodium iodide solutions.
Answer Variables
Total relative mass before and after the reaction: Mr Pb(NO3)2 = 331,2
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) Mr NaI = 149,9
MODULE 4
331,2 + (2  149,9) → 461,0 + (2  85,0) Mr PbI2 = 461,0

631,0 → 631,0 Mr NaNO3 = 85,0
The mass of the reactants is equal to the mass of the products.
Unit 3 The conservation of atoms and mass 133

Applying the Law of Conservation of Mass
If we know the mass of reactants we can use the Law of Conservation of Mass
to determine the mass of the products of the reaction.
Worked example 2
Use the Law of Conservation of Mass to determine how much copper(II)
oxide is formed when 50 g of copper metal reacts with excess oxygen gas.
Answer
Step 1 Write a balanced 2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)
chemical equation
Step 2 Calculate the relative 2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)
mass before and after 2(63,5) + (16 + 16) → 2(63,5 + 16)
the reaction 127 + 32 → 159
Step 3 Use the mass ratios to 127 g Cu : 159 g CuO
calculate the mass of 50 g Cu : ? CuO
50
the products Mass CuO = 159 
127
Step 4 Answer A total of 62,6 g of copper oxide (CuO) is

formed.
Figure 2 The Law of Conservation of Mass
Conservation of atoms and non-conservation of

molecules in a chemical reaction
The total mass in a reaction stays the same, but because the atoms are
rearranged the number and type of molecule can change.
Illustrate the conservation of atoms in

a chemical reaction
In this practical activity you will use models to illustrate the conservation of
atoms in the chemical reaction:
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
134

METHOD MaTErialS
Step 1 Build molecules representing lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2 ) and sodium • 13 marbles, plastic
iodide (NaI). Use a different colour for each atom within the formula pellets, discs or
units. (Remember to build two sodium iodide formula units.) bottle tops in five
Step 2 Rearrange the marbles (or other material) to represent the products. different colours or
patterns.
DiSCUSSiON • Prestik
When the marbles are rearranged from the reactants to the products all
marbles are used. This illustrates the conservation of atoms.
alTErNaTiVE
Represent the atoms and molecules by drawing coloured circles with lines
representing bonds.
Answer questions and apply the

Activity 3
Law of Conservation of Mass
1 The equation for Lavoisier’s experiment is as follows:
glass vessel + tin + air → glass vessel + tin oxide + remaining air
Before heating Lavoisier weighed the reactants. To prove the Law of
Conservation of Mass, what observation would Lavoisier have made
when he weighed the products?
2 Copper carbonate (CuCO3) reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl).
The equation for the reaction is:
CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2.1 Is it possible to verify the Law of Conservation of Mass by measuring
the mass before and after the reaction using an open beaker? Explain
your answer.
2.2 Verify the Law of Conservation of Mass by calculating the relative
masses before and after the reaction.
3 If 2,5 g of calcium metal (Ca) reacts completely with 10 g of bromine gas
(Br2), what will be the mass of the product (CaBr2) formed?
4 Use the Law of Conservation of Mass to determine how much
magnesium oxide is formed when 0,455 g of magnesium metal reacts
completely with 0,3 g of oxygen gas according to this equation: Exam words
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
draw: show in a visual way
5 Draw atoms and molecules for each of the following reactions. Use
calculate: work out
coloured circles and lines to represent atoms and molecules involved as
following a method
reactants or products. Show how particles rearrange during the reaction.
5.1 Fe(s) + S(l) → FeS(s)
5.2 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
5.3 4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K 2O(s)
5.4 Ca(s) + Br2(l) → CaBr2(s)
5.5 CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)
5.6 Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) → FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
5.7 2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) → 6Η2Ο(g) + 4CO2(g)
MODULE 4
5.8 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

3 12,5 g; 4 0,755 g
Unit 3 The conservation of atoms and mass 135

Unit 4 Law of Constant Composition
Experimental discovery
In the beginning of the 19th century, Joseph Proust – a French scientist – saw
that, no matter how you prepare a chemical compound, it always contains
the same elements. They were always joined in the same proportion by mass.
Proust stated these findings in the Law of Constant Composition.
Did you know? The Law of Constant Composition

The chemical formula of
If we analyse two samples of water, we will find the same proportions of
the gas methane is CH4.
John Dalton was working hydrogen and oxygen by mass. In 10 g of water, 1,119 g is hydrogen and in 27 g
with methane gas when he of water 3,021 g is hydrogen. For each sample the proportion of hydrogen is
came to the idea of atoms
in 1808. Over two hundred
the same: 11,19%.
years later all methane The ratio of two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom is fixed for all water
gas in the world still has molecules. In water the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is fixed at 2 : 1.
the same formula (CH4)
because in methane the
ratio of carbon atoms to The Law of Constant Composition states that, no matter how a chemical
hydrogen atoms is fixed at compound is prepared, it always contains the same elements in the same
1 : 4.
proportions by mass.
Worked example 1
A 10 g sample of magnesium reacts with oxygen to form 16,6 g
magnesium oxide. In a second sample 14,4 g of magnesium also reacts
with oxygen. Use the Law of Constant Composition to determine the mass
of magnesium oxide formed in the second sample.
Variables Answer
10,0 g Mg
Sample 1 Proportion of magnesium in magnesium oxide in Sample 1 =
16,6 g MgO
Mg = 10,0 g The proportion is the same in all samples:
MgO = 16,6 g Mg (Sample 1) Mg (Sample 2)
=
MgO (Sample 1) MgO (Sample 2)
Sample 2
Mg = 14,4 g
Rearrange the equation to determine the mass of magnesium oxide in
MgO = ?
Sample 2:
Mg (Sample 2) MgO (Sample 1)
MgO (Sample 2) = 
Mg (Sample 1) 1
MgO (Sample 2) = ( 10,0

14,4
)  16,6
MgO (Sample 2) = 23,9 g
136

Investigate and verify the Law of
Experiment 1
Constant Composition
In this experiment you will verify the Law of Constant Composition by
investigating the amount of precipitate produced from ions in solution.
METHOD MaTErialS
Step 1 Use the pipette dropper to put an equal amount of the silver nitrate • dilute silver nitrate
and sodium chloride solutions into a test tube. This reaction occurs: (AgNO3) solution
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s) • sodium chloride
Step 2 Shake and allow the mixture to settle. A white precipitate of AgCl(s) (NaCl) solution
will settle at the bottom of the tube. Filter and dry the precipitate on • dilute lead(II) nitrate
filter paper. Record the mass of the precipitate. (Pb(NO3)2) solution
Step 3 Repeat Steps 1 and 2, but this time put twice the volume of sodium • sodium iodide (NaI)
chloride solution into the test tube as before. Allow the precipitate to solution
settle. Notice and record the amount of the precipitate. • iron(III) chloride
Step 3 Repeat Steps 1 to 3 using lead(II) nitrate and sodium iodide solutions. (FeCl3) solution
This reaction occurs: • dilute sodium
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaI(aq) → 2NaNO3(aq) + PbI2(s) hydroxide (NaOH)
Step 4 Repeat Steps 1 to 3 using iron(III) chloride and sodium hydroxide solution
solutions. This reaction occurs: • six test tubes
FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → 3NaCl(aq) + Fe(OH)3(s) • test tube rack
• six pipette droppers
• In the reaction each silver ion bonds with one chloride ion to form a precipitate
(AgCl). The 1 : 1 ratio of atoms is fixed. Adding more sodium chloride solution Caution
does not increase the amount of the precipitate of silver chloride.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
• The iron(III) ion bonds with three hydroxide ions, and when every can damage the skin and
iron(III) ion has formed a solid (Fe(OH)3), adding more hydroxide ions will eyes. Use diluted solutions
not make more solid. and handle with care.
These reactions demonstrate the Law of Constant Composition.
Answer questions on the Law of

Activity 2
Constant Composition
1 A sample of magnesium sulfide (MgS) is analysed and found to be made
of 12 g of magnesium and 16 g of sulfur. A second sample of the same
compound is analysed and found to contain 36 g of magnesium and x g
of sulfur. What is the value of x?
2 People used to extract silver, atomic mass 108, from the silver bromide
(AgBr) in X-ray photographs. If bromine has an atomic mass of 80, what
mass of silver can you extract from 564 g of silver bromide?
3 The fixed ratio for CO is 1 : 1. What is the fixed ratio of the atoms in the
following compounds?
3.1 CaCl2 3.4 CBr4
MODULE 4
3.2 Na2O 3.5 Al2S3

3.3 N2O4 3.6 NH3

1 48 g; 2 324 g
Unit 4 The Law of Constant Composition 137

Unit 5 Balanced chemical equations
We know that hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to form water. We can
represent the chemical change that occurs by using a chemical equation:
H2 + O2 → H2O
The reactants are separated from the products by an arrow. The arrow
indicates that the reaction changes the reactants into the products.
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that the total mass of the products
equals the total mass of the reactants. This means that no atoms are created or
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
If we look at the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen we can see that
there are 2 atoms of oxygen on the left hand side of the equation. On the
right hand side, however, there is only one oxygen atom.
The chemical equation needs to obey the Law of Conservation of Mass. To
do that we balance the equation.
How to balance equations

To balance an equation, follow the guidelines below:
Step 1 Write the unbalanced equation

• Reactants are listed on the left hand side of the equation.
• Products are listed on the right hand side of the equation.
• Reactants and products are separated by putting an arrow between them
to show the direction of the reaction.
Step 2 Balance the equation

To get the same number of atoms of every element on each side of the
equation, use the following guidelines:
• If possible, start by balancing an element that is found in only one
compound on each side of the equation.
• Balance chemical formulas by placing coefficients in front of them. A
coefficient is the number in front of an atom or molecule that indicates
how many of them there are. By writing a coefficient in front of a
molecule you multiply all the atoms in the formula.
• Once one element is balanced, proceed to balance another and continue
until all elements are balanced.
• When one of the reactants exists as a free element, balance this element last.
Step 3 Indicate the physical states of the reactants and the products
• Write letters in brackets just after the formulas in the equation to describe
the physical state of the substance:
» Use (g) for gaseous substances
» Use (s) for solids
» Use (l) for liquids
» Use (aq) for an aqueous solution or a solution in water, usually of ions.
138

Worked example 1
Balance the equation: H2 + O2 → H2O
METHOD
Step 1 Write the H2 + O2 → H2O
unbalanced
equation
Step 2 Balance the Balance two atoms of oxygen on the left hand side by changing the
equation coefficient (multiple of oxygen) on the right hand side.
H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Balance four hydrogen atoms on the right hand side by changing the
coefficient (multiple of 2 hydrogen) on the left hand side.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Step 3 Indicate the 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
physical states of
the reactants and
the products
Additional guidelines
When you balance equations:
• Never add in extra products to try to balance the equation.
For example: If an equation is given as H2 + O2 → H2O, do not add extra
products. Writing the equation as H2 + O2 → H2O + O is incorrect.
• Never change the composition of a compound. To balance an equation,
you change the coefficients, not the subscripts in the formulae.
For example: If an equation is given as Na + O2 → Na2O, do not change the
subscripts. Writing the equation as Na + O2 → NaO2 is incorrect.
Worked example 2
Balance the equation: Fe + Cl2 → FeCl3
METHOD
Step 1 Write the Fe + Cl2 → FeCl3
unbalanced
equation
Step 2 Balance the Balance the atoms of chlorine by changing the coefficient. A common
equation multiple of 6 will balance the number of chlorine atoms. Then 3Cl2 and
2FeCl3 gives the same number of chlorine atoms on each side.
Fe + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3
Balance the iron atoms by writing a coefficient of 2 on the left hand side.
2Fe + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3
Step 3 Indicate the 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(s)
MODULE 4
physical states of
the reactants and
the products
Unit 5 Balanced chemical equations 139

Worked example 3
Balance the equation: C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Method
Step 1 Write the C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
unbalanced
equation
Step 2 Balance the Balance the atoms of hydrogen on the right
equation hand side by changing the coefficient.
C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + 6H2O
Balance the atoms of carbon on the right hand
side by changing the coefficient.
C6H12O6 + O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Balance the oxygen gas by writing a coefficient
of 6 on the left hand side. (Hint: O2 exists as a
free element, balance this element last.)
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Step 3 Indicate the C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
physical states of
the reactants and
the products
Figure 1 The number of atoms on each side of a balanced equation is the same.
The Stock system

The Stock system uses Roman numerals, such as (II) or (IV), to tell us the
number of bonds an atom is forming in a compound. It is useful when there
are different compounds using the same atoms.
For example: N2O is called nitrogen(I) oxide, NO is called nitrogen(II) oxide,
NO2 is called nitrogen(IV) oxide.
140

Activity 1 Balance chemical equations
1 Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions:

1.1 hydrogen (H2) + chlorine (Cl2) → hydrogen chloride (HCl)
1.2 carbon (C) + oxygen (O2) → carbon dioxide (CO2)
1.3 sodium (Na) + chlorine (Cl2) → sodium chloride (NaCl)
1.4 zinc (Zn) + iodine (I2) → zinc iodide (ZnI2)
1.5 magnesium (Mg) + sulfur (S) → magnesium sulfide (MgS)
Activity 2 Describe terms and bonds
1 Write a definition for “diatomic”. In terms of your definition, state which

of the following chemical formulae represent diatomic molecules:
1.1 H2 1.5 I2
1.2 SO2 1.6 CO2
1.3 CO 1.7 O3
1.4 F2 1.8 N2O2
2 Write a definition for chemical formula. In terms of your definition,
write chemical formulae that represent the following compounds where
oxygen always has a valency of 2–:
2.1 iron(II) oxide
2.2 iron(III) oxide
2.3 carbon(IV) oxide
2.4 sulfur(VI) oxide
2.5 nitrogen(IV) oxide
Interpreting balanced chemical equations

A balanced equation has the same number of atoms of each type on both sides
of the equation. We need to balance a chemical equation before we can carry
out a quantitative analysis of the reactants and the products.
Make models to represent

balanced equations
1 Make models to represent the reactants described in Activity 1.
• Use marbles or bottle tops to represent the atoms and molecules of the
reactants and products. Alternatively, draw molecules using different
coloured circles.
• Use Prestick to stick atoms together.
2 Move the models to represent the products according to the chemical reaction
that takes place in each activity. Then answer the following questions:
2.1 Are the numbers of each type of atom conserved during the reactions?
MODULE 4
2.2 Will the mass of the reactants be the same as the mass of the products?
2.3 Is the number of molecules conserved during the reactions?

Activity 4 Balance equations
1 Write balanced reaction equations, including symbols describing the

physical state of the chemicals, for the following reactions:
1.1 Ca + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2
1.2 MnO2 + HCl → MnCl2 + Cl2 + H2O
1.3 NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + NO
1.4 Fe3O4 + H2 → Fe + H2O
1.5 C4H10 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
1.6 Mg + CO2 → MgO + C
1.7 NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O
1.8 H2S + SO2 → S + H2O
1.9 NaHCO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2
2 Balance the following equations, using chemical symbols in place of words:
2.1 Copper(II) oxide + hydrogen → copper metal + water
2.2 Sodium metal + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
2.3 Iron + chlorine → iron(III) chloride
2.4 Carbon + bromine → carbon tetrabromide
Compare the amount of product with the

Experiment 5
amount of reactant
In this experiment you will repeat a chemical reaction changing the amount,
or the mass, of the reactants each time. The reaction is:
2NaHCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
MaTErialS METHOD
• boiling tube fitted Step 1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.
with a stopper and Step 2 Measure 2 ml sodium hydrogen carbonate solution into the boiling tube
long delivery tube and have 2 ml sulfuric acid solution ready in a pipette dropper.
• water bowl Step 3 Mix the solutions and quickly stopper the boiling tube.
• three test tubes Step 4 The gas being produced is carbon dioxide, also called carbon(IV) oxide.
• two pipette droppers Once a test tube is filled move the delivery tube, release the gas, fill it
• dilute sodium with water, invert it and use it again. Count how many test tubes of
hydrogen carbonate gas will result from mixing 2 ml of each of the solutions.
(NaHCO3) solution Step 5 Repeat the experiment but this time use 4 ml of each of the solutions.
• dilute sulfuric acid Step 6 Repeat again using 6 ml and then 8 ml of each solution. Count how
(H2SO4) many test tubes of gas you will fill in each reaction.

Caution • As the quantity and the mass of the
reactants increases, the quantity of
Acids are corrosive. Use
diluted acid solutions and the gas produced also increases.
handle with care. • The amount of product is related to
the amount of reactant according to
the balanced chemical equation.
Figure 2 Apparatus for collecting gas which This shows that mass is conserved during
is a product of the reaction. the reaction.
142 Module 4 Chemical change (Part 1)

Interpretation of balanced chemical equations
In summary:
• Atoms are conserved during chemical reactions, but molecules are not.
• Mass of reactants is conserved during chemical reactions, so the mass of
products is the same as the mass of the original reactants.
• Chemical reactions release or absorb much greater amounts of energy than
are involved in physical changes of chemicals.
Activity 6 Revise chemical reactions
1 Answer the following multiple choice questions. Write only the letter
(A – D) of the answer.
1.1 The chemical equation shows calcium carbonate being heated.
Δ
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Which of these statements best describes the mass of the products if
100 g of CaCO3 is heated in an open beaker?
a The difference in the product’s masses is equal to 100 g.
B The sum of the products masses is less than 100 g.
C The mass of CaO product in the beaker is equal to 100 g.
D The sum of the product’s masses is equal to 100 g.
1.2 The ionic compounds that result from combining Group 2 with Group
16 elements have a 1 : 1 ratio because …
a Group 2 elements are electrically neutral.
B Group 2 elements have 2 valence electrons.
C Group 16 elements have 2 valence electrons.
D Group 16 elements have a valency of 2+.
1.3 In a certain material that is used to remove water from other materials,
two atoms of phosphorous are always present for every five atoms of
oxygen. The molecular mass of the compound is 142 u. What mass of
phosphorous is present in the compound?
a 80 u
B 32 u
C 62 u
D 16 u
1.4 What is the balanced equation for the reaction shown below?
a Fe + 2Cl → FeCl2
MODULE 4
B Fe + Cl → FeCl
C 2Fe + 3Cl2→ 2FeCl3
D 2Fe + 6Cl → 2FeCl3

Module
4 Summary
Physical change • Chemical reactions can be synthesis,

• The kinetic molecular theory explains the decomposition or exchange reactions.
behaviour of matter. • In a decomposition reaction, a single
• A physical change is accompanied by a change compound breaks down to give two or more
in the arrangement of the particles and the simpler substances.
absorption or release of energy. The change of • In a synthesis reactions, reactants combine to
energy is small in comparison with the energy form a new product.
changes of chemical reactions. • In a chemical change the transfer of energy
• Molecules in a solid are held in position by involved is usually far greater than in a physical
strong intermolecular forces which act between change. Energy can be absorbed or released as
molecules. Their movement is restricted to light, electricity or heat.
vibrations around a fixed point. • In an exothermic reaction, energy is released.
• Particles in a solid are arranged in an orderly • In an endothermic reaction, energy is absorbed.
pattern. A solid has a definite shape and volume.
• The transition from a solid to a liquid happens The conservation of atoms and mass
when the energy of the particles overcomes the • The Law of Conservation of Mass says that
intermolecular forces that hold the particles the mass of substances formed by a chemical
together. reaction is the same as the mass of substances
• Molecules in a liquid have weak intermolecular entering into the reaction.
forces. They move in a random pattern. • In a reaction the total mass in a reaction stays
• A liquid has a definite volume but no fixed shape. the same, but because the atoms are rearranged
• When a liquid is heated, particles break free and the number and type of molecule can change.
change to the gaseous phase. • The Law of Constant Composition states
• Molecules in a gas have very weak that, no matter how a chemical compound is
intermolecular forces. They travel at high speed prepared, it always contains the same elements
colliding with each other. in the same proportions by mass.
• Particles in a gas are far apart. A gas does not • In a balanced equation, reactants are listed on
have definite shape or volume. It fills up the the left hand side and products on the right
container it is in. hand side of the equation. An arrow separates
• Mass, number of atoms and molecules are reactants and products and shows the direction
conserved during physical changes. of the reaction.
• The physical states of the reactants and the
Chemical change products are listed in brackets after each
• A chemical change is a change that involves the formula. We use:
transformation of one or more substances into one » (g) for gas
or more different substances. Chemical change is » (s) for solids
usually as a result of a chemical reaction. » (l) for liquids
• A chemical reaction is a process in which one » (aq) for an aqueous solution or a solution
set of substances called reactants is converted to in water.
a new set of substances called products. • The stock system uses Roman numerals to
• Evidence of a chemical change includes colour notate the number of bonds formed.
change, formation of a gas or solid and a
change in temperature.
144
Module 4 Summary

Module
Physical and chemical change B How is the boiling point of the water
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following affected after both samples are heated?
descriptions: C How does the volume of the water in the
1.1 Characteristics of matter that can be seen container effect the rate of evaporation?
through direct observation such as density, D How does the shape of the container
melting point, and boiling point. affect the rate of evaporation?
1.2 Transforms one type of matter into another 3 An athlete sweats while training. This process
kind, which may have different properties. helps to cool down the body. The cooling
1.3 The type of chemical reaction in which process will be more rapid if a breeze blows.
potassium chlorate is heated to form The process of cooling the body by sweating
potassium chloride and oxygen gas. and a breeze blowing is a physical change.
2 Answer the following multiple choice questions. 3.1 Define the term physical change.
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. 3.2 Explain how the process mentioned above
2.1 If a small amount of alcohol is left in a open cools the athlete’s body.
container, it will slowly evaporate. Which 3.3 Copy the diagram below into your book.
diagram shows the correct change in the During the cooling process the molecules
arrangement of the molecules of the alcohol undergo a phase change. Use circles (O) to
as it evaporates? represent the molecules during each phase of
the cooling process. Indicate the name of the
phase change above the arrow.
3.4 An athlete is given the following advice: “Do

not wet your head and then put a cap or hat on
2.2 The table shows the time for water to while running in the heat. You will overheat”.
evaporate from identical containers. Which of Is this good or bad advice? Briefly explain
the following would be the best investigation your choice.
question to ask before developing a suitable 4 Classify each of these as a physical or
hypothesis? chemical change. Briefly explain your choice.
Container A B 4.1 Water is absorbed by a paper towel.
Volume (ml) 25 25
4.2 A piece of an apple rots on the ground.
4.3 A plant undergoes photosynthesis and turns
Temperature (°C) –15 25
sunlight, CO2, and water into sugar and oxygen.
Time (hours) 72 24
4.4 Eggs turn into an omelet.
4.5 Milk goes sour.
A How does temperature influence the rate
of evaporation?

Module
5 Study the illustration below and answer the 2.3 Use the periodic table to prove that the Law
following questions: of Conservation of Mass is obeyed.
2.4 In this reaction two substances are in the
 A

solid state while the other two are aqueous.
2.4.1 Which substances are in the solid state?

C
2.4.2 Define the term aqueous and list the
B
aqueous substances.
2.5 Is this process a chemical or physical change?
5.1 Is Process A showing a physical or chemical Explain your answer.
change? 3 Balance and classify each of the following
5.2 Give three reasons for your answer in chemical reactions as synthesis or
Question 5.1. decomposition:
5.3 What is process B called? 3.1 magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
5.4 Is energy absorbed or released during process B? 3.2 P4 + O2 → P2O5
5.5 Is process C showing physical or chemical 3.3 HgO → Hg + O2
change? 3.4 (NH4)2Cr2O7 → Cr2O3 + N2 + H2O
5.6 Give two reasons for your answer. 4 Suppose you are camping outside and you
are really cold. You gather about 50 kg of
Law of Conservation of Mass, Law of Constant wood to start a camp fire for the night. In
the morning, you put out the flame and
Composition and balanced equations
notice that most of the wood you gathered
has turned to ash. You weigh the ash and it
descriptions: (Note that a term can consist of
weighs 30 kg. Has the Law of Conservation
more than one word.)
of Mass not been followed in this reaction?
1.1 The substances which react together to form
Explain your answer.
products.
5 Nitrogen and oxygen can combine to form
1.2 The law that explains that atoms in
different compounds.
compounds always combine in fixed ratios.
5.1 Use the data in the table below to determine
1.3 The name of the reactions when substances
the formula of the oxide of nitrogen.
burn in oxygen.
2 The following reaction takes place: Mass of nitrogen in Mass of oxygen
molecule (u) in molecule (u)
5.1.1 28 16
5.1.2 14 16
5.1.3 28 48
5.1.4 28 64
magnesium copper sulfate copper + 5.1.5 28 80
magnesium sulfate
2.1 State how the Law of Conservation of Mass

applies to chemical reactions.
2.2 Write a balanced chemical formula for
the reaction.
146

MODULE
5
Electricity and magnetism
Modern society has been shaped by electricity and magnetism. Take them away
and you take away much of what fills our houses and our lives. Look around
you to discover how we use the properties of magnets and electric current.
Credit and debit cards use a magnetic strip to record information.
Magnets are an important part of motors operating hair dryers, fans and
food processors.
In our homes electricity is used for lighting, heating and cooling. Electrical
appliances make it simpler to cook, clean our homes and wash our clothes.
In this module we shall discuss electricity and magnetism.
Electricity and
magnetism
Magnetism Electric circuits
Properties Electrostatics Emf and potential

of magnets difference
Charges
Magnetic fields and forces Current
Earth’s Conservation Charge Measurement of

magnetic field of charge quantisation voltage and current
Resistance
Resistors Resistors
in parallel in series
Module 5 Electricity and magnetism 147

Unit 1 Magnetism and magnetic fields
Magnetism
Poles of magnets
A magnet has a pair of opposite poles called the north pole or N pole and the
New word
south pole or S pole.
poles (magnet): regions The poles are where the force of a magnet is concentrated. In Figure 1 you
near the ends of a magnet can see how the poles of magnets gained their names. A compass needle –
where its magnetic forces
which is a magnet that is free to rotate – points with its N pole approximately
appear to be concentrated
northwards.
If a magnet is cut into tiny pieces, we find that each piece still has both a N pole
and a S pole. Single magnetic poles (monopoles) have not been found in nature.
Figure 1 The north pole of a magnetic Figure 2 A bar magnet and a magnetic
compass points approximately northwards. compass needle
Attraction and repulsion

Magnets exert a force on each other that can be either a force of attraction or
of repulsion.
• Unlike magnetic poles attract each other. The N pole of one magnet and the
unlike pole – the S pole – of another magnet attract each other (see Figure 3).
• Like magnetic poles repel each other. The N poles of two magnets repel
each other. Similarly, the S poles of two magnets repel each other
(see Figure 4).
Figure 3 Unlike magnetic poles attract. Figure 4 Like magnetic poles repel.
148
Module 5 Electricity and magnetism

Magnetic materials
MODULE 5
All substances show magnetic properties to a lesser or greater extent. In most
substances, these are so weak that we cannot detect them with apparatus
available at school.
The three so-called ferromagnetic elements iron, nickel and cobalt – as well
as some alloys of rare earth materials – are strongly magnetic. The magnetic
properties of other metals as well as of non-metals are extremely weak.
Permanent and temporary magnets

• Once magnetised, a permanent magnet stays magnetised. A bar magnet is
an example. A steel needle that is brought near a bar magnet and becomes
magnetised retains its magnetism even when moved far from the bar magnet.
• Temporary magnets do not retain their magnetism. If you place a bar
magnet in a plastic bag and bring it near iron filings, they are attracted Figure 5 Temporary magnets:
When the magnet is removed
towards the magnet. If you then take the magnet out of the bag, the filings the iron filings lose their
fall to the ground and no longer attract each other. magnetism.
The magnetic field New words

Non-contact forces magnetism: phenomena
associated with magnetic
Magnets do not have to touch each other for them to exert magnetic forces fields
on each other. Magnetic forces are non-contact forces. It is helpful to have a
domain (magnetism):
picture in our minds of where a magnet will experience a force and how strong regions where magnetic
the force will be. This is a magnetic field. fields of atoms combine to
create a stronger field
A magnetic field is a region in space where another magnet or

ferromagnetic material will experience a force.
Domain theory
The magnetic effects that we have discussed depend on the movement of
electrons in atoms. The moving electrons create magnetic fields. In weakly
magnetic substances, these magnetic fields tend to cancel each other out.
However, in ferromagnetic substances, there are relatively large regions
called domains. In each domain the magnetic fields of the atoms combine to
create a stronger field. A domain behaves like a small magnet of about 0,1 mm
in size (see Figures 6 and 7).
S N
Figure 6 In an unmagnetised Figure 7 The N-poles of the domains in a magnetised
ferromagnetic substance, the N-poles of substance line up. This gives it a strong magnetic field.
the domains point in random directions. The domains stay lined up in a permanent magnet.
Unit 1 Magnetism and magnetic fields 149

New word Magnetic field diagrams
magnetic field lines: lines A magnetic field diagram is a way of showing a magnetic field on paper. To do
that show the direction of this we draw magnetic field lines. Magnetic field lines are lines that show the
the magnetic field direction of the magnetic field. An arrowhead on the line shows the direction of
the force on the N pole of a compass.
Investigate the pattern and direction

of a magnetic field
In this practical activity you will investigate and draw the pattern and
direction of the magnetic field around a single bar magnet.
Materials METHOD
• bar magnet
• iron filings Step 1 Step 2
• plotting compasses
(or a single magnetic
compass)
• overhead projector
• A4 paper
• A4 size acetate sheet
(clear plastic sheet)
• pencil Sprinkle iron filings onto a piece of clear The filings form a pattern that reveals
plastic or a piece of A4 paper placed on the magnetic field around the magnet.
top of a bar magnet. Find out where the field is strongest.
Step 3 Step 4
Caution
It is difficult to remove iron
filings from a magnet, so
try to keep either a piece of
plastic or a piece of paper
between the magnet and
the filings.
Remove the iron filings. Place a small Mark the position of the N pole and
compass, called a plotting compass, move the compass so that its S pole lines
near the N pole of the magnet. up with the dot. Repeat the process.
Step 5 Step 6
Next, draw a field line. Connect the Plot several field lines and see a
dots and draw an arrowhead on it to pattern develop. The magnetic field
show the direction of the field. lines form a magnetic field diagram.
150

DisCUssiON
From your investigation you will find that iron filings reveal
MODULE 5
the field of a bar magnet. They are concentrated at the poles
and indicates that this is where the force exerted by the
field is strongest. Figure 8 shows a field diagram plotted around
a bar magnet.
Magnetic field diagrams Figure 8 Diagram of the magnetic field

Compare the following statements with Figure 8. around a bar magnet.
• The field is stronger where the field lines are close together
than where they are far apart.
• The magnetic field is strongest close to the poles.
• The direction of a magnetic field line is the direction of the force on the
N pole of a compass. Its direction is towards the S pole of the magnet that
creates the field.
• Field lines never cross.
• A magnetic field is in three dimensions but we usually draw it in
two dimensions.
The magnetic field of two bar magnets

Figures 9 to 12 show the magnetic field around two bar magnets. In Figures 9
and 10 the magnets are placed with their N poles close to each other. The field
between them is weak. They cancel each other out.
In Figures 11 and 12, the magnetic field around two bar magnets with
opposite poles close to each other is strong. Their fields combine to give a
stronger field.
Figure 9 Iron filings reveal the magnetic field between two Figure 10 The magnetic field around two bar magnets with
bar magnets with their N poles close to each other. their N poles close to each other.
Figure 11 Iron filings reveal the magnetic field between two Figure 12 The magnetic field around two bar magnets with
bar magnets with opposite poles close to each other. opposite poles close to each other.

New words The Earth’s magnetic field
molten: hot liquid The molten core of the Earth consists mainly of iron. It is magnetic and
axis: imaginary line around
produces the Earth’s magnetic field which is both inside and outside the Earth’s
which an object turns surface. This field causes the N pole of a compass to align itself with the lines of
the Earth’s magnetic field. The compass needle will point more or less towards
geographic pole:
the northernmost and the North pole.
southernmost points of the
Earth’s axis of rotation Geographic poles
Figure 13 shows the geographic North and South poles.
They are at the northernmost and southernmost points
respectively of the Earth’s axis of rotation.
Magnetic North and South poles

• he magnetic poles are where the Earth’s magnetic
T
field is perpendicular to the ground. They are not at
the same place as the geographic poles.
• A scientific model of the field is to imagine that it is
caused by a gigantic bar magnet in the Earth. This
“magnet” is at an angle to the Earth’s axis of rotation.
• The Earth’s magnetic field is not symmetrical and so
the angle between a field line and true north differs
from place to place. This angle is called the magnetic
declination (see Figure 14).
Figure 13 The Earth’s magnetic field extends from

inside the planet into space. It looks like the field of a bar
magnet but is caused by the iron in the Earth’s core.
Table 1 Examples of magnetic declination

City Magnetic declination
Cape Town 24,5° west
eThekwini 24,5° west
Johannesburg 18° west
Source: 2011 data from www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomagmodels/struts/calcDeclination
Figure 14 Near Johannesburg,

the declination is 18° west. So
N on the compass card points Did you know?
to geographic north provided
the compass needle points 18° At the equinoxes on 21 March and 23 September (two days where day and night are equal length
to the left of it. all over the world), the Sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west. If you look at the
sunrise, north is 90° to the left and south is 90° to the right.
Phenomena associated with the Earth’s magnetic field
Protection from the solar wind

The solar wind consists mainly of electrons and protons that are ejected from
the Sun with high energy and travel across the solar system. They are dangerous to
living organisms but most of the Earth’s surface is protected from them. The Earth’s
magnetic field causes them to spiral towards the poles where they do little harm.
152

Aurora
MODULE 5
When the Earth’s magnetic field causes the particles
of the solar wind to move towards the poles they
ionise nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere. The
gases then radiate the energy as light known as an
aurora. This is seen in the sky near the poles and
called Aurora Australis in the south and Aurora
Borealis in the north.
Magnetic storms
From time to time there is a solar flare in which
much more material is ejected from the Sun than
usual. Such a large bombardment of ionised particles
can be sufficiently strong to interfere with the Earth’s
magnetic field. This is called a magnetic storm and Figure 15 An aurora in the southern hemisphere photographed from
can disrupt radio communications and power lines. a spacecraft.
Answer questions on magnetism and

Activity 2 magnetic fields

1.1 pole of a magnet
Exam words
1.2 permanent magnet explain: describe giving
1.3 ferromagnetic material reasons
1.4 force field list: write the names,
1.5 magnetic field numbers or things asked for
one below the other, each
1.6 magnetic field line.
on a new line
2 List the names of three elements that are ferromagnetic.
state: write a piece of
3 The prefix di- means two. Explain why magnets are said to be dipoles.
information, as asked
4 Correct the following statement: If a magnet is cut in two the one piece
describe: give details of
becomes an S pole and the other becomes an N pole. something in sentence form
5 State what will happen if the N pole of one magnet is brought close to the: without any explanation
5.1 N pole of another magnet draw: show in a visual way
5.2 S pole of another magnet.
identify: find, name and
6 Explain what a magnetic field diagram is. mention
7 A learner investigates the magnetic field of a bar magnet.
7.1 How can the learner tell from the arrangement of iron filings where the
field is strongest?
7.2 Describe where the field of a bar magnet is strongest.
8 Draw a magnetic field diagram of the field around:
8.1 a single bar magnet
8.2 two bar magnets in line with each other and with unlike poles nearest
each other
8.3 two bar magnets in line with each other and with their S poles nearest
each other.
9 Indicate on the diagram for Question 8.3 a point where the field is zero.
10 Use a compass to identify which wall of your classroom is on the north side.

Unit 2 Electrostatics
Electric charges
Electrostatics (or static electricity) has to do with the interactions of charges
that are mainly stationary.
Figure 1 Lightning is a dramatic Two kinds of charge, positive and negative

display of electricity. It has been
associated with the power of the
supernatural, such as the Native All materials consist of very small particles called atoms.
American snake god. • At the centre of each atom is a nucleus that consists of neutrons that have
no charge and protons that carry a positive charge.
• Outside the nucleus are much smaller particles called electrons. They carry a
negative charge that is the same size as the positive charge of the protons.
• All materials contain charges. Any object consists of enormous numbers of
atoms and has even more charge-carrying protons and electrons.
• An object that has an equal number of electrons and protons is neutral.
Although the object has a large number of charges the net charge of the
object is zero.
• A positively charged object has fewer electrons than protons. It is electron
deficient.
• If it is negatively charged, an object has more electrons than protons. It
Figure 2 An atom has a has an excess of electrons.
nucleus made up of positive
protons and uncharged
neutrons. Moving round the
p+ p+ e– e–
e– +
nucleus are electrons carrying
a negative charge. A neutral
e– p e– p+ p+ e– +
atom has as many positive
+
p
charges as negative charges.
p – p+ – p+ e–
e e
Figure 3 The net charge is Figure 4 The net charge is Figure 5 The net charge is
zero when the number of positive when there are fewer negative when there are more
electrons and protons is equal. electrons than protons. electrons than protons.
New words Charges on ions

electrostatics: interactions An advantage of calling the two kinds of charge positive and negative is that
of electric charges that are can we add them together to obtain the net charge. This is also useful in
mainly stationary chemistry. For example, Cl− means that the chloride ion has one more electron
charge: property of some than protons. Mg2+ is an ion that has two electrons fewer than protons.
particles that gives rise to
electrical phenomena
net charge: sum of the
Charging by contact
charges
Some materials have a greater attraction for electrons than others. So when
two different materials are brought into contact some electrons will transfer
from the one to the other. The transfer is increased by rubbing the materials
together. This is sometimes called triboelectric charging.
154

Table 1 enables you to predict the sign of the charge two substances will Table 1 The triboelectric series
obtain if they are rubbed together. The one that is higher on the table is
MODULE 5
Substance
the one that becomes positive. A piece of paper rubbed on glass becomes
Human hand (dry)
negatively charged but if it is rubbed on a rubber balloon, the paper becomes
Glass
positively charged
Human hair
The substance that loses electrons becomes positive and the other one
Nylon (e.g. stockings)
becomes negative. When this happens to an insulator such as wool or glass
Wool
the substance remains charged. This is especially noticeable on a day which is
dry. If you touch a metal object that is charged you may receive a shock from Silk
a sudden discharge. Paper
Cotton
Steel
Did you know?
Wood
More negatively charged (–)
More positively charged (+)

Charging by contact can be dangerous. When petrol is pumped into a petrol tank the hose is kept
Rubber balloon
neutral and is placed against the pipe of the tank to avoid a build up of charge.
Copper, brass
Sulfur
Acetate
Forces charges exert on each other
Polyester
Figures 6 to 9 show that if you take a strip of plastic from a shopping bag you Polyethylene (e.g.
can show that: plastic bags)
• like charges repel. Negatively charged objects exert forces of repulsion on Polypropylene (e.g.
each other. plastic chairs)
• unlike (opposite) charges attract. A positively charged object and a Polyvinylchloride
negatively charged object attract each other. (PVC) (e.g. insulation
for electrical cables)
Teflon
+ –
+ –
–
– +
+
–
–
+
+
New words
+ –
insulator: material that
does not allow charges to
travel through it
Figure 6 Rub a piece of plastic bag over the hand Figure 7 The unlike charges of the hand discharge (electricity):
so they become oppositely charged. The hand and plastic attract each other. when a charged object
must be dry. If the plastic does not charge then loses charge
rub the plastic on glass.
–
–
– – +
+
+ ++ –
– –
– –
–
–
Figure 8 Fold the strip of plastic and charge it Figure 9 The like charges on the plastic Figure 10 What makes the
with like charges by pulling it between the fingers. strip repel. balloon stick to the wall?
Unit 2 Electrostatics 155

Charged objects attract uncharged objects
Charges exert forces on each other, but the following demonstration shows
that a charged object can attract an uncharged object.
Practical demonstration 1 Observe attraction of an

uncharged object
In this demonstration you will observe how a charged object can attract an
uncharged object.
Materials METHOD
• balloon or a Step 1 Place small pieces of paper on the table.
plastic bag Step 2 Charge a balloon, plastic pen or plastic ruler by rubbing it on dry hair,
• pen or ruler dry skin or glass.
• small pieces of paper Step 3 Bring the charged object near the pieces of paper without touching
(approximately them. Note what you observe.
10 mm × 5 mm) Step 4 Bring the charged object near a smooth stream of water flowing slowly
• smooth stream of from a tap. Note what you observe.
falling water
Figure 11 A charged balloon attracts the Figure 12 A charged ruler attracts an uncharged
uncharged pieces of paper. stream of water.
– – –
– – – – –
– – – – – – DISCUSSION
– – – – – –
Figures 11 and 12 show that the pieces of paper and the falling water are
– – – – – – –
charged balloon attracted towards the charged object. Both the paper and the water have a zero
– – – – – – –
– + net charge yet they are attracted. The next section explains how this happens.
– – – – – –
– + – – – – –
– + – – –
–
–
+
+
– – Polarisation
– +
– +
polarised Although charges in an insulator cannot move from atom to atom, they can
piece of paper spend more of their time on one side of an atom or molecule than on the other.
Figure 13 shows how the negative charge on the balloon repels the electrons
Figure 13 Polarisation in into the paper. This makes the side nearest the balloon slightly positive and
a solid. Electrons move to
one side of the atoms and the other side slightly negative. We say that the piece of paper has become
molecules. polarised. Remember that the object as a whole remains neutral.
156

There is a stronger force on the unlike charges that are close to each other
than on the like charges that are far apart, so the piece of paper is attracted to New words
MODULE 5
the balloon. polarisation: process of
Figure 14 explains why water is attracted to the negatively charged ruler. Each causing an object to be
molecule of water is a dipole. One side of each molecule is slightly positive and polarised
the opposite side slightly negative. The water molecules turn so that unlike polarised (electrostatics):
charges are closer to the ruler and the water is attracted to it. object with an uneven
distribution of charge
charged ruler
– + –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––
–– –––– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––
– –– ––
–– – –– –– ––
– + –– –– ––
–– –– –– ––
–– ––
–– ––
– + –– ––
–– ––
––
––
– +
water
Figure 14 The water has a zero net charge. However, the water molecules are polar and rotate so that
unlike charges are closer to the charged ruler.
Activity 2 Answer questions on electrostatics

1.1 electrostatics
1.2 unlike charge
1.3 electrically neutral
1.4 net charge
1.5 polarisation.
2 A learner rubs two substances, plastic and wool, together.
Exam words
2.1 Name the particle that moves between the plastic and the wool when
they are rubbed together, and indicate its charge. name: write down the
2.2 Refer to atomic structure to explain why protons do not transfer between names of the things asked
for with no explanation
the plastic and the wool.
2.3 What is the charge of the substance that loses electrons? evaluate: look at the
facts carefully and form a
2.4 After rubbing them together, do the plastic and the wool attract or do conclusion
they repel each other? Explain your answer.
illustrate: give an example
2.5 Evaluate whether the net charge of the plastic and the wool stays the same. of what you mean or explain
3 Your school uniform is likely to be made of polyester or a cotton/ it visually
polyester blend. Predict the sign of the charge that your clothes are likely
to have if you sit on a plastic chair. Support your answer with a reason.
4 Illustrate with diagrams and explain how a:
4.1 negatively charged plastic pen attracts small uncharged pieces of paper.
4.2 positively charged balloon attracts a stream of water falling from a tap.
Unit 2 Electrostatics 157

Unit 3 Conservation and quantisation of charges
Measurement of charge
In equations, we use the symbol Q for charge. The unit of measurement of charge
is the coulomb (symbol C). A charge of one coulomb is written as Q = 1 C.
Charge conservation
Conservation means that a quantity stays the same.
New words
Principle of conservation of charge
system: set of connected The net charge of an isolated system remains constant during any
things or parts physical process.
isolated system: no energy
or material can enter or
escape the system Figures 1 to 3 illustrate the principle of conservation of charge in a system that
initially consists of three charged water droplets. According to the principle of
conservation of charge: Qnet = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
For charges, the following

submultiples are often
used:
1 microcoulomb (1 μC) +3 nC +2 nC
= 1 × 10−6 C
For example: 3,8 μC

–2 nC –1 nC
= 3,8 × 10−6 C
= 0,000 003 8 C –8 nC –3 nC
1 nanocoulomb (1 nC)
= 1 × 10−9 C
For example: 2,7 nC
= 2,7 × 10–9 C Figure 1 The net or total Figure 2 The droplets Figure 3 The droplet splits up
= 0,000 000 002 7 C charge of the system is combine but the net charge and one droplet has a charge
the sum of the charges: of the system is still the same of -2 nC. The other droplet
Qnet = +3 nC -8 nC +2 nC (Qnet = -3 nC). must be -1 nC for charge to
Qnet = -3 nC be conserved (Qnet = -3 nC).
conducting spheres Conducting spheres on insulated stands

Figure 4 shows two conducting spheres. Because they conduct the charge
spreads out over each sphere. The spheres are on insulated stands so that you
can move them without discharging them. For the two spheres: Qnet = Q1 + Q2
insulated If the spheres are brought into contact, their charge will spread out over them.
stands Provided the spheres are identical in size, the charge spreads out evenly. If you
then move them apart, half the net charge remains on each sphere:
Qnet Q1 + Q2
Figure 4 Two conducting On each sphere (for identical spheres): Q = =
2 2
spheres on insulated stands.
158

Worked example 1
MODULE 5
Two identical conducting spheres on insulated stands carry charges of
+3 μC and −1 μC respectively. If the spheres are brought into contact and
then separated, what is the charge on each sphere?
Answer
Because the spheres are identical the charge spreads out evenly over them.
Variables
Q + Q2 Q1 = +3 μC
Q= 1
2 Q2 = −1 μC
(+3 μC) + (−1 μC) Q = charge on each
=
2 sphere = ?
+2 μC
=
2
= +1 μC
Activity 1 Answer questions on conservation of charge
1 State the principle of conservation of charge.

2 Rewrite Table 1 below. Fill in the missing values of the charges in
coulombs and submultiples of coulombs. Use scientific notation where
appropriate.
Table 1 Charges in multiples of coulombs
Coulombs (C) Microcoulombs (μC) Nanocoulombs (nC)

1,00 2.1 2.2
2.3 2,36 2.4
2.5 2.6 5,00
2,0 × 10 –7
2.7 2.8
3 Two identical metal spheres, each on an insulated stand, carry initial

charges of +5 nC and −2 nC respectively. The spheres are brought into
contact and then separated again. Calculate the:
3.1 net charge of the system
3.2 charge on each sphere after the spheres have separated
3.3 size of the charge that transferred from the one sphere to the other. Exam word
4 A system of two insulated metal spheres has a net charge of +6,4 nC. If the calculate: work out
charge on the one sphere is −8 nC, calculate the charge on the other sphere. following a method
Charge quantisation
Quantisation means that a quantity comes in amounts that cannot be made
smaller and smaller. Such an amount is called a quantum.
In 1911, Robert Millikan carried out an experiment in which he found that
electric charges are always a multiple of 1,6 × 10−19 C.
Unit 3 Conservation and quantisation of charge 159

There are no charges that can exist freely in nature that have values between
these multiples. This means that electric charges are quantised.
Principle of quantisation of charge

Every charge in the universe is an integer multiple of the electron charge.
• Stated as an equation: Charge Q = nqe, where n is an integer and

qe = 1,6 × 10 −19 C.
• The charge carried by an electron is −1,6 × 10 −19 C, and a proton is
+1,6 × 10 −19 C.
• The electron charge is so small that we do not notice the effects of
quantisation of charge when dealing with large charges.
Worked example 2
Calculate the number of electrons that a positively charged object gains if
its charge decreases by 3,2 × 10−18 C.
Answer
Variables
Q = nqe
Q = −3,2 × 10−18 C
Q
qe = −1,6 × 10−19 C n=
qe
n = number of electrons
− 3,2 × 10−18 C
=
−1,6 × 10−19 C
= 20 electrons
Activity 2 Answer questions on quantisation of charge
1 Explain what it means to say that electric charge is quantised.

2 State the principle of charge quantisation.
3 What is the size of the electron charge?
4 Calculate the:
4.1 charge of 100 electrons (in coulombs)
4.2 number of electrons in excess on a body with a charge of −6,4 × 10 −18 C
4.3 number of a electrons with a combined charge of –1 nC
Exam word 4.4 total charge of the protons in the nucleus of a magnesium atom.
give reasons: explain and 5 Is it possible to obtain a charge of 1,6 × 10 −29 C in nature? Give a reason
use examples to justify for your answer.
6 Use the principle of quantisation of charge to show whether it is possible
to isolate a charge of 4,0 × 10 −19 C.
7 Two identical conducting spheres carrying charges of +2 nC and +5 nC
respectively come into contact.
7.1 Which sphere will gain electrons? Give a reason for you answer.
7.2 Calculate the number of electrons that transfer from the one sphere to
the other.

Activity 1: 3.1 +3 nC; 3.2 +1,5 nC; 3.3 3,5 nC; 4 +14,4 nC
Activity 2: 4.1 −1,6 × 10−17 C; 4.2 40 electrons; 4.3 6,25 × 109 electrons; 4.4 1,92 × 10−18 C; 6 n = 2,5;
7.2 9,38 × 109 electrons
160

Unit 4 Electric circuits
MODULE 5
Moving electric charges
Electrostatics is about charges that are stationary most of the time. However,
when charged conducting spheres are brought into contact, charge moves
from the one to the other over a very short time interval. By contrast, the flow
of charge in electric circuits is continuous.
In this unit we review what you were taught in previous grades about
electric circuits.
An electric circuit
New words
An electric circuit is a continuous conducting path along which electric
charges can flow. The rate of flow of electric charge is called the current. current (electricity): rate of
The main components of a circuit are: flow of charge
• Energy source (sometimes called a power source): When using mains resistor: component that is
electricity the source of energy is the energy transfer that takes place in a present in a circuit because
of its resistance
power station. However, in our investigations we shall use torch batteries
which have chemical potential energy. This is the “stored” energy of the switch (electricity):
electrical component that
chemicals inside the battery. can make a break in an
• Connecting wires (conductors): These are made of a metal that conducts electrical circuit
well and allow the current to flow from component to component. Very,
very little energy is lost here.
• Resistance (or load): Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current. This
is where there is a transfer of electrical energy out of the circuit. resistors
such as the element of a kettle convert electrical energy to heat. Light bulbs
convert it to both light and heat.
Additional components for electric circuits

• A switch controls whether a current flows or not. An open switch breaks
the circuit so current cannot flow. If
you close the switch it completes the
circuit and current flows.
• Insulators such as plastic and air ensure
that the charges stay in the circuit and
do not take any short cuts. Such short
cuts are called a short circuit.
Conservation of charge
It follows from the principle of
conservation of charge that the total
amount of charge in the circuit stays
constant. The energy source does not
produce charges, it transfers energy to
them. This means that charges in different
parts of the circuit have different amounts Figure 1 Electrical appliances make use of electric circuits to convert
of energy. an input into the output we want.
Unit 4 Electric circuits 161

Circuit diagrams
Table 1 Circuit symbols A circuit diagram is drawn with symbols for each component. This makes it
Component Symbol easy to see how they are connected together.
+ –
Battery connecting wire
Connecting two batteries in

wire series
Connecting switch
wires
(joined) light bulb
Connecting
wires Figure 2 An electric circuit where two light bulbs Figure 3 Circuit diagram of the circuit
(crossing) and two batteries are connected in series. in Figure 2.
Resistor
Series and parallel connection of components
Variable
resistor
• Series connection: Components connected in series are connected one
Light bulb
after the other in such a way there is a single path for the current to take.
(or lamp)
The circuit in Figure 2 is a series circuit. If a switch is opened, then all of
Switch the components switch off. A disadvantage is that if a component breaks,
no current flows through the other components either.
• Parallel connection: Components are connected in parallel if there is
more than one path for the current to take. Figure 4 is a circuit diagram
of a parallel circuit. The current divides so that some goes through one
bulb and the rest goes through the other one. An advantage is that if
a component in one branch breaks, there is still a current in the other
branches. Those components continue to operate.
Switches in series and parallel circuits

Figure 4 In this circuit, the two A switch in the series part of the circuit controls the entire circuit and is called a
bulbs are connected in parallel. main switch. A switch in a branch of a parallel connection controls the current in
The current divides and, if you
disconnect one bulb, the other that branch only.
one still burns.
Activity 1 Answer questions on electric circuits
1 Describe what an electric circuit is.

2 List the three basic types of component that are found in a circuit.
3 The following questions refer to the circuit in Figure 2.
3.1 Is it a series or a parallel circuit? Explain your answer.
3.2 Explain the purpose of a switch in a circuit.
3.3 Identify the energy transfers (conversions) that take place in the circuit.
3.4 Explain why conducting wires need insulation.
3.5 Name a disadvantage of connecting two light bulbs in series.
4 Draw a circuit with three batteries connected in series and two light
bulbs connected in parallel. Show two switches that are connected in the
circuit in such a way that each bulb can be switched on and off without
affecting the other one.
162

Unit 5 Emf and potential difference
MODULE 5
Why charges flow around a circuit
The electric charges flowing around a circuit are like water flowing down a
hill. Water flows to where the potential energy is lower. In the same way,
electric charges go to where their potential energy is less. As they do so, they
transfer energy, such as the heat and light emitted by a light bulb.
Just as it requires energy to pump water up a hill, an energy source – such
as a battery or generator – continuously transfers energy to electric charges to Figure 1 The battery
continuously provides
keep them moving around the circuit. electrical energy to the
charges which they transfer to
the light bulbs.
Potential difference (voltage)
In a shop we compare prices in “rand per kilogram”. With electricity we
compare “energy per coulomb”. This is the energy which one coulomb of
charge gains from an energy source such as a battery, or loses when it passes
New words
through a component such as a light bulb. This “energy per coulomb” is called
the potential difference or voltage. voltage: emf or potential
difference measured in volts
volt: unit of measurement of
The electrical potential difference (V) between two points is the change emf and potential difference
in electrical potential energy per unit charge.
This definition is summed up in the equation:

Potential difference energy transferred between two points
=
between two points charge moving past the two points
In symbols:
W
V=
Q
where V = potential difference, measured in volts (V)

W = the energy transfer, measured joules (J)
Q = charge, measured in coulombs (C)
If the potential difference between two points in a circuit is one volt,then

there is a transfer of one joule of energy for each coulomb of charge that
Figure 2 A torch battery
moves between the two points. If 2 coulombs transfer 8 joules of energy, the
stores chemical potential
potential difference is 4 volts. energy.
Know the difference

We refer to the voltage of a battery, across or over a component or between two points in a circuit.
Unit 5 EMF and potential difference 163

The voltmeter
To measure the voltage or potential difference between two points in a circuit,
connect a voltmeter to each of the two points.
• Always connect a voltmeter in parallel with the component(s).
• Connect the negative terminal of the voltmeter to the side of the
component that leads to the negative terminal of the battery.
• Connect the positive lead to the largest range of the voltmeter and to the
other side of the component. If you connect to a range that is too small it
could damage the meter. Connect to a smaller range if the reading on the
large range is low.
Figure 3 A voltmeter and its • The voltmeter uses such a small current that it makes no noticeable
circuit symbol.
difference to the current in the main circuit.
Measure and compare the

Practical demonstration 1 voltage of a battery
In this demonstration you will measure and compare the voltage of a torch
battery when no current is flowing with its voltage when current is flowing.
Materials METHOD
• 1,5 V torch battery Voltage of a battery when no current is flowing
• voltmeter Step 1 Use the voltmeter to measure the voltage across the terminals of a
• two 3 V light bulbs battery that is not connected to a circuit (see Figure 4).
• connecting wires Step 2 Read the voltage and record your answer.
• battery holder (or
elastic band) Voltage of a battery when current is flowing
Step 3 Connect the battery to a light bulb.
Step 4 Measure the voltage across the battery when a current is flowing.
Step 5 Read the voltage and record your answer.
Step 6 If you have another light bulb available, connect it in parallel with the
first one. Measure the new voltage across the battery (see Figure 5).
New word
voltmeter: instrument used
to measure the potential
difference between two
points
Caution
Connect to the largest Figure 4 Measure the voltage across a Figure 5 Measure the voltage across the
scale of the voltmeter first. battery when no current is flowing. The same battery while it is supplying a current.
voltmeter reads 1,6 V. This is the emf. It reads 1,3 V. This is the battery’s terminal
potential difference in this closed circuit.
DISCUSSION
The voltage across the battery when no current is flowing is higher than when
current is flowing.
164

Emf
New word
MODULE 5
The emf is the voltage measured across the terminals of a battery when emf: voltage measured
no current is flowing. It is measured in volts. The results of Practical across the terminals of a
demonstration 1 on page 164 show it is the maximum voltage of a battery. We battery when no current is
say emf out loud by sounding out the letters e–m–f. flowing
Terminal potential difference across a battery

The terminal potential difference (p.d.) across a battery is the voltage measured
across the terminals of the battery when current is flowing through the battery.
Practical demonstration 1 shows that a battery’s terminal potential difference is
less than its emf. Some energy is required to move charge through the battery
and is not available for the rest of the circuit.
Table 1 Approximate voltages for various items. Note that smaller values are measured in millivolt (mV).
Items Approximate voltages

Powerlines Up to 500 000 V
Household mains in SA 220 V
Pocket calculator 3V
Cellphone charger 3–9 V
Human nerves 70 mV
Activity 2 Answer questions on potential difference and emf
1 Explain the meanings of:

1.1 emf
1.2 potential difference
1.3 terminal potential difference of a battery.
2 In a circuit, what causes charges to gain energy and what causes them to
lose energy? Hint: Refer to Figure 1.
3 Suggest why the concept of “potential difference” is useful.
4 Calculate the potential difference across the terminals of a battery if 3 C
of charge gains 27 J of energy passing through it.
5 How many coulombs of charge must pass through a light bulb with a
potential difference of 220 V across it for it to radiate 4 200 J of energy?
6 Explain how to use a voltmeter to measure potential difference across a
light bulb in a circuit. Include a diagram with your answer.
7 A voltmeter is connected across a battery that is connected to a circuit in
which there is a light bulb and a switch.
7.1 State whether the switch is open or is closed when measuring:
7.1.1 the emf of the battery
7.1.2 the terminal potential difference across the battery.
7.2 Which of the two readings is higher, the emf or the terminal potential Exam word
difference of the battery? Suggest a reason for your answer. suggest: give ideas,
7.3 In a closed circuit the switch is closed and a current is flowing. Is the voltage solutions or reasons for
across the battery the same as the voltage across the circuit connected to it? something

4 9 V; 5 19,09 C
Unit 5 EMF and potential difference 165

Unit 6 Current
Did you know? Electric current

A flash of lightning that is
over in an instant gives The movement of charge in a circuit reminds us of a current or flow of water
us the wrong idea about in a river.
current in a conductor.
By contrast, the flow of
charges in a conductor
Current (I) is the rate of flow of charge.
is extremely slow – only
millimetres per second. This
is because conductors are
crammed full with charges! The word “rate” means “how much per second”. So the size of an electric current
is how much charge flows past a point each second. This can be written as
an equation:
charge passing a point
Electric current =
time taken (seconds)
Q
New words In symbols: I =
Δt
ampere: unit of where Q = electric charge that passes a point, measured in coulombs (C)
measurement of current; Dt = time taken, measured in seconds (s)
same as a coulomb per I = current, measured in amperes (A)
second
ammeter: instrument used An ampere (A) is the same as a coulomb per second. Do not use “amp” as an
to measure the electric
abbreviation for ampere. We can rewrite the formula to calculate the charge
current in a circuit
which passes a point in a circuit (or cross-section of a conductor).
For current, the following Charge = current × time

submultiple is often used: Q = I × Dt
1 milliampere (1 mA)
= 1 × 10−3 A From this equation, you can see that if a steady current of one ampere flows
For example: 380 mA for one second, then the amount of charge that passes a point in the circuit
= 380 × 10−3 A is one coulomb. In a metallic conductor, the charges that flow are electrons,
= 0,38 A
and one coulomb of charge represents over 6 × 1018 electrons – that is, 6 with
18 zeros after it!
The ammeter
We use an ammeter (see Figure 1) to measure the electric current at a point in
a circuit. When working with an ammeter:
• Connect the ammeter into a circuit in series at the point where you wish
to measure the current.
• Connect the negative terminal of the ammeter to the side of the circuit
that leads to the negative terminal of the battery.
• Connect the positive lead to the largest range of the ammeter and to the
side of the circuit that leads to the positive terminal of the battery. If the
reading on the large range is low it is safe to connect to a smaller range.
Figure 1 An ammeter and its • Never connect an ammeter in parallel across the terminals of a battery, or
circuit symbol. circuit component, because the high current will cause damage to it.
166

Current direction
MODULE 5
The direction of an electric current is the direction in which positive charges
would flow in a circuit (see Figure 4). This is from the positive terminal of the
battery, through the circuit and back to the negative terminal of the battery.
It is sometimes called the conventional current direction.
Why a battery goes flat

Figure 2 An ammeter
connected in series in a circuit.
The size of the current supplied by a battery depends on the components it is
connected to. In a circuit where it is easy for the current to flow there is a high
current. A high current transfers more energy in the same time than a small
current does from the same battery.
A battery only stores a certain amount of energy and goes flat (does not A
supply current) once the energy has been transferred to the circuit. If a battery
is connected to a circuit in which there is a high current, it will go flat sooner
than if the current is low.
Figure 3 A circuit diagram for

Know the difference the circuit in Figure 2.
We refer to the current in or through a component or at a point in a circuit.
+ –
Activity 1 Answer questions on current
1 Define and give the symbol for electric current.

2 Give the name and unit of measurement of current. current direction
3 Connecting an ammeter:
3.1 Give reasons why an ammeter is connected in series in a circuit.
3.2 Why should you not connect an ammeter in parallel across a battery? Figure 4 Current direction is
4 What reading will an ammeter show if 100 C pass through it in 5 s? from the positive terminal of the
battery through the circuit to
5 An ammeter shows a reading of 6 A. What quantity of charge flows the negative terminal.
through the instrument in one minute?
6 What are the current readings on the ammeters in Figures 5 and 6?
7 Express 0,75 A in milliamperes.
8 Express 550 mA in amperes.
9 Draw a circuit diagram which has a battery, two identical resistors and a
switch connected in series. Include an ammeter to measure the current
in the circuit as well as a voltmeter over one of the resistors. Does it
matter where you place the ammeter?
Figure 5 Figure for Question 6
4 20 A; 5 360 C
Know the difference

• A voltmeter is connected in parallel so that it measures the potential difference between the two
points to which it is connected.
• An ammeter is connected in series in a circuit so that it measures the current at the point where
it is connected.
Figure 6 Figure for Question 6
Unit 6 Current 167

Unit 7 Resistance
Resistance
Gold, silver, and copper are excellent conductors. However, an alloy of nickel
and chromium called nichrome does not conduct well. We say that nichrome
offers more resistance to the current than copper does. Resistance is the
opposition to the flow of current. The factors that affect the resistance of a
resistor are: the type of material of which it is made, the length and thickness
of resistance material, as well as the temperature of the resistor.
Transfer of energy in a resistor

Did you know?
When charges – such as electrons – move through a conductor with high
At low temperatures, resistance, they collide with the particles in the conductor. The electrons
some substances become
superconductors, offering
transfer kinetic energy to these particles and make them vibrate more. In this
no resistance at all to a way a resistor converts electrical energy into heat and, sometimes, to light. In
current. a good conductor the moving charges lose hardly any kinetic energy.
We need to be able to establish what effect resistance has on the current in
a circuit for a given potential difference.
Measuring resistance
Figure 1 shows how to measure the voltage across and the current in a piece of
nichrome resistance wire. Table 1 gives the results for two lengths of wire.
nichrome wire
Table 1 Readings and calculations for two pieces of nichrome wire
First wire Second wire

Measurement
(800 mm × 0,5 mm) (1 600 mm × 0,5 mm)
Figure 1 Circuit diagram Potential difference, V 3,0 V 3,0 V
that shows how a voltmeter
Current, I 0,6 A 0,3 A
measures the potential
difference across the piece of V 5 V.A−1 10 V.A−1
Ratio
nichrome wire and the ammeter I
measures the current through it.
We expect the second piece of nichrome wire that is twice as long to have
V
twice the resistance of the shorter one. Table 1 shows that its ratio is also
I
twice that of the shorter one. This ratio is a good way of calculating resistance.
Resistance (R) is the ratio of the potential difference across an electrical

component to the current passing through it.
In symbols: R =V
I
Resistance is measured in ohms (symbol Ω).
One ohm (Ω) is one volt per ampere.
168

A conductor has a resistance of 1 Ω if a potential difference of 1 volt applied across
its ends gives rise to a current of 1 ampere through it. The first wire in Table 1
MODULE 5
therefore has a resistance of 5 Ω and the second wire has a resistance of 10 Ω.
Current is inversely proportional to resistance

V
The equation R = can also be rearranged to give:
V I
V = IR and I =
R Figure 2 Resistors are
components whose resistance
V
The equation I = shows that, for the same voltage, the current in the battery keeps currents and voltages in
R circuits at the desired levels.
and circuit is inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit. Table 1 on
page 168 confirms this, the current in the 10 Ω resistor is half that in the 5 Ω
resistor. This holds true for the total resistance of the circuit.
Worked example 1
1 Calculate the current in a length of wire if its resistance is 5 Ω and
the potential difference across it is 20 V.
2 What will the current be if the 5 Ω resistor is replaced with a 20 Ω
Variables for Question 1
resistor and the voltage is kept the same across it?
V = 20 V
Answers R=5Ω
V I=?
1 I= 2 The resistance is 4 times bigger so
R 1
the current will be of what it was.
20 V 4 Variables for Question 2
= It becomes 1 A.
5Ω V = 20 V
=4A R = 20 Ω
I=?
Activity 1 Answer questions on resistance
1 Define resistance and the ohm.

2 Suggest reasons why a long length of nichrome wire has more resistance
to a current than a short one of the same thickness.
Use the definition of resistance in the following calculations:

3 A car tail-light bulb is connected across the terminals of a 12 V car
battery. The current is 0,6 A. Calculate the resistance of the tail light.
4 A 40 Ω resistor is connected across a 12 V battery. Calculate the:
Figure 3 A variable resistor
4.1 current in the circuit – or rheostat – for use in the
4.2 the current if the resistor is replaced by a 20 Ω resistor and the voltage school laboratory. Moving the
remains the same. knob changes the length of
resistance wire connected to
5 Determine the voltage across a 100 Ω piece of nichrome wire if the the circuit.
current in it is 5 A.
6 Explain how the conversions of energy in a battery and in the resistors
of a circuit eventually make the battery go flat. (Hint: Refer to page 167).

3 20 Ω; 4.1 0,3 A; 4.2 0,6 A; 5 500 V
Unit 7 Resistance 169

Unit 8 Resistors in series
In Grade 9 you investigated the current in and voltage across resistors

connected in series. In the following experiment you will confirm these
relationships.
Investigate current and voltage in

Experiment 1 series circuits
In this experiment you will measure the current in and voltage across light bulbs
in a series connection and record what changes, if any, occur.
Materials METHOD
• two 1,5 V batteries Step 1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1 with the light bulbs
• two 3,0 V light connected in series.
bulbs (or lengths of
resistance wire or Ammeter readings:
resistors) Step 2 Connect the ammeter to the circuit to measure the current at point A.
• ammeter Close the switch, take the reading IA and record it (see Table 1 on page 171).
• voltmeter Step 3 Repeat Step 2 to measure IB at B and IC at C (see Figure 2).
• connecting wires
• switch Voltmeter readings:
Step 4 Connect the voltmeter across the first light bulb. Close the switch,
take the reading V1 and record it (see Table 2 on page 171).
Step 5 Measure the voltage across the second light bulb V2 and then across
Caution
the entire circuit VS. (The “S” stands for series circuit.) In this circuit,
Connect to the largest the terminal potential difference across the battery is the same as the
ranges of the ammeter and
voltmeter first. voltage VS across the series connection (see Figure 3).
Step 6 Calculate the sum: V1 + V2
Step 7 Compare your readings and draw conclusions about the size of the
current and the voltages in a series circuit.
VS
A A C
V1 V2
bulb 1 bulb 2 bulb 1 bulb 2
Figure 1 Apparatus set up for the practical Figure 2 Circuit diagram for measuring the Figure 3 Circuit diagram for measuring the
activity (measuring VS and IC). current at points A, B and C in the circuit. voltage across each light bulb and across
the entire series circuit.
170

Table 1 Current measurements Table 2 Voltage measurements
V
MODULE 5
2,8 V
Position Current (A) Component Voltage (V)
A: IA Light bulb 1: V1
B: IB Light bulb 2: V2
C: IC Sum: V1 + V2
0,6 A A
1,4 V 1,4 V
Battery: VS 0,6 A A V V
0,6 A
DisCUssiON
A
Compare your results with Figure 4. bulb 1 bulb 2
• The current readings are the same. Figure 4 Possible results for a
• The sum of the voltages over the resistors equals the total potential difference. series circuit
VeriFY YOUr resUlts

Repeat the experiment with light bulbs or resistors having a different
resistance to see if the results are the same before finally drawing a conclusion. New words
Compare your results with other groups in the class. voltage divider: resistors
in a series circuit divide the
voltage proportionately
Current and voltage for a series circuit equivalent resistance:
resistance of a single
The results of Experiment 1 on page 170 show the following: resistor that can take
the place of a number of
• The current through each resistor and in each part of a series circuit is resistors connected together
the same and is constant. This is because the current does not split up
anywhere in the circuit.
• Add another light bulb in series and you will see that the current reduces.
• The total potential difference VS across the battery and the circuit is equal
to the sum of the potential differences across the individual resistors in the
circuit: VS = V1 + V2.
• In a series circuit, the resistors divide the voltage and are called voltage
dividers. Rs
Figure 5 Resistors in series can
be replaced with a single resistor
Resistance in a series circuit which has equivalent resistance:
RS = R1 + R2 + …
If we substitute V = IR into the equation VS = V1 + V2 it becomes IRS = IR1 + IR2.
Current I is the same throughout the circuit so I is a common factor. Remove I
and the equation becomes RS = R1 + R2.
The total or equivalent resistance of a series circuit, RS, is equal to the sum of
the resistances: RS = R1 + R2 + …
Worked example 1
Two resistors of 2 Ω and 3 Ω respectively, are connected in series to the
terminals of a battery with a terminal potential difference of 10 V (see Figure 6 Circuit diagram for
Worked example 1
Figure 6). For the purposes of the calculations the switch is closed.
1 What is the equivalent (total) resistance of the circuit?
2 Compare the size of the current in the 2 Ω with the current in the
3 Ω resistor. Explain your answer.
3 If the potential difference across the 3 Ω resistor is 6 V, calculate the
potential difference across the 2 Ω resistor.
Unit 8 Resistors in series 171

Answers
Variables for Question 1 1 RS = R1 + R2
R1 = 2 Ω =2Ω+3Ω
R2 = 3 Ω =5Ω
RS = ? 2 The current in both resistors is the same. It is a series circuit and so
the current does not split up anywhere in the circuit.
Variables for Question 3 3 The sum of the voltages across the resistors equals the voltage across
the circuit.
VS = 10 V
Vacross 2 Ω + 6 V = 10 V
Vacross 3 Ω = 6 V
Vacross 2 Ω = 4 V
Vacross 2 Ω = ?
Activity 2 Answer questions on resistors in series

1.1 resistors in series
1.2 voltage divider
1.3 equivalent resistance.
2 Two resistors – 3 Ω and 5 Ω respectively – are connected in series to the
terminals of a battery which has a terminal potential difference of 12 V.
2.1 Draw a labelled circuit diagram of the circuit.
2.2 What is the equivalent (total) resistance of the circuit?
2.3 If the potential difference across the one resistor is 4,5 V, calculate the
potential difference across the other resistor.
2.4 Explain which resistor has the larger potential difference across it.
2.5 Briefly explain how to connect an ammeter to measure the current in
the circuit.
2.6 Explain whether it matters where the ammeter is connected in the
circuit.
3 Three resistors of 20 Ω, 30 Ω and 50 Ω respectively are connected in
series to the terminals of a battery which has a potential difference of
9 V when the switch in the circuit is closed.
3.1 Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit. Include one voltmeter connected
across the battery and another one across the 50 Ω resistor.
3.2 If the switch is opened will the reading across the battery increase, stay
the same or decrease?
3.3 State the term given to describe the voltage across the battery when the
switch is open.
3.4 State and explain the reading on the voltmeter connected across the
50 Ω resistor when the switch is open.
3.5 Explain the effect on the current in the circuit (with the switch closed) if
a 100 Ω resistor is connected in series with the circuit.

2.2 8 Ω; 2.3 7,5 V
172

Unit 9 Resistors in parallel
MODULE 5
Do you remember the current and voltage relationships for a parallel circuit
that you investigated in Grade 9? Confirm these relationships in the following
experiment.
Investigate current and voltage in

Experiment 1 parallel circuits
In this experiment you will measure the current in and voltage across the
branches in a parallel circuit and record what changes, if any, occur.
Materials
• two 1,5 V batteries
MetHOD
• two 3,0 V light bulbs
step 1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1 with the light bulbs in parallel.
• ammeter
• voltmeter
ammeter readings:
• connecting wires
step 2 Measure the current at points A, B and C (see Figure 2). Record the
• switch
readings I1, I2 and IP respectively in a table.
Voltmeter readings:
step 3 Measure and record the voltage across each resistor (V1 and V2) and
Caution
across the entire parallel connection VP (see Figure 3). (The “P” stands
for parallel circuit.) Connect to the largest
ranges of the ammeter and
step 4 Compare your readings and draw conclusions about the size of the voltmeter first.
current and the voltages in a parallel circuit.
VP
C
A
V1
A
bulb 1
bulb 1
bulb 2
bulb 2
B
V2
Figure 1 Apparatus set up for the practical Figure 2 Circuit diagram for measuring the Figure 3 Circuit diagram for measuring the
activity (measuring Vp and I2). current at points A, B and C in the parallel voltage across each light bulb and across
circuit. the entire parallel circuit.
DisCUssiON
Draw a conclusion after repeating the experiment with other resistances.
• IP = I1 + I2
• The voltage readings are the same.
Unit 9 Resistors in parallel 173

Current and voltage for a parallel connection
• The voltage across each resistor connected in parallel is the same.
• The sum of the currents through the resistors equals the current in the rest
New word of the circuit.
current divider: resistors in • Resistors in a parallel connection are called current dividers because the
parallel divide the current in sum of the branch currents equals the total current in the circuit: IP = I1 + I2
inverse proportion • The effect of connecting more resistors in parallel is to open up additional
pathways for the current. The resistance decreases and the current increases.
VP Resistance of resistors in parallel

V V V V
If we substitute I = into the equation IP = I1 + I2 then = + .
RP RP R1 R2
A Ip
Remove the common factor V and the equation becomes:
1 1 1
• The equivalent resistance of resistors connected in parallel is = + +…
I1
V1 RP R1 R2
A • For two resistors:
1 1 1 1
= +
I2 2 RP R1 R2
A
R2 + R1
V2 =
R1R2
Figure 4 For a parallel R1 + R2
connection: VP = V1 = V2 and = (rearrange)
IP = I1 + I2. The equivalent R1R2
resistance of resistors in parallel product of resistors
R1R2
is 1 = 1 + 1 + … RP = (invert) i.e. for two resistors, Rp =
RP R1 R2 R1 + R2 sum of resistors
Worked example 1
Refer to the circuit diagram in Figure 5. The voltmeter reads 1,2 V.
1 Calculate the equivalent resistance of the parallel connection.
2 Write down the terminal potential difference of the battery.
3 Of the two resistors, which resistor has the larger current in it? Give a
reason for your answer.
4 If the reading on the ammeter is 0,25 A and the current in the one
resistor is 0,15 A, calculate the current in the second resistor.
Answers
1 1 1
Variables for Question 1 1 = +
RP R1 R2
R1 = 8 Ω
R2 = 12 Ω 1 1 1 1,2 V
= + A V
RP = ? RP 8 Ω 12 Ω
3+2 8Ω
=
24
5
=
24 12 Ω
24
Rp = (invert both sides) Figure 5 Circuit diagram for Worked
Calculator hint for Question 1: 5 example 1
Use the inverse key x−1 Rp = 4,8 Ω
8 x–1 + 12 x–1 = x–1
174

MODULE 5
R1R2
Check the answer to Question 1 using RP =
R1 + R2
2 1,2 V
3 The 8 Ω resistor has the larger current in it. It is the smaller of the
two resistors connected in parallel and so it offers less opposition to Variables for Question 4
the flow of current. Ip = 0,25 A
4 IP = I1 + I2 I1 = 0,15 A
0,25 A = 0,15 A + I2 I2 = ?
I2 = 0,1 A
Activity 2 Answer questions on resistors in parallel
1 Write the relationships for a parallel connection of resistors:

1.1 The current in the branches of the connection compared with the
current entering or leaving it.
1.2 The potential difference (voltage) across the branches of the connection.
2 Write the equation for calculating the equivalent resistance of a parallel
connection of resistors.
3 Calculate the equivalent resistance of the resistors in:
3.1 Figure 6 (Check your answer with a second method.)
3.2 Figure 7
3.3 Figure 8.
5Ω 20 Ω
20 Ω
10 Ω 30 Ω
30 Ω
15 Ω 60 Ω
Figure 6 Diagram for Figure 7 Diagram for Figure 8 Diagram for
Question 3.1 Question 3.2 Question 3.3 V
2,4 V
4 Refer to the circuit diagram in Figure 9. The terminal potential

difference of the battery is 2,4 V.
4.1 Calculate the equivalent resistance of the parallel connection.
A 24 Ω
4.2 State the potential difference across the resistors.
4.3 If the reading on the ammeter is 0,3 A, give the sizes of the currents in
the 12 Ω and 24 Ω branches respectively. Explain how you arrived at 12 Ω
your answers.
Figure 9 Parallel connection
4.4 If another resistor is connected in parallel with the others will the
for Question 4
reading on the ammeter increase, stay the same or decrease? Explain your
answer.

3.1 12 Ω; 3.2 2,73 Ω; 3.3 10 Ω; 4.1 8 Ω; 4.3 0,2 A and 0,1 A respectively
Unit 9 Resistors in parallel 175

Module
5 Summary
Magnetism Electric circuits

• Unlike magnetic poles attract and like poles repel. • An electric circuit is a continuous conducting
• A magnetic field is a region in space where path along which electric charges can flow.
another magnet or ferromagnetic material will • Emf is the voltage measured across the
experience a force. terminals of a battery when no current is
• Magnetic field lines are lines that show the flowing through it.
direction of the magnetic field. The field is • The terminal potential difference (p.d.) of
stronger where the field lines are close together. a battery is the voltage measured across the
• The direction of a magnetic field line is the terminals of a battery when current is flowing
direction of the force on the N pole of a through the battery.
compass. Its direction is towards the S pole of • Potential difference and emf (V) are measured
the magnet that creates the field. in volts (V).
• The Earth’s magnetic poles are where the Earth’s • Connect a voltmeter in parallel with a
magnetic field is perpendicular to the ground and component to measure the voltage across it.
Q
are not at the same place as the geographic poles. • Current is the rate of flow of charge, I = and
Δt
is measured in amperes (A).
Electrostatics • Connect an ammeter into a circuit in series to
• Electrostatics (or static electricity) has to do measure the current.
with the interactions of stationary charges. • Electric current direction is the direction
• All materials contain positive (protons) and that positive charges would flow in a circuit,
negative charges (electrons). from the positive terminal of the battery to its
• An object that has an equal number of electrons negative terminal.
and protons is neutral. Its net charge is zero. • Resistance (R) is the ratio of the potential
• A positively charged object is electron deficient. difference across an electrical component to the
• A negatively charged object has an excess of current passing through it: R = V . It is the
electrons. I
opposition to the flow of electric current.
• Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. • The unit of resistance is the ohm. One ohm (Ω)
• A charged object can attract an uncharged is one volt per ampere.
object because of polarisation. • In a series circuit the current through each resistor
• The unit of charge is the coulomb (C). is the same. The resistors are voltage dividers.
• Principle of conservation of charge: The • The equivalent resistance is the resistance of a
net charge of an isolated system remains single resistor that can take the place of a number
constant during any physical process: of resistors connected together in a circuit.
Qnet = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + … • RS = R1 + R2 + … for resistors connected in series.
• Principle of quantisation of charge: Every • Resistors in a parallel connection are called
charge in the universe is an integer multiple of current dividers because the sum of the branch
the electron charge: Q = nqe currents equals the total current in the circuit.
• qe =1,6 × 10 −19 C (positive for protons and 1 1 1
negative for electrons). • = + +…
RP R1 R2
R1R2
• RP = for two resistors connected in parallel.
R1 + R2
176
Module 5 Summary

Module
Magnetism Electrostatics
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following 1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following
descriptions: descriptions:
1.1 A region in space where a magnet will 1.1 When the net amount of a physical quantity
experience a non-contact force. stays the same in an isolated system.
1.2 The end of a compass needle that points 1.2 An indivisible amount of a physical quantity.
approximately northwards. 1.3 The sum of all the charges in a system.
1.3 The light seen in the sky in polar regions 2 Answer the following multiple choice question.
caused by ionised particles from the Sun. Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer.
2 Answer the following multiple choice question. 2.1 A teacher brings two identical insulated
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. conducting spheres – O and P – into contact
2.1 The direction of the magnetic field and then separates them. After separation
surrounding a bar magnet is towards its … each sphere has a charge of +6 nC. Which one
A negative pole. of the following could have been the charges
B south pole. on the spheres before they came into contact?
C positive pole.
Sphere O (nC) Sphere P (nC)
D north pole.
A +3 +3
3 The following questions refer to the magnetism
and magnetic field of a bar magnet. B −4 −8
3.1 Explain what is meant by the “pole” of C −23 +17
a magnet. D +18 −6
3.2 Which end of a compass needle is attracted 3 You give a plastic ruler a negative charge by
towards the N pole of a bar magnet? rubbing it with a woollen jersey.
3.3 What is meant by saying that a bar magnet is 3.1 Which of the objects gains electrons?
a permanent magnet? 3.2 If 3 × 109 electrons transfer from the one
3.4 Name an example of a substance that forms a object to the other, calculate the charge that
temporary magnet. has transferred. Give your answer in:
3.5 Explain what is meant by the term magnetic field. 3.2.1 coulombs using scientific notation
3.6 Name the word used to describe the direction 3.2.2 nanocoulombs.
of the force that two bar magnets exert on 3.3 Explain how the charged ruler attracts small
each other if their S poles are closer than uncharged pieces of paper.
their N poles. 4 Initially two identical metal spheres A and B
3.7 Draw a diagram of the magnetic field around on insulated stands carry charges of +4,4 nC
a single bar magnet. and −2,0 nC respectively.
4 The Earth has a magnetic field that spreads
out far beyond its surface.
4.1 Explain the difference between the geographic +4,4 nC –2,0 nC
North Pole and the magnetic North Pole.
4.2 How does a compass needle show the A B
direction of the Earth’s magnetic field?
4.3 Describe what the solar wind is and how we
are protected from it on Earth.

4.1 Which sphere is deficient in electrons? 4 A 6 Ω resistor is connected to a battery. Explain
4.2 The spheres are brought into contact and how you would connect another resistor to it
then separated. to obtain the following equivalent resistance.
4.2.1 What is the direction of the force that Calculate the size of the resistor and draw
the spheres exert on each other after how the resistors are connected.
they separate? Give a reason. 4.1 10 Ω
4.2.2 Calculate the new charge on each 4.2 2Ω
sphere. 5 A 40 Ω and a 50 Ω resistor connected in
4.2.3 Name the principle that you used to series are connected to a battery.
answer Question 4.2.2. 5.1 Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit. Include
4.2.4 Which sphere loses electrons when a switch, an ammeter to measure the current
the two spheres come into contact? in the circuit and a voltmeter to measure the
4.2.5 Calculate how many electrons transfer voltage across the battery.
from the one sphere to the other 5.2 If the switch is closed, explain whether the
when they come into contact. current in the 40 Ω resistor is greater, the same
4.2.6 Name the principle that you used to as or less than the current in the 50 Ω resistor.
calculate Question 4.2.5. 5.3 Explain whether the voltmeter reading will
change (increase, stay the same, or decrease) if
Electric circuits the switch is opened.
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the 6 The circuit diagram below shows a parallel
following descriptions: connection of two resistors connected to a
1.1 The rate of flow of charge. battery with a terminal potential difference
1.2 A battery that no longer has chemical of 12 V.
potential energy. 12 V
1.3 Resistors connected so that there is more
than one path for the current.
A 60 Ω
2 Answer the following multiple choice question.
Write only the letter (A–D).
30 Ω
2.1 Refer to the circuit diagram below.
6.1 Calculate the resistance of the circuit.
6.2 A third resistor is connected in parallel.
If the potential difference of the battery
A I1
remains constant explain whether the
I2 following changes:
I3
6.2.1 total current
6.2.2 current in the 30 Ω resistor.
Which of the equations for the current in the 7 Consider the circuit diagram below:
circuit is correct?
A I1 = I2 + I3
B I2 = I1 + I3
C I3 = I2
D I3 = I1 + I2
3 Calculate the equivalent resistance of the The three resistors – X, Y and Z – have equal
resistors in: resistance. If ammeter M reads 6 A, what will
3.1 Figure A 3.2 Figure B 3.3 Figure C be the reading on ammeter N?
30 Ω
40 Ω
40 Ω 60 Ω 40 Ω Answers to numerical questions

Electrostatics: 3.2.1 –4,8 × 10–10 C; 3.2.2 –0,48 nC; 4.2.2 +1,2 nC;
60 Ω 4.2.5 2 × 1010 electrons
60 Ω
Figure A Figure B Figure C Electric circuits: 3.1 100 Ω; 3.2 24 Ω; 3.3 13,33 Ω; 4.1 4 Ω;
4.2 3 Ω; 6.1 20 Ω ; 7 4 A
178

MODULE
6
Chemical change (Part 2)
Water is an important solvent that dissolves many substances. Many reactions
in chemistry and in living things are carried out in an aqueous solution.
The study of the quantitative composition of chemical substances and the
qualitative changes that take place during chemical changes is called stoichiometry.
In this module, you will learn about the types of reactions that occur
in aqueous solutions where water is the solvent. We will also discuss
the relationships and laws that enable you to carry out qualitative and
quantitative analyses.
Chemical change
(Part 2)
Electrolytes and Amount of substance
conductivity
Reactions in
aqueous solutions
The mole and molar mass
Ion-exchange Redox reactions

Composition of substance
reactions
Molar volume and molar

concentration
Precipitation Gas-forming Acid-base

reactions reactions reactions Stoichiometric calculations

Unit 1 Ions in aqueous solutions
A solution is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent. In this unit we will

New words study aqueous solutions where liquid water is the solvent.
solute: substance dissolved
in another substance
solvent: substance in Water as a solvent
which another substance is
dissolved Water is a very important solvent in the laboratory and in living systems.
dipole: two opposite poles Every water molecule is a dipole. One side of a water molecule is slightly
of electric charge in one positive, while the opposite side is slightly negative. This is because oxygen is
molecule
more electronegative than hydrogen.
The polar nature of water molecules makes it an excellent solvent of:
• ionic solids
• compounds containing polar molecules.
Demonstrating water as a dipole

In Module 5 you learnt that water is a dipole. The demonstration on page 156
shows that falling water is attracted to a charged ruler. Although the charges
cannot move from atom to atom, they spend more time on one side of an
atom or molecule. The water molecules turn so that unlike charges are closer
to the charged ruler. The water is attracted to the charged object.
How water dissolves ions

Figure 1 Water is a polar
In ionic solids, the positive and negative ions are held together by electrostatic
molecule forces. The solid ionic crystal dissolves in a solvent and releases ions.
Dissolving is the process where solid ionic crystals break up into ions in water.
It takes energy to break the bonds between the ions in the crystal lattice. It
also takes energy to weaken the intermolecular forces in water. During this
process, energy is absorbed.
Energy is given off (released) when the salt ions form intermolecular bonds
with the polar water molecules. If the energy that is released is equal to or
greater than the energy absorbed, the solid will dissolve in water.
Because water molecules are dipoles, they cluster around the charged ion. The
attraction between ion and dipole gives out energy. This is called hydration.
Hydration is the process where ions become surrounded with water

molecules in a water solution.
The water dipoles that clustered around both the positive ions and the
negative ions keep them apart from each other.
180

Dissolving an ionic solid
Figures 2 to 5 show how sodium chloride – an ionic solid – dissolves in water.
Figure 2 shows the crystal structure of sodium chloride. The sodium chloride
crystal is placed in water. The lattice begins to break up because of the polar
nature of water molecules. Cl– ions are attracted towards the positive end of the
water molecule. Na+ ions move towards the negative end of the water molecule.
Eventually, the sodium and chloride ions are surrounded by water
molecules. Figure 5 shows an aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
We represent the dissolution process by using the abbreviations (s) and (aq).
When the salt is dissolved in water, we write the following equation:
NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
+ +
– – – +
– + – –
– – –
– + – +
+ – +
–
+ +
+ – +
– – +
– +
+ – + + – + – + – + – +
MODULE 6
+ – +– + – + + –
– – + – + – + –
+ – + –– +
+ –– + + – + – + + –
+ – + – ++ –
–
+ – + –
– + – – – –
+ – –
+ – + +
Figure 2 A sodium chloride Figure 3 Negative ions are Figure 4 The crystal starts to Figure 5 The sodium chloride
(NaCl) crystal is made of attracted to the positive end of break up. crystal is dissolved as Na+ and
positive and negative ions. the water molecule. Cl – ions in water.
Dissolving is not a chemical reaction

Salt is dissolved in water because of electrostatic forces of attraction. The
salt ions do not form strong bonds with the water molecules. When water
evaporates, the salt is left behind.
Chemical change occurs when bonds are broken and new bonds are formed.
In an aqueous solution, the bonds in the water molecules are not broken. The
ions are attracted to the polar ends of the water molecule more than they are
to each other.
MatErIalS
Practical activity 1 Make ionic solutions • four 250 ml beakers
• a teaspoon
In this practical activity you will observe a number of different ionic solids • sodium chloride
dissolving in water. (NaCl)
• potassium
MEtHOD permanganate
Step 1 Fill each beaker with 125 ml water. (KMnO4)
Step 2 Add a quarter teaspoon of sodium chloride (NaCl) to one beaker. • sodium hydroxide
Step 3 Add a few crystals of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) to the (NaOH)
second beaker. • potassium nitrate
Step 4 Add a quarter teaspoon of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to the third beaker. (KNO3)
Unit 1 Ions in aqueous solutions 181

Step 5 Add a quarter teaspoon of potassium nitrate (KNO3) to the last beaker.
Step 6 Stir the solutions and record your observations.
Caution Step 7 Write balanced chemical equations for each reaction and show the
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) physical state of the chemicals.
can damage the skin and
eyes. Use diluted solutions
and handle with care. DISCUSSION
The ionic solids dissolve in the water forming aqueous solutions. The balanced
equations are:
• NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl– (aq)
• KMnO4(s) → K+(aq) + MnO4 – (aq)
• NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH– (aq)
• KNO3(s) → K+(aq) + NO3 – (aq)
Types of reactions in aqueous solutions

Several types of reactions occur in aqueous solutions. The most important
chemical reactions in water are:
• ion-exchange reactions
• oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions.
Ion-exchange reactions
In ion-exchange reactions, positive ions exchange their respective negative
ions. Ion-exchange reactions include:
• precipitation reactions
• gas-forming reactions
• acid-base reactions.
Ion-exchange reactions are discussed in more detail in Unit 3 on page 188.
Oxidation and reduction reactions

Oxidation and reduction reactions are also referred to as redox reactions. In
redox reactions there is a transfer of electrons.
Application of ions in solution

The most common application of ions in solution is acid rain and the
formation of hard water.
Acid rain
The gases carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) are constantly released into the atmosphere.
• CO2 and SO2 are mainly from the burning of fossil fuels.
• SO2 is also released from volcanoes.
• Car exhaust gases are mainly responsible for NO2 emissions.
182

These gases combine with water droplets to form acids:
• Carbonic acid: CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
• Sulfuric acid: 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 2H2SO3(aq) + O2(g) → 2H2SO4(aq)
• Nitric acid: 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) → 4HNO3(aq)
Rain carries these acids back to Earth in the form of acid rain. In many cities,
acid rain causes damage to buildings and monuments made of concrete,
marble or limestone. Acid rain also damages forests and makes lakes acidic so
that fish can no longer live in them.
Hard water
As rain water runs over the limestone and other rocks, it dissolves some of the
calcium and magnesium salts present in the rock. Water containing Mg2+ and Figure 6 Acid rain causes
Ca2+ ions is called hard water. Hard water is responsible for the thick white damage to marble and
limestone statues.
scale in kettles and inside hot water pipes. If water and soap are mixed and no
foam forms, it is an indication that the water is hard water.
MODULE 6
Hard water is generally not harmful to a person’s health. It can, however, cause
boilers, cooling towers and other equipment that handles hot water to break down.
We can soften hard water using the properties of the ions. Calcium and
magnesium form insoluble compounds, so we can use precipitation reactions
to soften water. Precipitation reactions are discussed in Unit 3 on page 188.
Activity 2 Investigate the effects of hard water
Hard water forms lime scale on the element of a kettle. This causes an increase
in energy consumption. To determine the increase, water is heated in the kettle.
The energy used is measured. The result is then compared to a kettle with no
lime scale build up. This experiment is carried out for a kettle with different
amounts of lime scale build up. The results are shown in Table 1.
1 State an investigative question for this Table 1 Limescale build up and the percentage energy increase
investigation. needed to heat water
2 State a hypothesis for this investigation. Limescale Percentage energy increase

3 Identify the: thickness (mm) needed to heat water (%)
3.1 constants 2,0 15
3.2 independent variable 4,0 25
3.3 dependent variable. 5,5 39
4 Describe the control in the experiment. 8,0 55
5 Use the data in the table to plot a graph of 11,0 70
lime scale build up against the increase in
energy consumption.
6 What conclusion can be reached from the investigation?
7 How can lime scale build up be prevented in household appliances that
heat water?
8 Describe the advantages of limiting lime scale build up on heating
elements to our environment.
Unit 1 Ions in aqueous solution 183

Unit 2 Electrolytes and conductivity
New words Water can dissolve many salts, acids, gases and molecular compounds. Some
of the solutions can conduct electricity. These solutions are called electrolytes.
electrolyte: liquid that Solutions that do not conduct electricity are called non-electrolytes.
conducts electricity as a
The conductivity of a solution depends on:
result of the presence of
ions • the type of substance
• the solubility of a particular substance
conductivity (electrical):
measure of the ability of • the concentration of ions in the solution.
a substance to conduct
electric current
Conductivity and the type of substance
An electrolyte produces ions in a solution when it dissolves, while a non-
electrolyte does not. We can use the ability of an electrolyte to conduct electricity
to determine if ions are present in the solution.
Practical activity 1 Identify electrolytes
In this practical activity you will use an electrical circuit to measure the
conductivity of solutions.
Materials MEthod
• 3 V battery (or Step 1 Set up a test circuit as shown in Figure 2 on page 185. Place the light
power pack) bulb or ammeter in series in the circuit.
• 3,0 V light bulb and Step 2 Fill the beaker with 200 ml distilled water. Take the temperature of the water.
light bulb holder Step 3 Place the electrodes in the beaker and connect the circuit. Record your
• two carbon observations.
electrodes Step 4 Dissolve 20 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) in the water. Stir and take the
• connecting wires temperature of the solution.
• milliammeter Step 5 Place the electrodes in the beaker and watch the galvanometer or light
• thermometer bulb. Record your observations.
• five 250 ml beakers Step 6 Repeat Step 2 to 5 with solutions of calcium chloride (CaCl2),
• 20 g sodium ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), acetic acid (CH3COOH) and sugar
chloride (NaCl) (C12H22O11). Rinse the electrodes in water between each experiment.
• 20 g calcium
chloride (CaCl2)
• 20 g ammonium
chloride (NH4Cl)
• 20 g acetic acid
(CH3COOH)
• 20 g sugar
(C12H22O11)
• distilled water
Figure 1 The presence of ions in a solution will cause an electric current to flow.
The light bulb glows when electric current is flowing.
184

Caution
Ensure that the carbon electrodes are cleaned properly before storing them. Carefully rinse the
electrodes with distilled water after use.
DISCUSSION
• A change in temperature is an indication of the release of energy that takes
place when ions become hydrated.
• Conductivity is a measure of how easily a solution conducts an electric mA
current. When ions are present, electricity flows through the circuit
and the light bulb lights up. The light bulb burns brightly in the
following solutions:
» NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl– (aq)
» CaCl2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl– (aq)
» NH4Cl(s) → NH4+(aq) + Cl– (aq)
• All these substances are ionically bonded. Most ionically bonded
MODULE 6
substances form ions when in solution.
• The light bulb lights up dimly in the solution of acetic acid. This solution
is only partly ionised in water and conducts electricity poorly. This is
called a weak electrolyte. Figure 2 Electric circuit for
testing conductivity.
• The light bulb does not glow in solutions of non-electrolytes. Pure water
contains no ions and it is a non-electrolyte.
• Sugar is also a non-electrolyte. Sugar atoms are covalently bonded and
do not form ions in solution. The sugar dissolves in water but ions are
not formed:
C12H22O11(s) → C12H22O11(aq)
Conductivity and solubility

In Practical activity 1 you dissolved different solids in water. The solution of
Did you know?
sugar (C12H22O11, aq) does not conduct because no ions are formed. When a Your body contains salts
substance dissolves in water, it does not always form an electrolyte. that are dissolved in water.
These are electrolytes that
Silver chloride (AgCl) is ionically bonded, but when added to water it does act as electrical conductors
not dissolve. It does not form an aqueous solution. This mixture will not performing important
functions in your body. When
conduct electricity and is a non-electrolyte.
you exercise you lose salts
through sweat. It is important
to replace the salts. Athletes
therefore drink sports drinks
Activity 2 Write definitions of physical and chemical change that contain salts before and
during exercise to replace
Search scientific literature and find the definitions of chemical change the salts and stay healthy.
and physical change. Select the most appropriate definition and share your
findings in a class discussion.
Conductivity and concentration of ions

In Practical activity 1 you identified electrolytes. The concentration of the
electrolyte affects conductivity of a solution. We will test the relationship
between conductivity and the concentration of ions in Practical activity 3.
Unit 2 Electrolytes and conductivity 185

Test the relationship between
conductivity and concentration of ions
In this practical activity you will measure the conductivity of different
concentrations of ions in two solutions.
Materials METHOD
• 3 V battery (or Step 1 Set up a test circuit as shown in Figure 2 on page 185.
power pack) Step 2 Prepare 0,5 mol.dm–3 solutions of NaCl and CaCl2. Prepare a
• milliammeter 0,5 mol.dm–3 solution of NaCl by dissolving 29,22 g NaCl in
• two electrodes made 100 ml water. Dissolve 55,49 g CaCl2 in 100 ml water to make up a 0,5
of carbon mol.dm–3 CaCl2 solution.
• connecting wires Step 3 Add one drop of NaCl solution to 100 ml distilled water. Stir
• sodium chloride the solution.
(NaCl) Step 4 Carefully place the electrodes into the solution. Take an ammeter
• calcium chloride reading to determine the conductivity of the solution.
(CaCl2) Step 5 Add another drop of NaCl solution and take another ammeter reading.
• 100 ml distilled Continue this process until ten drops of NaCl solution is added to the
water distilled water.
• two beakers Step 6 Repeat Steps 2 to 5 with the CaCl2 solution.
Step 7 Record your results in a table similar to Table 1 on page 187.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

When more ionic solid is added, the reading on the ammeter increases.
There are more ions in the solution to carry the current. Conductivity is
proportional to the concentration of ions in the solution. The more ions there
are, the greater the conductivity will be.
Determine the relationship between

Activity 4 conductivity and concentration of ions
In this activity you will:
• use experimental data obtained in Practical activity 3 above to draw a graph of
conductivity vs. concentration of ions
• use the gradient of the graphs to determine the relationship between
conductivity and concentration
• compare conductivity of two different solutions.
HYPOTHESIS
Write a hypothesis for each of the aims listed above.
METHOD
Step 1 Identify the independent and dependent variables. State any control
(fixed) variables.
Step 2 Use the data from the Practical activity 3. Plot a graph of the data on
the same axis.
Step 3 Determine the mathematical relationship between conductivity
and concentration.
Step 4 Write a chemical equation for the dissociation of NaCl and CaCl2 in water.
186

Step 5 Compare the slopes of the graphs. Which graph has the steeper slope?
Explain why it has the steeper slope.
Step 6 Explain the reason for the difference in conductivity of the two solutions.
CONClUSION
• Accept or reject the hypotheses that you made earlier. Give reasons.
• Identify sources of error in the experimental method and suggest
improvement.
• Explain whether this was a fair experiment.
rEPOrt
Write a report of the investigation using guidelines on page 18 or guidelines
given to you by your teacher.
altErNatIVE
If you do not have access to the apparatus for Practical activity 3 or are
MODULE 6
revising, carry out the activity using the data in Table 1.
Table 1 Data obtained by measuring the relationships between conductivity and concentration of ions
Conductivity (mA)
0,5 mol.dm–3 NaCl
Drops of solution 0,5 mol.dm–3 CaCl2 solution
solution
0 0,184 0,184
1 0,338 0,552
2 0,552 0,919
3 0,735 1,29
4 0,919 1,47
5 1,10 1,84
6 1,29 2,21
7 1,47 2,21
8 1,47 2,39
9 1,65 2,39
10 1,84 2,57
Activity 5 Answer questions on electrolytes
1 Write equations for the dissolving of the following electrolytes:

1.1 NaBr 1.4 K 2SO4
1.2 NH4NO3 1.5 H2SO4
1.3 CaI2 1.6 LiOH
2 State if the conductivity of a solution increases, decreases or stay the same,
if the following actions are carried out. Explain each answer.
2.1 An additional gram of CaCl2(s) is added to a solution of calcium chloride.
2.2 An additional gram of NH4Cl(s) is added to a solution of ammonium
chloride.
2.3 An additional gram of sugar is added to a solution of sugar.
Unit 2 Electrolytes and conductivity 187

Unit 3 Ion-exchange reactions
Types of ion-exchange reactions

In ion-exchange reactions, positive ions exchange their respective negative
ions. Ion-exchange reactions include:
• precipitation reactions
• gas-forming reactions
• acid-base reactions.
New word Precipitation reactions

When certain aqueous solutions are mixed, a solid suddenly appears in the mixture.
precipitate: insoluble solid
formed when a reaction This chemical reaction is called a precipitation reaction. In chemistry, precipitation
occurs in a solution is the opposite of dissolving. The solid that appears is called a precipitate.
The driving force in precipitation reactions is the formation of an insoluble salt.
Practical demonstration 1 Observe a precipitation reaction
In this demonstration you will observe the formation of a precipitate from two
clear solutions.
Materials MEthod
• three 250 ml glass Step 1 Prepare the two solutions in two separate beakers.
beakers Step 2 Quickly pour the two solutions into the third beaker.
• 50 ml potassium
iodide solution
(KI, aq)
• 50 ml lead(II)
nitrate solution
(Pb(NO3)2, aq)
potassium lead(II) nitrate
iodide solution solution
Caution
Lead nitrate is poisonous.
Do not pour it down
the drain, but store the yellow precipitate
remaining solution in a
safe place. Figure 1 Two clear solutions react and produce Figure 2 Use a filter to separate the
a solid precipitate. precipitate from the solution.
DISCUSSION
A solid precipitate appears when the two solutions are mixed. The reaction
happens very quickly. The precipitate can be collected by filtering the mixture.
188

Equations for precipitation reactions
Precipitation reaction equations can be written in different ways. Depending
on the information you want to record, you can indicate the following:
1 Show all the reactants and products involved in the reaction. Use an
arrow (↓) to indicate that a precipitate is formed.
Example: Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → PbI2(↓) + 2KNO3
2 Show all the chemicals present as ions in the solutions before and after
the reaction.
Example: (Pb2+ + 2NO3 –)(aq) + 2(K+ + I–)(aq) → PbI2(↓) + 2(K+ + NO3 –)(aq)
3 Only show the ions that react with each other.
–
Example: Pb2+(aq) + 2I (aq) → PbI2(↓)
K+ and NO3 – are spectator ions. They have to be there to partner with
New words
the other ions, but they take no part in the reaction. spectator ions: ions
present in a solution; do not
Net reaction take part in a reaction
Equation 3 above is a net reaction. It leaves out the spectator ions that do not net reaction: reaction that
MODULE 6
includes only ions that take
take part in the reaction. The net reaction shows that a lead(II) nitrate solution
part in the reaction
will have the same reaction with solutions of sodium iodide, or lithium iodide, or
calcium iodide. The reaction is between the lead ion (Pb2+) and the iodide ion (I–).
Uses of precipitation reactions

Did you know?
We use qualitative analysis techniques to identify the ions in a solution. The
presence of a precipitate confirms the presence of an ion. Many laundry detergents
use ion-exchange reactions
We use quantitative analysis techniques to measure quantities of a substance. We to produce soft water.
can determine the mass of a particular ion, by measuring the mass of the precipitate
formed. For example, silver salts can form solutions containing dissolved silver ions.
We measure the mass of the precipitate to measure the mass of silver.
In industry, precipitation reactions are used in the manufacture of chemicals.
We can separate two substances by adding a reactant that gives a precipitate.
We can also remove unwanted ions from a solution. For example, hard
water is formed when dissolved calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions are
present in water. These ions can be removed by adding a solution of sodium
carbonate to the water: A precipitate of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is formed
that can be removed by filtering. This reaction can be written as:
Ca2+(aq) + (2Na+ + CO32–)(aq) → CaCO3(↓) + 2Na+(aq)
Testing for the presence of dissolved ions barium nitrate

We can identify which ion is present in an unknown solution by carrying out
chemical tests.
Predicting precipitation reactions

Many solutions are clear. To reveal the presence of an ion in the solution, we
add a solution that will cause a precipitation reaction to occur. If the ion is
present, the reaction occurs and a precipitate forms. If the ion is not present,
no reaction will occur and the solution will remain clear.
To test for the presence of chloride ions in a solution, we add a few drops
of silver nitrate. If chloride ions are present, a white precipitate of silver
chloride forms:
Cl–(aq) + (Ag+ + NO3–)(aq) → AgCl(↓) + NO3–(aq)
If chloride ions are not present, a precipitate will not form. Additional tests can Figure 3 Testing for the
be conducted to determine which ion (if any) is present. presence of dissolved ions.
Unit 3 Ion-exchange reactions 189

Table 1 shows precipitation reactions that we can use to identify ions in solution.
Table 1 Identification of ions in solution using precipitation reactions
Add a few Colour of

To test for: Precipitation reaction
drops of: precipitate
Sulfate ions Barium nitrate SO42–(aq) + (Ba2+ + 2NO3–)(aq) → BaSO4(↓) + 2NO3–(aq) White
(SO4 2–) solution Add dilute nitric acid to the precipitate; the precipitate will not dissolve
Chloride Silver nitrate Cl–(aq) + (Ag+ + NO3–)(aq) → AgCl(↓) + NO3–(aq) White
ions (Cl–) solution Add dilute nitric acid to the precipitate; the precipitate will not dissolve
Bromide Silver nitrate Br–(aq) + (Ag+ + NO3–)(aq) → AgBr(↓) + NO3–(aq) Pale cream
ions (Br–) solution Add dilute nitric acid to the precipitate; the precipitate will not dissolve
Iodide ions Silver nitrate I–(aq) + (Ag+ + NO3–)(aq) → AgI(↓) + NO3–(aq) Yellow
(I–) solution Add dilute nitric acid to the precipitate; the precipitate will not dissolve
Carbonate Barium nitrate CO32–(aq) + (Ba2+ + 2NO3–)(aq) → BaCO3(↓) + 2NO3–(aq) White
ions (CO32–) solution Add dilute nitric acid to the precipitate; the precipitate will dissolve:
CO32–(s) + 2H+(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Activity 2 Write precipitate equations
1 Copper nitrate (Cu(NO3)2) and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) are soluble in

water. Copper carbonate (CuCO3) is insoluble. Write a chemical equation
to show how you can make copper carbonate.
2 Water that contains a high concentration of calcium ions is known
as hard water. Adding washing soda (Na2CO3) will soften hard water.
Explain how the water is softened by writing a balanced equation of
the reaction.
3 You are asked to test a water sample for chlorides. Explain how you
can determine:
3.1 if chloride ions are present
3.2 the quantity (mass) of chloride in the water.
4 If you had a solution that contains sulfate ions, explain how could you
get rid of the ions. Write a chemical equation to show the reaction
which you would use.
Activity 3 Identify ions
The following reactions were carried out in a laboratory. In each case, identify
the ion present in the solution.
1 A clear silver nitrate solution is added to a clear solution and a yellow
precipitate forms. Adding dilute nitric acid does not dissolve the precipitate.
2 A clear barium nitrate solution is added to a clear solution and a white
precipitate forms. Adding dilute nitric acid dissolves the precipitate.
3 A clear silver nitrate solution is added to a clear solution and a white
4 A clear barium nitrate solution is added to a clear solution and a white
190

Gas-forming reactions
When certain aqueous solutions are mixed, a gas is produced. This chemical Did you know?
reaction is called a gas-forming reaction. The driving force in gas-forming
When you bake a cake, the
reactions is the formation of a gas. batter rises because of a
We have discussed several gas-forming reactions in this book. Examples of gas-forming reaction. Baking
gas-forming reactions include: powder is a combination of
baking soda (NaHCO3) and a
• (2Na+ + CO32–)(aq) + (2H+ + SO42–)(aq) → (2Na+ + SO42–)(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) dry acid. These react in the
• Zn(s) + 2(H+ + NO3 –)(aq) → (Zn2+ + 2NO3 –)(aq) + H2(g) batter and release carbon
dioxide (CO2). The gas
creates pockets of air inside
Acid-base reactions the batter that makes the
batter expand.
Many acids and bases are used in our homes. Sulfuric acid is used in a car
battery. Hydrochloric acid is added to swimming pool water. Acetic acid is a
part of vinegar and citric acid is found in oranges. Table 2 The pH of some
Bases are the chemical opposites of acids. Bases that dissolve in water are solutions
called alkalis. Your blood is an alkaline solution and so is seawater. Solution pH
MODULE 6
An acid provides hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. A hydrogen ion is a HCl (1,0 mol.dm ) –3
0,0
proton. This is what is left when a hydrogen atom loses its electron. HCl (0,1 mol.dm ) –3
1,0
A base provides hydroxide ions (OH–) in a solution. During an acid-base
gastric juice 2,0
reaction there is a transfer of protons. The reaction between an acid and a base
Lemon juice 2,4
produces a salt and water. The following is an example of an acid-base reaction:
Vinegar 2,7
Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form sodium chloride
Cola 3,0
and water.
(Na+ + OH–)(aq) + (H+ + Cl–)(aq) → (Na+ + Cl–)(aq) + H2O(l) Apple juice 3,1
Orange juice 3,5
The pH scale Tomato juice 4,2
We measure the strength of an acid or base by using the pH scale. This scale Bread 5,5
measures acidity and alkalinity of a solution: Rainwater 6,2
• If a solution has a pH of 0–2, it is strongly acidic. Milk 6,5
• If a solution has a pH of 3–6, it is increasingly weak acidic. Distilled water 7,0
• If a solution has a pH of 7 it is neutral. Blood 7,4
• If a solution has a pH of 8–11 it is weakly alkaline. Eggs 7,8
• If a solution has a pH of 12–14, it is strongly alkaline. Seawater 8,5
Milk of magnesia 10,5
Table 2 shows the pH of some solutions. We can identify acids and bases by
NH3 (0,1 mol.dm–3) 11,1
using different indicators. Litmus paper strips, for example, turn red in acidic
KOH (0,1 mol.dm–3) 13,0
conditions and blue in alkaline.
KOH (1,0 mol.dm–3) 14,0
Activity 4 Identify and write ion-exchange reactions
Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions and in each
case identify the driving force of the reaction:
1 Lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) is heated and produces lead(II) oxide +
nitrogen(IV) oxide + oxygen
2 Lithium metal + water → hydrogen gas + lithium hydroxide
3 Zinc metal + hydrochloric acid (HCl) → hydrogen gas + zinc(II) chloride
4 Aqueous calcium sulfate is mixed with aqueous sodium carbonate
5 Magnesium hydroxide is mixed with sulfuric acid
Unit 3 Ion-exchange reactions 191

Unit 4 Redox reactions
Another type of reaction that occurs in an aqueous solution involves the

New words
transfer of electrons between atoms. These reactions are called oxidation-
redox reaction: reaction in reduction or redox reactions. In a redox reaction, there is an exchange of
which there is a transfer of electrons between two reactants.
electrons
oxidation: process whereby
a reactant loses electrons
Oxidation and reduction
reduction: process whereby An example of a redox reaction is when hydrochloric acid and zinc metal
a reactant gains electrons react. The overall reaction is:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)→ ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
In this reaction the zinc atom – which is electrically neutral – loses two
electrons. It becomes a zinc ion which has a positive charge:
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
When a reactant loses electrons, we say that oxidation occurs.
Hydrochloric acid consists of H+ ions and Cl– ions. Electrons transfer from
the zinc atoms to the H+ ions. The H+ ions gain electrons and we say they are
reduced to H atoms. The neutral H atoms then combine to form H2 molecules:
2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g)
Reduction occurs when a reactant gains electrons.
How to recognise redox reactions

You know a reaction is a redox reaction if the charges on the atoms and
ions change.
The driving force of a redox reaction is the transfer of electrons.
Redox reactions and ions in solution

When an electric current is conducted through an electrolyte, the ions in
solution gain or lose electrons (see Unit 2 on page 184). When an electric
current is, for example, passed through a copper(II) chloride solution,
reactions take place at both electrodes.
Copper ions (Cu2+) are attracted to the negatively charged electrode. The
negatively charged electrode has extra electrons. The copper ions gain two
electrons each and form copper atoms. These copper atoms are deposited on
the negative electrode.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s) Reduction: gain of electrons
Chloride ions (Cl–) are attracted to the positively charged electrode. The
positively charged electrode is short of electrons. The chloride ions lose their
Figure 1 The rusting of iron is
an oxidation reaction. electrons and form chlorine atoms. These chlorine atoms join together to form
chlorine molecules. Chlorine gas forms at the positive electrode.
2Cl–(aq) → 2Cl + 2e– → Cl2(g) Oxidation: loss of electrons
192

More redox reactions in solution
Zinc atoms displace copper ions from a solution.
Zn(s) + (Cu2+ + SO42–)(aq) → Cu(s) + (Zn2+ + SO42–)(aq)
We can identify which atoms and ions change their charge because of electron
transfer:
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– Oxidation: loss of electrons
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s) Reduction: gain of electrons
We classified this as a reaction where a solid was formed. We can now also
classify it as a redox reaction, where the driving force is the transfer of electrons.
Identify chemical reaction

Experiment 1 types experimentally
In this experiment you will observe and classify the reaction type.
MEtHOD MatErIalS
MODULE 6
Step 1 Perform the experiments in Table 1 and record your observations. • silver nitrate
Step 2 Classify each reaction as a precipitation, a gas-forming, an acid-base or solution
a redox reaction. • sodium bromide
solution
Table 1 Experiments for Experiment 1 • sodium hydroxide
Experiment Method solution
Experiment 1 • Mix 50 ml of silver nitrate solution and sodium bromide solution. • hydrochloric acid
Experiment 2 • Pour 50 ml sodium hydroxide in one beaker and 50 ml hydrochloric solution
acid in another. • sodium carbonate
• Place a strip of litmus paper in each solution and note the colour. solution
• Next mix the two solutions.
• Place a strip of litmus paper in the mixture and note the colour. • copper(II) sulfate
Experiment 3 • Mix 50 ml of sodium carbonate and 50 ml of hydrochloric acid. solution
Experiment 4 • Fill a beaker with a solution of copper(II) sulfate. • 9 V or 12 V battery
• Place the electrodes in the beaker and connect the circuit. • pair of carbon
electrodes
DISCUSSION • two 100 ml beakers
The reaction type of each experiment is identified by observing the products • one 250 ml beaker
that form. • litmus paper
Activity 2 Identify reaction types
For each of the following chemical reactions state the reaction type and the
driving force.
1 Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
2 NaBr(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgBr(s) + NaNO3(aq)
3 2K(s) + I2(s) → 2KI(s)
4 LiOH(s) + HNO3(aq) → LiNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
5 Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq)
6 CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
7 4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)
8 2H2O2(l) + catalyst → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
9 2NH4NO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
10 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
Unit 4 Redox reactions 193

Unit 5 Atomic mass and the mole concept
Revising molecular and formula masses

Atoms are very small and we cannot describe their mass in terms of grams and
kilograms. Instead the carbon-12 isotope is defined as having a mass of 12,00.
The masses of other elements are compared with that of carbon-12. This is
called their relative atomic mass. We can also calculate:
• the relative molecular mass of a covalent molecule, for example, H2O
• the relative formula mass of one formula unit of an ionic compound, for
example, NaCl.
Activity 1 Calculate relative molecular and formula masses
Calculate the relative molecular and relative formula masses of the following
compounds:
Answers to numerical
questions 1 CO2 3 AgCl 5 NH3
1 44,0; 2 119,0; 3 143,4; 2 KBr 4 CaSO4 6 Na2CO3
4 136,2; 5 17,0; 6 106,0
The mole concept

Atoms are too small to be counted one by one, so we need another way of
measuring amounts of chemical substances. The answer is a quantity called
the mole. The mole is the SI measurement for the amount of a substance.
Avogadro’s number
We talk about a dozen eggs to mean 12 eggs. In the same way we have a special
name for the number of particles in one mole.
Avogadro’s constant (NA) is the number of particles in one mole of

substance.
Avogadro’s number equals 6,022 × 1023. This is 602 200 000 000 000 000 000 000
which is too big to imagine.
Avogadro’s number of eggs would fill the oceans of the Earth 30 million
times over. All the grains of sand on South Africa’s beaches would not add up
to Avogadro’s number.
Yet atoms and molecules are so small that 6,022 × 1023 water molecules have a
mass of 18 g. (This is about 4 teaspoons of water.) Twice the mass (36 g) contains
twice Avogadro’s number [2 × (6,022 × 1023)] which is 1,2044 × 1024 molecules.
Relative atomic mass and number of atoms

Consider what happens when we compare carbon and sodium using relative
atomic mass. The relative atomic mass of carbon (C) is 12 and that of sodium
is 23.
194

The mass ratio of one atom of carbon to one atom of sodium is 12 : 23. It
follows that the mass ratio of:
• a dozen carbon atoms : dozen sodium atoms is also 12 : 23
• a million carbon atoms : million sodium atoms equals 12 : 23
• Avogadro’s number of carbon atoms : Avogadro’s number of sodium atoms
is 12 : 23.
In each case, there is the same number of atoms of each type and the mass
ratio stays the same. Figure 1 A mole of R5 coins,
stacked in a pile, would be
about 1,5  1018 km high. It
Use mass to measure a mole of substance would reach from Earth – past
the Moon and all the planets –
This leads to a brilliant concept. Take the relative atomic mass of an element to halfway across our galaxy.
and measure out that number of grams. Each time you will have the same
number of particles. Did you know?
So, 12 g of carbon is a mole of carbon atoms or 6,022 × 1023 atoms and Amedeo Avogadro
23 g of sodium is a mole of sodium atoms or 6,022 × 1023 atoms. This is called (1776–1856) was a scientist
MODULE 6
the molar mass. ahead of his time. He never
knew his own number. The
Avogadro constant was
Molar mass (Mm) is the mass of one mole of atoms, molecules or formula named in his honour in 1909.
units measured in g.mol−1 (grams per mole).
How do we know that 18 g of water contains 6,022 × 1023 molecules? The reasoning Note
is the same as for atoms. The relative molecular mass of H2O is 18. Measure out It is important to identify
18 g of water and it contains 1 mole or Avogadro’s number of molecules. the type of “particles”
when measuring a mole.
In the case of an ionic substance such as KBr, its relative formula mass
Are they atoms, molecules
measured in grams contains Avogadro’s number of formula units of KBr. or formula units?
Worked example 1
Calculate the molar mass of calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2). Express the
answer in g.mol–1.
Answer
Add the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in the formula,
and convert the answer to molar mass.
Mm(Ca(NO3)2) = Ar(Ca) + 2  Mr(NO3)
Variables
= 40,1 + 2(14,0 + 3  16,0)
Ar(Ca) = 40,1
= 40,1 + 2(14,0 + 48,0)
Ar(N) = 14
= 40,1 + 2(62,0)
Ar(O) = 16
= 40,1 + 124,0
= 164,1 g.mol–1
Activity 2 Calculate molar mass
Calculate the molar masses of the following atoms, molecules or ionic formulae:
1 Al 5 CO2 9 CaF2
2 P 6 C4H10 10 K 2O
3 Zn 7 H2SO4
4 Ar 8 MgS
Unit 5 Atomic mass and the mole concept 195

Unit 6 Molar mass
Relationship between molar mass and number of moles

We can determine the number of moles of a substance by using the
following equation:
n= m
Mm
where n = number of moles (measured in mol)
m = mass (measured in g)
Mm = molar mass (measured in g.mol–1)
Worked example 1
How many moles of water molecules are there in 63 g of water?
Variables Answer
Ar(H) = 1 The molar mass of water is:
Ar(O) = 16 Mm(H2O) = 2  Ar(H) + Ar(O)
= (2  1) + 16
= 18 g.mol–1
The amount of moles in 63 g of water is:

n= m
Mm
= 63
18
= 3,5 moles
Activity 1 Calculate number of moles, molar mass and mass
1 Calculate the number of moles of:

1.1 zinc atoms present in 261,6 g of zinc
1.2 magnesium oxide (MgO) in 8,06 g of magnesium oxide
Answers to numerical 1.3 carbon monoxide (CO) in 117,6 g of carbon monoxide
questions 2 Calculate the mass of:
1.1 4 moles; 1.2 0,2 moles;
2.1 6 moles of sulfur dioxide (SO2) molecules
1.3 4,2 moles; 2.1 384 g;
2.2 60,0 g; 3 55,8 g.mol–1; 2.2 0,75 moles of beryllium chloride (BeCl2)
4 81,4 g.mol–1 3 Calculate the molar mass of an element if 6 moles of it have a mass of
334,8 g. Which element is this?
New words 4 Calculate the molar mass of zinc oxide if 2,5 moles of it has a mass of 203,5 g.
hydrate: salt that contains

water of crystallisation Water of crystallisation
water of crystallisation: Some ionic crystals trap water molecules between their ions when they form. This
water contained in crystals
of certain salts type of salt is called a hydrate. The water is called water of crystallisation (or
water of hydration). The ratio of water molecules to the ions is a fixed number.
196

The chemical formula shows the number of water molecules. For example,
barium chloride (BaCl2.2H2O) has two waters of crystallisation for each formula
unit. Other hydrates have waters of crystallisation ranging from one to twelve.
New word
Experimentally, we can find the mass and the ratio of water in a hydrate by
heating the salt. This evaporates (drives out) the water from the hydrate. The anhydrous salt: salt with
resulting salt is called an anhydrous salt. the water of crystallisation
∆ removed
BaCl2.2H2O(s) → BaCl2(s) + 2H2O(g)
Calculation involving the water of crystallisation

To calculate the number of moles of water of crystallisation:
Step 1 Calculate number of moles of water
m(H2O)
n(H2O) =
Mm(H2O)
Step 2 Calculate number of moles of anhydrous salt

(AS) n(AS) = m(AS)
Mm(AS)
MODULE 6
Step 3 Determine the ratio of water to anhydrous
n(H2O)
salt (AS) Integer ratio =
n(AS)
Step 4 Write the formula for the hydrate AS.xH2O (x = integer ratio from Step 3)
Experiment 2 Investigate water of crystallisation
In this experiment you will:

• evaporate the water trapped in crystals of copper sulfate (CuSO4)
• determine the mass and number of moles of water of crystallisation in
CuSO4.xH2O.
MEtHOD MatErIalS
Step 1 Place the crucible on the mass meter. Copy Table 1 and record the • mass meter
mass of the crucible. • ceramic crucible
Step 2 Place between 1 and 2 g of copper sulfate powder (hydrated salt) in • pipe clay triangle
the crucible and determine the mass of the crucible with the powder. and stand
Record the mass in a table. • Bunsen burner
Step 3 Calculate the mass of the powder. • powdered copper
Step 4 Place the crucible on the triangle and heat it with a Bunsen burner. sulfate (CuSO4)
When the powder turns from blue to white, all the water is driven off.
Step 5 Cool the anhydrous salt. Determine the mass of the anhydrous salt
and crucible. Record the mass in the table.
Step 6 Determine the mass of the copper sulfate and the mass of the water.
Step 7 Determine the number of moles of water in the hydrate.
Table 1 Recording mass for Experiment 2
Mass of crucible and hydrated salt g

Mass of crucible – g
Mass of hydrated salt = g
Unit 6 Molar mass 197

Mass of crucible and anhydrous salt g
Mass of crucible – g
Mass of anhydrous salt = g
Did you know? Mass of hydrated salt g

Mass of anhydrous salt – g
When plaster of Paris
is mixed with water, Mass of water removed = g
it forms the hydrate
gypsum (2CaSO4·2H2O).
This hydrate is used as a DISCUSSION
support for broken bones. • The mass of water in a hydrate is found by subtracting the mass of
The plaster is moistened anhydrous salt from the mass of the hydrated salt.
and wrapped around the
damaged limb. It sets • The ratio of water molecules to ions is a fixed number. The number of
into a tube called an waters of crystallisation is determined by finding the ratio of moles of
orthopedic cast.
water to moles of anhydrous salt.
Worked example 2
A 1,250 g sample of barium chloride dihydrate (BaCl2.2H2O) has a mass of
1,060 g after heating. Calculate the mass of water of crystallisation.
Answer
The mass of water lost is the difference between the mass of the hydrate
and the mass of the anhydrous salt.
Mass of water =
1,250 g – 1,060 g
= 0,190 g
Worked example 3
The anhydrous salt aluminum trichloride (AlCl3) is an important catalyst
used in the industrial manufacture of many chemicals. The salt forms
the hydrate AlCl3.xH2O. When a 10 g sample of the hydrate is heated,
4,47 g of water is driven off. Determine the number of moles of water of
crystallisation in aluminum chloride.
Answer
Variables Step 1 Calculate the mass of Mass of AS =
total mass – mass of water
m(AlCl3.xH2O) = 10 g anhydrous salt = 10 g – 4,47 g
m(H2O) = 4,47 g = 5,53 g
Mm(H2) = 18 g.mol–1 Step 2 Calculate number of n(H2O) = m
Mm(AlCl3) = 133,5 g.mol–1 moles of water Mm(H2O)
= 4,47
18
= 0,248 moles of water
Step 3 Calculate number of n(AlCl3) = m
moles of anhydrous Mm(AlCl3)
salt (AS)
= 5,53
133,5
= 0,0414 moles of AlCl3
198

Step 4 Determine the ratio n(H2O)
x=
of water to anhydrous n(AlCl3)
salt (AS)
= 0,248
0,0414
= 6 waters of crystallisation
Step 5 Write the formula for AlCl3.6H2O
the hydrate AS.xH2O
Hint: The water of crystallisation is always a whole number.
Empirical formula
The empirical formula of a compound is a formula which shows the simplest
ratio of different atoms in the formula. The simplest ratio of atoms in the water
molecule is H2O. The simplest ratio of atoms in the hydrogen peroxide molecule
(H2O2) is HO. We can calculate the empirical formula of any compound if we
MODULE 6
know its percentage composition. The percentage composition is the percent by
mass that each element contributes to the molecule or formula.
One mole of any element contains the same number of atoms as one mole
of any other element. Therefore in a compound the ratio in which the atoms
combine is the same as the ratio of the moles of atoms combining.
We can work out mole ratios of elements if we know the composition of
a compound.
Worked example 4
The gas ethene is analysed and found to contain 85,72% carbon and
14,28% hydrogen. Calculate the empirical formula of ethene.
Answer
C H
Mass present in 100 g of ethene 85,72 g 14,28 g
Mass of 1 mole 12,0 g 1,0 g
Number of moles 85,72 14,28
12,0 1,0
= 7,14 = 14,28
Mole ratio (divide by smallest number) 7,14 14,28

7,14 7,14
Ratio of moles in formula 1 2
Empirical formula of ethene CH2
Activity 3 Calculate empirical formulae
Laboratory analysis of three compounds yielded the results presented below.

In each case, calculate the empirical formula of the compound being analysed.
1 Compound A contained 39,7% oxygen and 60,3% magnesium.
2 Compound B contained 32,2% aluminium and 67,8% fluorine.
3 Compound C contained 24,4% calcium, 17,1% nitrogen and 58,5% oxygen.
Unit 6 Molar mass 199

Unit 7 Determining the composition of substances
Qualitative and quantitative analysis

If you want to investigate what a substance is made of, you can perform a
qualitative analysis. This type of analysis reveals which chemicals are present in a
substance. Flame tests (Module 1, Unit 7) are an example of qualitative analysis.
If you want to determine the amount of a substance, you can perform a
quantitative analysis. This type of analysis reveals how much of a chemical is
present in a sample.
Figure 1 Accurate
measurements are needed in
gravimetric analysis. A modern
chemical scale can determine Gravimetric analysis
mass to the nearest 0,001 g.
Gravimetric analysis is a quantitative method that measures mass. Chemists
can measure mass very accurately. Some scales measure to the nearest 0,001 g.
Precipitation analysis
An example of a gravimetric analysis is to determine the mass of the precipitate
formed during a precipitation reaction. The precipitate is collected by filtration.
The precipitate is dried and the mass is determined. From the mass of the
precipitate, we can calculate the original mass of each ion in the ionic compound.
For this type of analysis to be accurate, all the dissolved ions should
precipitate out.
Gas-forming reactions
Another example of a gravimetric analysis is to measure the mass of a gas in
a gas-forming reaction. The reactants are placed on a mass meter. As the gas
escapes, the mass will decrease. The decrease in mass is equal to the mass
of the escaping gas. Typical examples are the reactions of sodium hydrogen
carbonate with dilute sulfuric acid, and magnesium powder with vinegar.
Calculating percentage composition

If we have the chemical formula of a substance, we can use gravimetric analysis
to determine what percentage of the substance is made up by which element.
We call this the percentage composition of the substance. The following
example explains how the process works.
Worked example 1
0,65 g of potassium iodide is dissolved in water and a silver nitrate solution is
Figure 2 Form a precipitate,
filter it, dry it and then find added. The solutions will react according to the following balanced equation:
its mass. AgNO3(aq) + KI(aq) → KNO3(aq) + AgI(↓)
The net ionic reaction is: Ag+(aq) + I–(aq) → AgI(↓)
The filtered precipitate AgI has a mass of 0,93 g. Determine the
percentage composition of potassium iodide.
200

Answer Variables
Mm(I)
The percentage iodide ions in the precipitate = × 100 Mm(Ag) = 107,9 g.mol−1
Mm(AgI) 1 Mm(I) = 126,9 g.mol−1
= 126,9 g.mol−1 × 100
−1
Mm(AgI) = 234,8 g.mol−1
234,8 g.mol 1
m(KI) = 0,56 g
= 54,05% m(AgI) = 0,93 g
So 54,05% of the mass of the precipitate (0,93 g) is iodide ions.
Mass of iodide ions in precipitate = 0,93 g × 54,05

1 100
= 0,50 g
This is the same as the mass of iodide ions in the sample of KI of
mass 0,65 g. Therefore:
Mass of iodide ions in KI = 0,50 g
Mass of potassium ions in KI = 0,65 g – 0,50 g
= 0,15 g
MODULE 6
We express the composition of the compound as a percentage of
each element:
Percentage potassium in KI = mass potassium ions × 100
mass of sample 1
= 0,15 g × 100
0,65 g 1
= 23,08% potassium
Percentage iodine in KI = mass iodide ions × 100
mass of sample 1
= 0,50 g × 100
0,65 g 1
= 76,92% iodine
We can also calculate the percentage composition of a compound directly

from its molar mass.
For example: Calculate the percentage composition of water: Variables
Percentage oxygen in water = molar mass of one oxygen in formula × 100 Mm(H) = 1,01 g.mol−1
molar mass of compound 1 Mm(O) = 16,0 g.mol−1
= 16,0 g.mol −1 × 100
−1
Mm(H2O)
18,02 g.mol 1 = (2  1,01) + 16,0
= 88,79% oxygen = 18,02 g.mol−1
Percentage hydrogen in water = molar mass of two hydrogens in formula × 100
molar mass of compound 1
= 2 × 1,01 g.mol−1
× 100
18,02 g.mol−1 1
= 11,21% hydrogen
Activity 1 Percentage composition calculations
1 Calculate the percentage by mass of calcium ions and bromide ions, which
make up the compound calcium bromide (CaBr2). Use the following molar
masses for simplicity: Mm(Ca) = 40 g.mol–1; Mm(Br) = 80 g.mol–1.
2 The gas methanal has the chemical formula CH2O. Calculate the
percentage composition of methanal.
Unit 7 Determining the composition of substances 201

Unit 8 Moles, molar volume and molar concentration
Moles of solid salts

To make up a solution of known concentration, you need to know how much salt
to dissolve in a measured volume of water. To do this we use the formula:
Number of moles = mass of salt
molar mass of the salt
n= m
Mm
We can also measure the number of moles of a salt and determine what the
mass is.
Worked example 1
Determine the mass of 2,5 moles of potassium oxide (K2O).
Answer
Mm(K2O) =
(2  39,1) + 16,0
= 94,2 g.mol–1
m = n  Mm
= 2,5 mol  94,2 g.mol–1
= 235,5 g
Molar volume of gases

When we work with gases, we need to convert from volumes of gas to moles.
Standard conditions of temperature and pressure

The volume of a gas is affected by the temperature and the pressure. When
we compare the volume of gases, we must keep the temperature and pressure
the same. Scientists have chosen a Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP).
Standard temperature is 0 ˚C and standard pressure is 101,3 kilopascals (kPa).
This pressure is close to our normal atmospheric pressure. One mole of any gas
will have the same volume at STP. This volume is 22,4 dm3.
One mol of gas occupies a volume of 22,4 dm3 at 0 °C (273 K) and one
Figure 1 The molar volume atmosphere pressure (101,3 kPa). This is called a molar volume.
for gases of 22,4 dm3 is about
the same volume as four
soccer balls. A cubic decimetre (dm3) is commonly called a litre.
Worked example 2
Expressing volumes
1 dm3 = 1 L Calculate the volume of 4 g of hydrogen gas measured at STP.
1 cm3 = 1 mL or ml
Answer
1 000 ml = 1 L
Mm(H2) = 2 g.mol–1
1 000 cm3 = 1 dm3
202

Content link
n(H2) = m In Grade 11 you will
Mm learn about calculating
= 4g gas volumes at different
2 g.mol–1 temperatures and pressures.
= 2 mol
Volume (H2) = n(H2)  molar volume

= 2 mol  22,4 dm3.mol–1
= 44,8 dm3
Activity 1 Calculate moles, mass and gas volumes
1 Calculate the number of moles of:
MODULE 6
1.1 sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in 128 g of the salt
1.2 calcium sulfate (CaSO4) in 3,4 g of the salt
1.3 copper nitrate (Cu(NO3)2) in 37,5 g of the salt.
2 Calculate the mass of: Answers to numerical
2.1 0,03 moles of silver sulfide (Ag2S) questions
2.2 2,8 moles of lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) 1.1 3,2 moles;
1.2 0,025 moles;
3 Calculate the volume of 6,5 moles of nitrogen gas at STP. 1.3 0,2 moles; 2.1 7,44 g;
4 Calculate the volume 0,004 moles of helium gas at STP. 2.2 206,6 g; 3 145,6 dm3;
4 0,0896 dm3
Molar concentration of solutions

When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, a solution is formed. The
concentration of the solution tells us the amount of solute that is dissolved
in each litre of the solution. One of the commonly used measurements of
concentration in chemistry is molar concentration.
Molar concentration (c) = number of moles of solute = n

volume of solution in dm3 v
If we dissolve 2 moles of salt in water to make 1 dm3 of solution, the molar

concentration (c) is 2 mol.dm−3. Likewise, a 500 ml solution containing
5 moles of sugar in water has a concentration of 10 mol.dm–3.
Activity 2 Calculate molar concentrations
1 Determine the molar concentration of:

1.1 four moles of hydrogen chloride (HCl) dissolved in 2 500 ml of solution
1.2 11,9 g of potassium bromide (KBr) dissolved in 3 dm3 of solution
1.3 5,0 moles of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) dissolved in 200 ml of solution.
2 Calculate the mass of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) that you must dissolve
questions
in 200 ml of solution to make a solution with a molar concentration of 1.1 1,6 mol.dm–3;
6,4 mol.dm–3. 1.2 0,033 mol.dm–3;
1.3 25 mol.dm–3; 2 51,2 g
Unit 8 Moles, molar volume and molar concentration 203

Unit 9 Basic stoichiometric calculations
Conversion of a chemical equation to masses

You have already learnt about the Law of Conservation of Mass. Let us revisit
it by looking at the following balanced equation:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
From the equation we know that two magnesium atoms react with one
oxygen molecule to form the ionic compound magnesium oxide.
However, you can also interpret the equation as follows: two moles of
magnesium atoms reacts with one mole of oxygen molecules and form two
moles of the compound magnesium oxide. We can convert the equation to
masses, using the molar masses of the chemicals involved.
2  24,3 g magnesium + 1  32 g oxygen → 2  40,3 g magnesium oxide
The total mass of the reactants is 80,6 g and this is equal to the total mass
of the products. This confirms the Law of Conservation of Mass.
New word Chemical equations and stoichiometry

stoichiometry: quantitative In Greek, the word stoicheion means element. The term stoichiometry
measurements and therefore means “to measure elements”. The knowledge of how chemicals
relationships of reactants
react enables us to carry out stoichiometric calculations. These are calculations
and products in a chemical
reaction where we use the fixed ratios of a balanced equation. These ratios are used to
determine the masses of products formed or reactants used.
We use stoichiometric calculations to:
• relate the mass of a reactant to the mass of a product
• relate the masses of two reactants to each other
• relate the volume and concentration of reactants to products.
Relating the mass of a reactant to the mass of a product
Worked example 1
Determine the mass of carbon dioxide gas that is produced when 25 g of
calcium carbonate is heated.
Step 1 Write a balanced CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

equation
Step 2 Write down the mole 1 mole → 1 mole + 1 mole
ratio for the equation
Step 3 Calculate molar Mm(CaCO3) = [40 + 12 + (3  16)] = 100 g.mol–1
masses Mm(CO2) = [12 + (2  16)] = 44 g.mol–1
(The question does not deal with CaO, so we
do not have to calculate its molar mass.)
204 Module 6 Chemical change (Part 2)

Step 4 Calculate number m(CaCO3) is 25 g, so number of moles of
of moles CaCO3 is:
n= m
Mm
= 25 g
100 g.mol–1
= 0,25 mole
Step 5 Write down the 1 mole CaCO3 → 1 mole CO2, therefore
moles in the reaction 0,25 mole CaCO3 → 0,25 mole CO2
Step 6 Determine the mass Mass of CO2 produced:
of the product(s) m = n  Mm
= 0,25 mol  44 g.mol–1
= 11 g
Step 7 Conclusion 25 g of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) produces
11 g of carbon dioxide (CO2) when it is
heated.
MODULE 6
Worked example 2
Determine the mass of water formed in the reaction of 8,00 g H2 with an
excess of O2.
Step 1 Write a balanced 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

equation
Step 2 Write down the 2 moles + 1 mole → 2 moles
mole ratio for
the equation
Step 3 Calculate molar Mm(H2O) = [(2  1) + 16)] = 18 g.mol–1
masses Mm(H2) = [(1  2)] = 2 g.mol–1
(The question does not deal with O2, so we
do not have to calculate its molar mass.)
Step 4 Calculate number m(H2) is 8,00 g, so number of moles of H2 is:
of moles
n= m
Mm
= 8,00 g –1
2 g.mol
= 4 moles
Step 5 Write down the 2 moles H2 produces 2 moles H2O, therefore:
moles in the 4 moles H2 produces 4 moles H2O
reaction
Step 6 Determine the mass Mass of H2O produced:
of the product(s) m = n  Mm
= 4,00 mol  18 g.mol–1
= 72 g
Step 7 Conclusion 8,00 g of hydrogen gas (H2) produces 72 g of
water (H2O) in an excess of oxygen.
Unit 9 Basic stoichiometric calculations 205

Relating the masses of two reactants to each other
Worked example 3
Determine the mass of oxygen (O2) consumed in the reaction from Worked
example 2 on page 205.
Step 1 Write a balanced 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

equation
Step 2 Write down the 2 moles + 1 mole → 2 moles
mole ratio for
the equation
Step 3 Calculate molar Mm(O2) = [(2  16)] = 32 g.mol–1
masses Mm(H2) = [(1  2)] = 2 g.mol–1
Step 4 Calculate m(H2) is 8,00 g, so number of moles of H2 is:
number of n= m
moles Mm
= 8,00 g –1
2 g.mol
= 4 moles
Step 5 Write down the 2 moles H2 reacts with 1 mole O2, therefore:
moles in the 4 moles H2 reacts with 2 moles O2
reaction
Step 6 Determine the Mass of O2 consumed:
mass of the m = n  Mm
product(s) = 2,00 mol  32 g.mol–1
= 64 g
Step 7 Conclusion 64 g of oxygen is consumed.
Activity 1 Perform stoichiometric calculations
1 In the following chemical reaction: 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

1.1
How many moles of H2O will be produced from 6 moles of O2?
1.2
How many moles of H2 will react with 40 g of O2?
1.3
How many grams of H2O will be produced by 18 g of H2?
2 Zinc metal is used to displace silver from a silver nitrate solution in
accordance with the following equation:
Zn(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
What mass of zinc should be used to displace 60 g of silver from excess
silver nitrate solution?
3 80 g of magnesium react with oxygen in accordance with the reaction
equation: 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO. What mass of magnesium oxide is formed?
4 If 33 g of hydrogen was produced when some aluminium was dissolved
in hydrochloric acid, what mass of aluminium was dissolved? The
Answers to numerical balanced equation is:
questions
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
1.1 12 moles; 1.2 2,5 moles;
1.3 162 g; 2 18,18 g; 3 133 g; 5 What is the mass of two moles of potassium dichromate (K 2Cr2O7)?
4 297 g; 5 588 g; 6 Calculate the number of moles represented by 9,85  10 –3 g of gold (Au).
6 5  10−5 moles
206

Relating volume and concentration of reactants to products
Worked example 4
Nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to form ammonia gas. Determine the volume of ammonia gas,
at STP, that is produced by 8 moles of nitrogen gas.
Step 1 Write a balanced equation N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

Step 2 Write down the mole ratio for the equation 1 mole + 3 moles → 2 moles
Step 3 Write down the moles in the reaction 1 mole N2 produces 2 moles NH3, therefore:
8 moles N2 produces 16 moles NH3
Step 4 Determine the volume of the product(s) Volume of NH3 produced:
v = n  22,4
= 16  22,4
= 358,4 dm3
Step 5 Conclusion 358,4 dm3 of ammonia gas is produced.
MODULE 6
Theoretical yield
The calculated quantity of product in a chemical reaction is called the
theoretical yield of the reaction. If we carry out the reaction in a laboratory,
we find the actual yield. The two amounts differ because some reactants may
escape or are involved in other reactions. (These are called side reactions.) We
can calculate the percentage yield that we obtain in an actual reaction.
actual yield
Percentage yield =  100%
theoretical yield
Worked example 5
The theoretical yield of carbon dioxide, when heating 25 g of calcium
carbonate is 11 g. The actual yield found in a reaction is 10 g. Determine
the percentage yield of this reaction.
Answer
Theoretical yield = 11 g Percentage yield = 10  100%
11
Actual yield = 10 g
= 90,91%
Perform stoichiometric calculations with

Activity 2
volume and molar concentration
1 Determine the volume of oxygen at STP that is produced by heating 167 g
of potassium chlorate (KClO3). Reaction:
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
2 Determine the concentration of 100 g of sodium chloride (NaCl)
dissolved in 4 dm3 of solution.
3 How many grams of NaOH are needed to prepare 500 ml of solution of a questions
concentration of 0,2 mol.dm–3? 1 45,7 dm3; 2 0,43 mol.dm–3;
3 4g
Unit 9 Basic stoichiometric calculations 207

Module
6 Summary
Ions in aqueous solutions Redox reactions

• A water molecule is a dipole and can dissolve • An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction involves
ionic solids. The process of breaking up an ionic the transfer of electrons between atoms.
crystal is called dissolving. • The reactant that loses electrons is oxidised.
• Ion-exchange and oxidation-reduction reactions The reactant that gains electrons is reduced.
can occur in aqueous solutions.
• A net reaction only includes molecules or ions Amount of substance and atomic mass
that participate in forming products. Ions that • A mole is the SI measurement for amount of
do not take part in the reaction are called substance.
spectator ions. • The relative atomic mass, molecular mass
• The total charge must be the same on both or formula mass (measured in grams) of any
sides of a balanced equation. The charge can substance contains one mole of particles of
be positive, negative or zero, as long as it is the that substance.
same on both sides of the equation. • A mole contains 6,022  1023 particles. This
number is called Avogrado’s constant (NA).
Electrolytes and conductivity
• Electrolytes are solutions that can conduct Molar mass
electricity. • The relationship between molar mass and the
• Non-electrolytes are solutions that do not number of moles is: n = m
Mm
conduct electricity.
• Some ionic crystals trap water molecules (water
• The concentration of an electrolyte affects
of crystallisation) in fixed ratios between their
conductivity. The more ions there are, the
ions. This type of salt is called a hydrate. When
greater the conductivity will be.
water is evaporated the resulting salt is called
an anhydrous salt.
Ion-exchange reactions
• Percentage composition is the per cent by mass
• In ion exchange reactions, positive ions
that each element contributes to the molecule
exchange their respective negative ions. The
or formula.
anions and cations swop partners.
• Ion-exchange reactions include: precipitation Moles, molar volume and concentration
reactions, gas-forming reactions and acid-base
• Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) allows
reactions.
us to compare volumes of gases. Standard
• A precipitation reaction is driven by the
temperature is 0˚C, and standard pressure is
formation of a precipitate.
101,3 kiloPascals (kPa).
• The precipitate is indicated with an arrow
• At STP the volume of one mole of gas is 22,4 dm3.
pointing downwards.
• Molar concentration = number of moles (n)
• Gas-forming reactions are driven by the volume (v)
formation of gas.
Basic stoichiometric calculations
• Acid-base reactions are driven by the transfer of
• Stoichiometric calculations obey the Law of
protons.
Conservation of Mass.
• An acid as a substance that provides hydrogen
• The percentage yield that we obtain in a
ions H+ in a solution.
reaction = actual yield × 100%
theoretical yield
208 Module 6 Summary

Module
Ions in aqueous solutions 2.3 Assume that the sulfate in the water sample is
potassium sulfate. Write a balanced chemical
equation for the reaction that takes place in
descriptions:
the test.
1.1 The process in which a crystalline compound
2.4 Another water sample was found to contain a
is bound chemically to water molecules.
carbonate instead of a sulfate. The same test as
1.2 The clustering of solvent (water) molecules
on the sulfate is performed on this water sample.
around a solute particle.
2.4.1 State ONE similarity and ONE
2 Explain how a NaCl(s) crystal dissolves in water.
difference in the observations that will
2.1 Write an equation to describe how NaCl(s)
be made when the same test is done
dissolves in water.
on the water sample.
2.2 Draw three labeled diagrams to show the
2.4.2 Write a balanced equation for the
hydration of NaCl(s)
reaction that represents the difference
Electrolytes and conductivity mentioned in Question 2.4.1.
Ion-exchange and redox reactions
descriptions:
1.1 A solution that can conduct electricity.
descriptions:
1.2 The chemical bond between atoms that
1.1 The process by which a substance gains
results in a soluble substance not being able
electrons(s).
to conduct electricity.
1.2 The reaction in which an insoluble ionically
1.3 The particle that carries the charge in a
bonded solid forms as one of the products.
solution.
2 Consider the reaction KNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → ?.
2 Write down the ionic equations to show the
Do you expect an ion-exchange reaction to
dissociation of the following salts in water:
occur? Explain your answer.
2.1 potassium sulfate
3 The following four reactions take place.
2.2 calcium chloride
Complete and balance the reactions. Classify
2.3 ammonium nitrate
each as either ion-exchange reaction or redox
Precipitation reactions reaction. Give a reason for your choices
3.1 AgNO3(aq) + CuCl2(aq) → silver chloride and
1 Write down the net ionic reactions if the
copper(II) nitrate(aq)
following substances are added together:
3.2 AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s) → silver and copper(II) nitrate
1.1 sodium chloride and silver nitrate
3.3 Aqueous solutions of potassium bromide and
1.2 barium chloride and sodium sulfate
silver nitrate react to form a white precipitate
1.3 hydrochloric acid and sodium carbonate
3.4 Solid nickel is added to an aqueous solution of
2 A learner is supplied with a water sample
iron(II) sulfate to form iron and nickel(II)sulfate.
which is thought to have been contaminated
by a sulfate. The learner conducts a test in
Atomic, molar and formula mass and the
the laboratory and confirms the presence of a
composition of substances
sulfate in the water sample.
2.1 Write down the formulae of TWO chemicals
descriptions:
that the learner should use during the test.
1.1 The number of particles in one mole of a
2.2 Describe the observations of the learner
substance.
during the above test.

1.2 The formula that represents the simplest ratio 2.5 sodium chloride in 500 ml of a 3 mol.dm-3
of the atoms in the compound. sodium chloride solution
1.3 The mass of one molecule of a substance 3 How many moles in:
relative to C-12. 3.1 20 g oxygen gas
2 Calculate the molar mass of … 3.2 300 g sulfur(IV) oxide?
2.1 Al2O3 4 6,7 g of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is
2.2 Ca3(PO4)2 dissolved in enough water to prepare a 250 ml
2.3 silver cyanide. solution. Determine the concentration of the
3 Calculate the empirical formula of the sodium carbonate solution.
compound that is 56,52% potassium, 8,7% 5 A balloon contains 4 g of O2 at STP. Calculate
carbon and 34,78% oxygen. the volume of oxygen in the balloon at STP.
4 What is the percentage by mass of water in
the compound FeCl3.6H2O? Basic stoichiometric calculations
5 Calculate the percentage of sulfur in sodium 1 The salt BeC2O4(s) forms a hydrate. When
sulfate (Na2SO4). heated to 220 °C the salt dehydrates:
6 A farmer needs to add a fertiliser with a high BeC2O4.3H2O(s) → BeC2O4(s) + 3H2O(g)
nitrogen content to the ground. He has a Answer the following questions about
choice of ammonium sulfate, ammonium BeC2O4(s) and its hydrate.
nitrate and ammonium phosphate. Which 1.1 Define the term hydrate.
should he use? Show all calculations. 1.2 Calculate the mass per cent of carbon in
7 The molecular formula for aspartame, the hydrated form of the solid that has the
the artificial sweetener in NutraSweet®, formula BeC2O4.3H2O.
is C14H18N2O5. Calculate the percentage 1.3 If 3,21 g of BeC2O4.3H2O(s) is heated to
composition of aspartame. 220 °C, calculate:
1.3.1 the mass of BeC2O4(s) formed
Moles, molar volume and molar concentration 1.3.2 the volume of the H2O(g) released,
1 Explain the relationship between each of the measured at STP.
following: 2 Several brands of antacid tablets use aluminum
1.1 mass and number of moles hydroxide to neutralise excess acid.
1.2 volume of gases and the number of moles Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) → AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
of gas 2.1 Calculate the concentration of the AlCl3
1.3 number of particles and number of moles. solution if 50 g of AlCl3 is produced in
2 What mass is represented by each of the 200 ml of water.
following? 3 For the questions that follow consider the
2.1 0,25 mol silver atoms following equation:
2.2 6,02 × 1023 sodium chloride formula units Ca(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2.3 100 cm3 carbon dioxide gas at STP 3.1 What type of chemical reaction is taking place?
2.4 0,005 mol calcium carbonate 3.2 If 15 grams of calcium hydroxide reacts, how
many grams of calcium chloride is formed?
3.3 Calculate the concentration of the HCl solution
if 80 g of HCl is dissolved in water to make
300 ml of solution.
210

MODULE
7
Mechanics
Many of us rely on transport to get to school each day and we use machines
to perform many tasks. Mechanics is a branch of physics that studies the
interactions between matter and the forces on it. We use these principles to
design machines, cars, taxis and buses and even to understand how the Earth
orbits the Sun.
In this module we shall investigate how to work with physical quantities
called vectors that have both size and direction. This will help us to record and
predict the position and motion of objects by means of graphs and equations.
Lastly the topic of energy and conservation of mechanical energy enables us
to calculate the energy of a body, its position and how fast it is moving.
Motion in one
Mechanics Energy
dimension
Position, distance and

displacement Vector and scalar Potential energy,
quantities gravitational potential
energy and kinetic energy
Average speed,
average velocity and
acceleration
Law of Conservation
of Energy
Instantaneous speed,
instantaneous velocity
Mechanical energy
Graphs of motion
Equations of motion
Road safety Conservation of

and speed mechanical energy
Module 7 Mechanics 211

Unit 1 Vectors and scalars
Physical quantities
A physical quantity is a measurable property of something that we find
in nature. If we measure something and the changes it undergoes we
understand more about it. Table 1 gives some examples of SI units of
Table 1 Some physical quantities and their units of measurement measurement of
physical quantities
Physical Quantity SI Unit of Unit
and the symbols that
quantity symbol measurement symbol
we use when we do
time t second s
calculations.
mass m kilogram kg
There are two
weight w newton N
types of physical
force F newton N
quantities, vectors
charge Q coulomb C and scalars.
Scalar quantities
The physical quantities time, mass and charge in Table 1 are scalar quantities.
Scalars are physical quantities that have magnitude (size) only.
You can add and subtract scalar quantities just as you do with ordinary numbers.
New word Vector quantities

weight: gravitational force A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. In Table 1, force is a
that the Earth exerts on an vector. When someone pushes you, you can feel the direction of the force.
object Weight acts downwards towards the ground. So it is also a vector.
Vectors are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction.
In this book, vector quantities are printed in bold italics, for example, F. Note
that vectors can also be indicated by a horizontal arrow above the vector, for
→
example, F .
Differentiate between scalar and vector quantities

Scalar quantities can be added and subtracted just like ordinary numbers. If we
pour 2 litres of water into a bucket and then add 3 litres there will be 5 litres
of water in the bucket.
Figure 1 The mass of the cup However, when we add vectors the direction of each vector makes a difference.
of coffee is a scalar quantity
but its weight acts downwards If two people push on a door in the same direction the effect is not the same as if
and is a vector. they push in opposite directions. With vectors we must consider their direction.
212
Module 7 Mechanics

Negative scalars and vectors F
A negative vector of a given vector has the same magnitude as the given –F
vector but it acts in the opposite direction. Figure 2 shows force F acting Figure 2 The negative of
towards the right. If the force is made to act in the opposite direction it is force F is −F.
the negative of F or –F. It still has the same magnitude. Compare this with
scalar quantities where a negative number often represents less. For example a
temperature of −10 °C is lower than a temperature of 10 °C. up
Indicating direction of a vector

down
In Grade 10 we shall only consider vectors that act in one dimension and
consider vectors in two dimensions in Grade 11. The idea of positive and
negative vectors is very useful for vectors acting in one dimension. Indicate left right
one direction as positive and the opposite direction as negative:
• Horizontal direction (left or right): If you decide that to the right is Figure 3 Describe opposite
“positive” then to the left is “negative”. directions with “+” or “−”.
• Vertical direction (up or down): For example, if you decide that “up” is
positive, then “down” is negative.
New words
Graphical representation of vectors one dimension: along a
straight line
vector diagram: graphical
A vector diagram is a graphical representation of vectors. We use a line with an
representation of vectors
arrowhead on one end to represent a vector graphically. The length of the arrow
scale: ratio of sizes
represents its magnitude. It is drawn in the direction that the vector is acting.
Sketch vector diagrams

In a sketch vector diagram the vectors are not drawn to scale. It is a useful way up
to show the properties of a vector and also to compare vectors. Figure 4 shows 3N 2N
up down
the relative sizes and directions of two forces.
Scale vector diagrams
MODULE 7
Figure 4 A sketch vector
diagram is a good way to
In a scale vector diagram, vectors are drawn accurately to scale. compare forces.
Practical activity 1 Draw a vector to scale
In this practical activity you will draw to scale a 400 N force that acts upwards.
iNStrUCtiONS
Step 1 Indicate the reference direction: Small arrow up.
400 N
Step 2 Decide on a suitable scale, for example, 1 mm : 10 N. up
Step 3 Draw the vector to scale in the correct direction. Its length is 40 mm
up
for a scale of 1 mm : 10 N.
Step 4 Write the scale on the drawing.
Step 5 Show the direction of the vector with an arrowhead.
Step 6 Label the vector to identify it, give its size and direction.
scale 1 mm : 10 N
DiSCUSSiON Figure 5 A scale drawing of a
Figure 5 shows a 400 N force that acts upwards drawn to scale. vector. A force of 400 N acts
vertically upwards.
Unit 1 Vectors and scalars 213

Properties of vectors
F1 10 N east
Equality of vectors
F2 10 N east
Two vectors are equal only if they have the same magnitude and direction. So
Figure 6 Vectors F1 and F2 force F1 acting east is equal to another force F2 also acting east. They do not
are equal. have to act on the same object or at the same place to be equal.
Addition of vectors
To add two vectors is to find out what their combined value is. For vectors this
means that you do not simply add the magnitudes of the vectors but have to
take their direction into account as well.
• Addition of two forces F1 and F2 is written F1 + F2 (see Figures 7 and 8).
• Only add vectors of the same kind. For example, a force can be added to
another force.
• A scalar cannot be added to a vector.
F1 +3 N
positive
F1 +3 N F2 +2 N
+1 N F2 –2 N
F1 + F2 = +5 N
F1 + F2 = +3 N + (–2 N) = +1 N
Figure 7 Addition of two Figure 8 Addition of two
FA +3 N forces acting in the same forces acting in opposite
direction. directions.
+1 N –FB = –(+2 N)
FA – FB = +3 N – (+2 N) = +1 N
Subtraction of vectors
If you subtract B from A it means: What do you have to add to B to achieve A?
Figure 9 Forces FA = +3 N and
FB = +2 N both act to the right. Consider two forces FA = +3 N and FB = +2 N that both act to the right. To
To subtract FB from FA, add the subtract FB from FA simply add the negative of FB to FA. The difference between
negative of FB to FA.
FA and FB is 1 N to the right (see Figure 9).
F Multiplication of vectors
3F Multiplication by a scalar changes the magnitude of the vector (see Figure 10).
Three times vector F is written 3F.
Figure 10 Multiplying vector
F by 3 multiplies its magnitude
but does not change its
direction. The resultant
It is useful to know the combined effect of a number of vectors.
The resultant is the vector quantity that has the same effect as two or more
vector quantities.
214
Module 7 Mechanics

The resultant is found by addition. The resultant of two forces F1 and F2 can be
written as a vector equation:
Resultant, FR = F1+ F2
Remember that both the magnitude and direction of each vector need to be
taken into account.
Tail-to-head method Step 1 Step 2

F1 F2
In this method one vector is drawn with its tail starting at the head of the P Q
first one. Resultant FR
• Vector F2 (see Figure 11) is drawn with its tail starting at the head of vector F1. Step 3
• The resultant is from the free tail (point P) to the free arrowhead (point Q). Figure 11 Tail-to-head method
of finding the resultant,
FR = F1 + F2.
Worked example 1
The following forces act at a point on a body: 2 N to the right, 4 N to
the right, 3 N to the left, 1 N to the left. Find the resultant of the forces
by drawing:
1 a scale vector diagram using the tail-to-head method
2 a sketch vector diagram followed by calculation.
Answers Variables
positive
1 A suitable scale is 10 mm : 1 N. Take to F1 = 2 N to the right
+2 N +4 N
the right as the positive direction. F2 = 4 N to the right
Plot the forces as shown in Figure 12. F3 = 3 N to the left
FR –1 N –3 N
The resultant force (FR) is 2 N acting to F4 = 1 N to the left
scale 10 mm : 1 N
the right. FR = ?
2 A sketch vector diagram looks similar to Figure 12 Scale vector diagram
to find the resultant of four forces
Figure 12, but is not to scale. Pay special using the tail-to-head method.
attention to whether the direction of each
MODULE 7
vector is positive or negative. Then add the
positive and negative vectors.
FR = +2 N +4 N −3 N −1 N
FR = +2 N
The resultant force is 2 N acting to

the right.
Unit 1 Vectors and scalars 215

Activity 2 Answer questions on vectors and scalars
1 What is meant by the terms physical quantity, equal vector and

Exam words negative vector?
define: give a full meaning 2 Write definitions for vector quantity, scalar quantity and
of something accurately, as resultant vector.
in a dictionary 3 Classify the following quantities as vectors or scalars: mass,
draw: show in a visual way weight, temperature.
explain: give the details of 4 Force F = 5 N acts to the right.
something in full sentences 4.1 Draw a fully labelled scale drawing of the 5 N force using a scale of
without giving reasons
10 mm : 1 N. (Hint: Refer to Figure 5 on page 213.)
calculate: work out 4.2 Draw and label the following vectors to scale (one below the other):
following a method
4.2.1 2F (Remember F = 5 N to the right)
4.2.2 0,5F
4.2.3 −F
4.2.4 −2F
5 Two vectors, F1 and F2 act on an object. F1 = 2 N upwards and F2 = 2 N
downwards.
5.1 Make a tail-to-head sketch vector diagram of the forces.
5.2 Explain whether F1 and F2 are equal vectors or not.
5.3 Calculate the resultant force.
6 Draw tail-to-head sketch vector diagrams to find the resultant of the
following sets of forces:
6.1 F1 = 3 N and F2 = 4 N both act on an object towards the right
6.2 F1 = 3 N acts towards the east and F2 = 4 N acts on the object towards the
west
6.3 F1 = 5 N upwards; F2 = 2 N upwards; F3 = 10 N downwards.
7 Two forces F1 and F2 act on an object. F1 is 20 N acting to the right but
the value of F2 can change. Use sketch vector diagrams as well as vector
equations to determine F2 for each of the following resultant forces:
7.1 FR = 25 N to the right
7.2 FR = 15 N to the right
7.3 FR = 5 N to the left.
Answers to numerical questions in this activity are given on page 218.
216
Module 7 Mechanics

Unit 2 Position
Motion New words

Motion is a topic within a branch of physics called mechanics. Motion is the motion: change in position
change in position of a body with respect to time. First we need to know how of a body with respect to
time
to determine the position of a body – where it is – then how to measure a
change of position. mechanics: study of the
interactions between matter
and the forces acting on it
Frames of reference
The position of an object can be described in various ways. Examples include
the x- and y-coordinates on the axes of a Cartesian plane (see Figure 1), y
latitude and longitude on a map (see Figure 2) or even a street address. These
+3
are all frames of reference. B (+3;+2)
+2
A frame of reference is a set of reference points – such as a set of axes – +1

A (+2;0)
that enables the position of an object to be defined at any time. O x
–3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3
–1
Position on a frame of reference –2
–3
If you walk from your home to see a friend who lives down the street you
Figure 1 A Cartesian plane can
know where you are relative to your home as the origin. be used to plot position. The
origin at (0;0) is a good reference
point. The arrow OA defines the
A position on a frame of reference is plotted relative to a reference point position of A.
or origin.
Figure 1 illustrates this with a Cartesian plane where the origin is the
point of intersection of the x- and y-axes. The x- and y-coordinates
determine the positions of A and B on the plane relative to the origin at
(0;0). Remember that x- and y-coordinates are written in the order (x;y). North
Figure 1 also shows that the position of A can be defined by
drawing an arrow OA from the origin to point A. This arrow has West 0 East
the properties of direction, as well as of magnitude. So position in a
frame of reference is a vector quantity. South
Figure 2 shows how position on the Earth’s surface is determined
east or west and north or south of an origin.
Motion and dimensions Figure 2 Position on the Earth’s surface is

determined east or west and north or south
of an origin.
When we calculate the volume of a box we use the three
dimensions of length, breadth and height.
• A car that is climbing a hill along a road that curves upwards and turns to
the left moves in three dimensions.
Unit 2 Position 217

P Q
• A car that moves across a horizontal parking area and turns into
West East a parking bay moves in two dimensions.
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
(position in metres)
• A car travelling along a straight road travels in one dimension.
In order to help you understand the concepts of motion clearly,
Figure 3 Using geographic directions, the
position of P is 2 m west of the origin and
the examples and problems in this module will involve motion
Q is 3 m to the east of the origin. in one dimension only.
One-dimensional (1-D) motion is along a straight line and can be either

in one direction or in the opposite direction.
Horizontal and vertical position
Position on a Cartesian plane

Usually we use the x-axis of the Cartesian plane for horizontal motion and the
y-axis for vertical motion. In one dimension x = +2 m gives the position of a
point that is 2 m to the right of the origin and x = −2 m is 2 to the left.
Position on different reference frames

positive
Sometimes we choose which directions are positive and negative to suit
P Q x (m) the problem we are solving. So always show your choice of direction
–3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 when you draw vectors and do calculations.
Figure 4 The position of P is x = −2 m Figures 3 to 5 show positions of objects in a variety of one-
and of Q is x = +3 m dimensional frames of reference.
Activity 1 Answer questions on position

1.1 position
1.2 frame of reference
1.3 one-dimensional motion.
2 A learner throws a ball that goes straight up into the air until it is 3 m
y (m) above the ground and then comes straight down again.
+3 B
2.1 In how many dimensions is the ball moving?
+2 2.2 Write a word or term that describes the direction of movement within this
frame of reference.
+1 C
2.3 Identify the reference point of the frame of reference.
positive 0 3 Point A is at x = −3 m and point B is at x = +5 m. How far apart are they?
–1 A
4 Figure 5 shows a vertical axis with the origin at y = 0 m.
4.1 Determine the positions of A and B relative to the origin.
–2 4.2 If the origin is moved to C, what is the position of point A on the frame
of reference?
Figure 5 Positions on a
vertical line are shown on a 4.3 If we change the direction and points below the first origin are now
y-axis. Diagram for Question 4 positive, what would the position of A be relative to y = 0 m?
of the activity.
Activity 1 (page 216): 6.1 7 N right; 6.2 1 N west; 6.3 3 N down; 7.1 5 N right; 7.2 5 N left;
7.3 25 N left
Activity 1 (page 218): Answers to numerical questions in this activity are given on page 221.
218
Module 7 Mechanics

Unit 3 Distance and displacement
The words distance and displacement describe different aspects of the

movement of a body from one position to another.
Distance
In Figure 1 the distance that the car travels is the length of the road.
Distance is the length of the path that an object moves along from one
Figure 1 The distance
position to another. between two positions
depends on the path that
links them and is a scalar.
Displacement is the straight
Distance is a scalar quantity. The symbol for distance is D and the SI unit of line change of position and is
measurement is metres (symbol m). a vector.
Displacement
In Figure 1 the displacement of the car is the straight line from its initial
position to its final position. It is a vector quantity.
Displacement is a change in position. It is the magnitude and direction of

the straight line drawn from the initial to the final position.
The symbol for displacement is Δx (or Δy for vertical displacement). The symbol Δ
(delta) means “change in” or “change of”. So Δx means “change of position”.
Observe and compare distance

and displacement
In this demonstration you will observe and compare distance and displacement
for a number of changes of position by following the method illustrated by
Figure 1.
method Materials
Step 1 Push a toy car so that it follows a path across the board or across • metre rule, ruler or
a table. tape measure
Step 2 Mark the movement with a piece of chalk and measure the distance • strips of cardboard
that the car moves. or paper
Step 3 Take a piece of string and join the starting point to the final position • toy car or other
of the car. object
Step 4 Measure and note the direction of the displacement of the car. • chalk or board marker
Step 5 Repeat Steps 1 to 5 for a number of changes of position of the car. • tape or string
• prestik
Unit 3 Distance and displacement 219

DISCUSSION
• The distance is the same as the magnitude of the displacement if the car
moves directly to its final position in a straight line.
• The distance is greater than the magnitude of the displacement if the car
changes its direction of motion.
initial Compare distance with displacement

position 1 m to right
In Figure 2 the car moves in a straight line from P to Q and then
P Q half way back to P.
∆x 0,5 m to left • Distance D = 1,5 m.
final position
• Displacement Δx = 0,5 m to the right.
Figure 2 A toy car travels a distance of
1,5 m from P to Q and half way back to P. Its Notice that the displacement is written with its direction from the
displacement is 0,5 m to the right.
initial position.
In Figure 3 the car returns to P. The total distance from P to Q
1 m to right
and back again is 2 m. However, because initial and final positions
P Q are the same its displacement is zero.
1 m to left
Calculate displacement
Figure 3 A toy car travels a distance of 2 m
from P to Q and back to P again. However, An object’s displacement is the difference between its final position
the initial and final positions are the same so
the displacement is zero. and its initial position. Stated as a vector equation this means:
Δx = xfinal − xinitial = xf − xi
Worked example 1
Calculate the displacement from P to Q in the illustration below. Select the
right as the positive direction.
Method
Step 1 List the variables xf = +3 m
xi = –2 m
Δx = ?
Step 2 D
raw a sketch P Q
vector diagram • •
–3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 x (m)
Step 3 Write the equation Displacement is the difference between its

final position and original position.
Δx = xf − xi
Step 4 S ubstitute values Δx = +3 m − (−2 m) ( Substitute the positions
of P and Q with their
signs, positive or negative.)
Step 5 Simplify = +5 m
Step 6 Answer The displacement is 5 m to the right.
220
Module 7 Mechanics

Addition of displacements
Find the resultant of a number of displacements by adding them. Remember
that displacements are vectors, their direction affects the outcome.
Worked example 2
A boy drops a ball 1 000 mm to the ground. It bounces up again and he catches it 750 mm above the ground.
Calculate the displacement of the ball from its original position. Select upwards as the positive direction.
Method
Step 1 List the variables Δx1 = −1 000 mm
Δx2 = +750 mm
ΔxR = ?
Step 2 Draw a sketch vector
resultant
diagram displacement
–1 000 mm
+750 mm
Step 3 Write the equation Resultant displacement = first displacement + second displacement
ΔxR = Δx1 + Δx2
Step 4 Substitute values ΔxR = (−1 000 mm) + (+750 mm)
Step 5 Simplify = −250 mm
Step 6 Answer The ball underwent a displacement of 250 mm downwards.
Answer questions on displacement and

Activity 2
distance
1 Write a definition of:
MODULE 7
1.1 distance
1.2 displacement.
2 Determine the distance and displacement respectively of a toy car that
is moved:
2.1 20 cm to the right followed by 30 cm to the right
2.2 40 cm to the left followed by 50 cm to the right
2.3 20 cm to the left, followed by 25 cm to right, followed by 5 cm to the left.
3 Classify the following quantities as either scalars or vectors:
3.1 5m
3.2 5 m south
4 Can the distance between two points be less than the magnitude of the
displacement between them? Give a reason to support your answer.
5.1 Write an equation to calculate displacement as a change of position. Exam word
5.2 Calculate the displacement from Q to P in the illustration for Worked give reasons: explain and
example 1 on page 220. Select to the right as the positive direction. use examples to justify

Activity 1 (page 218): 3 8 m; 4.1 A: y = −1; B: y = +3; 4.2 A: y = −2; 4.3 A: y = +1
Activity 2 (page 221): Answers to numerical questions in this activity are given on page 225.
Unit 3 Distance and displacement 221

Unit 4 Speed and velocity
Speed and velocity are ways of measuring how fast

15m 15m 15m 15m
something is moving. They are both examples of a rate
1s 1s 1s 1s or change per second. In this unit we shall concentrate on
average speed and average velocity. These are measured over
Figure 1 The car’s speed is 15 metres per second
the entire time that the motion of a body is being observed.
(m.s –1). In one second it travels 15 m, 30 m in two
seconds and 45 m in three seconds.
Average speed
Figure 1 shows a car that travels 45 m in 3 s with a constant speed of 15 m.s–1.
However, during a journey a car’s speed changes. Sometimes it goes faster and
other times it is slower. By average speed we mean the constant speed that
would enable the car to complete the entire journey in the same time as when
its speed changes. Average speed is defined as follows:
Average speed is the total distance travelled divided by the total time.
distance D
Average speed = =
time t
In SI units, distance is measured in metres (m), time in seconds (s). The units
of speed are metres per second (m.s−1 or m/s).
Speed is a scalar quantity. It has magnitude only and it is the quotient of
two scalars. We can rewrite the formula to calculate the total distance or the
time travelled.
Distance = average speed × time
distance
∴time =
average speed
Worked example 1
A passenger in a car that is driving along the road sees road signs before a turn-off. The signs are
100 m apart. Using a stopwatch, the passenger finds that the time taken to travel between two road
signs is 3,5 s (seconds). Calculate the average speed of the car.
Step 1 List the variables D = 100 m

t = 3,5 s
Average speed = ?
Step 2 Write the equation
D
Average speed =
t
Step 3 Substitute values 100 m
Average speed =
3,5 s
Step 4 Simplify = 28,6 m.s–1 (metres per second)
Step 5 Answer The average speed of the car is 28,6 m.s–1
222
Module 7 Mechanics

Activity 1 Answer questions on average speed
1 Define average speed.

2 A number of athletes are competing in a 400 m race.
2.1 Calculate the average speed of a sprinter who completes a 400 m race in 53 s.
2.2 Is the sprinter’s speed equal to the average speed during the entire race?
Give a reason to support your answer.
2.3 Calculate how long (time) it takes another sprinter to complete a 400 m
race with an average speed of 8,0 m.s−1.
3 Calculate how far a car travels in 30 s at 15 m.s−1.
4 A car travels for 12 s at 10 m.s−1 and then for 6 s at 15 m.s−1. Calculate Answers to numerical
the average speed of the car. questions in this activity are
given on page 225.
Average velocity
Just as displacement differs from distance so velocity differs from speed.
With speed, the direction of movement is irrelevant. In the case of velocity,
however, direction is important. Velocity has both magnitude and direction
and is a vector quantity. Notation
A line placed on top
of a symbol indicates
average velocity (v) is the displacement (change in position) divided by “average”.
the total time taken. v = average velocity
displacement
Average velocity =
time
Δx x – xi
In symbols v: = or v = f
Δt tf – ti
where v = average velocity
Δx = displacement, measured in metres (m)
MODULE 7
Δt = time taken, measured in seconds (s)
(Δ means “change of” or “change in”)
xf = final position
xi = initial position Figure 2 For the pilot of an
tf = final time aircraft the direction of its
ti = initial time velocity is very important in
order to reach the destination.
The units of measurement are the same as for speed, but it is necessary to give
the direction of the velocity as well.
Recording motion
In a number of investigations in this course you will need to be able to record
the motion of an object such as a trolley. One way is to attach a paper tape
called a ticker tape to it. As the object moves, it pulls the ticker tape through a
ticker timer, which prints dots on the tape at regular time intervals (see Figures
3 and 4 on page 224). The distance between each dot is therefore how far the
object has moved in one time interval. To do calculations, we also need to know
the time interval between dots – the period of the ticker timer. If the ticker timer
operates from a mains transformer, its frequency (in South Africa) is 50 Hz and
1 1
so the period (T = = ) is 0,02 s.
f 50 Hz
Unit 4 Speed and velocity 223

Period of a battery operated timer
If the period of the timer is not known, run a piece of ticker tape through the
timer and use a stop watch to time how long the ticker timer is switched on.
time
Period =
number of dots
power source
vibrator
tape
ticker timer
ticker tape drawing pin
Figure 3 A ticker timer operating from a mains Figure 4 The ticker tape passes under
power source that provides the correct voltage. a carbon disc so that the vibrator can
make dots on it.
Experiment 2 Measure average velocity
In this experiment you will measure the average velocity of a trolley moving
with a constant velocity.
Materials method
• ticker timer Step 1 Set up a trolley on an inclined plane or slope as shown in Figure 5.
• power supply If the timer has a frequency of 50 Hz (mains power supply), its period
• ticker tape is 0,02 s. This means that the time interval between two dots is 0,02 s.
• carbon paper disc Step 2 Adjust the slope so that the trolley pulls the tape at a constant velocity.
• dynamics trolley Step 3 Then let the trolley run down again with the ticker timer switched on.
• inclined plane Your tape should look similar to the one in Figure 6.
• rule or measuring Step 4 Measure the total length of the intervals.
tape Step 5 Count the number of dots made by the ticker timer.
• retort stand ticker timer
(or bricks) trolley
• drawing pins tape
New word
inclined plane: plane or flat
surface that slopes relative
Figure 5 The apparatus for measuring the average velocity of a trolley. Adjust the
to the horizontal
slope until the trolley travels down it at constant velocity while pulling the tape.
Figure 6 A ticker tape for a trolley travelling with constant velocity.
224
Module 7 Mechanics

DiSCUSSiON
The length of tape pulled by the trolley represents the displacement of the
trolley down the slope while the timer was operating. Calculate average
Δx
velocity with the equation v = . The direction of the velocity is down
Δt
the slope. Notice that the intervals between the dots are equal. This means
that the velocity is constant.
Convert between units of measurement

A speed limit sign gives the top speed allowed on a road. This speed is measured
in kilometres per hour, or km.h−1 for short. We may want to convert this to m.s−1
This is how to do it:
Step 1 Convert the units to metric base units
Step 2 1 km = 1 000 m
Step 3 1 hour = 3 600 s (1 hour = 60 minutes × 60 seconds)
1 km 1 000 m 1 m.s−1
Step 4 So = =
1 hour 3 600 s 3,6 Did you know?
Step 5 To convert km.h−1 to m.s−1 divide by 3,6. A car travelling at 60 km.h−1
80 moves 16,7 m each second.
For example, a speed of 80 km.h−1 is = 22,2 m.s−1.
3,6
Activity 3 Answer questions on average velocity
1 A ticker timer of frequency 50 Hz makes 180 dots on a tape that is being

pulled by a trolley. The displacement from the first to the last dot is 1,2 m.
Calculate:
1.1 the period of the ticker timer
1.2 the time Δt that the tape was pulled through the timer while it was
making dots.
1.3 the magnitude of the average velocity of the trolley.
MODULE 7
2 Show that the conversion factor to change m.s−1 to km.h−1 is 3,6.
3 At 15 °C the speed of sound in air is 340 m.s−1. Convert this speed to km.h−1.
4 Convert the speed limit on freeways of 120 km.h−1 to m.s−1.
5 A person walks 90 m due east and then turns round and walks 18 m
back towards the starting point. The time taken is 60 s.
5.1 Draw a vector diagram to illustrate the person’s change of position. Use
the tail-to-head method.
5.2 Compare the distance walked with the person’s displacement from the Exam word
starting point.
5.3 Calculate and compare the person’s average speed and average velocity. compare: describe what is
6 Calculate the displacement of an aircraft that travels due north for between two or more things
78 minutes at 720 km.h−1. Give you answer in kilometres.
7 A truck driver is driving between two cities. Which is more useful for
the driver to know, the average speed of the truck or its average velocity?
Give reasons to justify your answer.
Activity 2 (page 221): 2.1 D = 50 cm, ΔxR = 50 cm right; 2.2 D = 90 cm, ΔxR = 10 cm right; 2.3 D = 50 cm,
ΔxR = 0 cm; 5.2 5 m left
Activity 1 (page 223): 2.1 7,55 m.s−1; 2.3 50 s; 3 450 m; 4 11,67 m.s−1
Activity 3 (page 225): 1.1 0,02 s; 1.2 3,58 s; 1.3 0,34 m.s−1; 3 1 224 km.h−1; 4 33,33 m.s−1;
5.3 Average speed: 1,8 m.s−1; average velocity: 1,2 m.s−1 east; 6 936 km north
Unit 4 Speed and velocity 225

Unit 5 Average acceleration
Average acceleration
Figure 1 shows a car move away from a stop street. For a while it goes faster
and faster. Its velocity is changing and we say that it accelerates. In this unit
we find out how to calculate its average acceleration.
Average acceleration (a ) is the change of velocity divided by the time taken.
Δv v – vi
In symbols: average acceleration a = or a = f
Δt tf – ti
where v = velocity
Δv = change of velocity (m.s–1)
Δt = time taken (s)
The SI units of acceleration are m.s–2. For example, if velocity increases by

1 m.s–1 each second due north, then the acceleration is 1 m.s–1 per second,
Figure 1 The car accelerates or 1 m.s–2 due north.
away from the stop street. Just as velocity is a vector, so is acceleration – it has magnitude and
direction. It is also an example of a rate.
Worked example 1
A car travelling at 10 m.s−1 due east accelerates and after 6 s is travelling at
22 m.s−1 due east. Calculate the average acceleration of the car.
Method
Step 1 L
ist the Take to the east as the positive direction.
variables vi = +10 m.s−1
vf = +22 m.s−1
Δt = 6 s
a =?
Step 2 W
rite the Δv
a =
equation Δt
vf – vi
=
Δt
Step 3 S ubstitute +22 m.s−1 – (+10 m.s−1)
values =
6s
Step 4 S implify = +2 m.s−2
Step 5 Answer The average acceleration is 2 m.s−2 towards the east.
226
Module 7 Mechanics

Acceleration and deceleration New word
In everyday language the word acceleration often means an object’s speed is deceleration: moving body
increasing and deceleration that its speed is decreasing. Speed is a scalar so we are that is slowing down
using the words here as scalar quantities. However, in Physics we use the concept
of acceleration as a vector quantity so we use positive and negative directions.
Positive and negative acceleration

When motion is in one dimension, positive and negative accelerations are
in opposite directions. Two factors determine whether acceleration is positive
or negative:
• the positive direction of the frame of reference
• the change of velocity.
Read the following carefully to find the meaning of the direction of acceleration.
Acceleration of a trolley on a slope

Push a trolley (or a ball) and release it so that it moves up a slope. If
up the slope is the positive direction, then the velocity up the slope
is also positive. Figure 2 shows the trolley slowing down as it moves
up the slope.
What about the acceleration? The velocity of the trolley is
decreasing, so Δv = vf − vi is negative and so is a = Δ v Figure 2 Velocity and acceleration are in
Δt . The opposite directions – the magnitude of the
acceleration is in the opposite direction to the velocity and is in trolley’s velocity decreases.
the negative direction down the slope.
Figure 3 shows the trolley rolling faster and faster down the slope.
The positive direction is up the slope, so Δv is getting bigger in a
negative direction. Calculating a = Δ v
Δt still gives a negative answer.
MODULE 7
Figure 3 Velocity and acceleration are in
However, both the velocity and the acceleration are in the same the same direction – the magnitude of the
direction and have the same sign. trolley’s velocity increases.
To sum up:
• Speeding up: The acceleration and the velocity are in the same direction.
They have the same sign and the magnitude of the velocity is increasing.
Either both are positive, or both are negative.
• Slowing down: The acceleration and velocity are in opposite directions.
They have opposite signs and the magnitude of the velocity is decreasing.
So if the one is positive, the other one is negative.
• Acceleration shows us how the velocity is changing.
• Acceleration on its own does not tell us the direction that a body is
moving. For that we need to know the direction of its velocity.
Unit 5 Average acceleration 227

Activity 1 Answer questions on acceleration
1 Explain the meaning of deceleration. Does it describe a vector quantity?

2 Refer to the definition of acceleration to explain why a body that is
moving faster in a positive direction also has a positive acceleration.
3 Is a body which is moving in a negative direction but has a positive
acceleration speeding up or slowing down?
In the following questions, first estimate the answer before using an equation.
4 The velocity of a car that is moving east increases steadily from 20 m.s–1
to 35 m.s–1 in 5 s. Select east as the positive direction.
4.1 Draw a labelled velocity diagram to show the relationship between the
change of velocity, initial and final velocities of the car. Also draw a
vector (arrow) to show the direction of acceleration.
4.2 Calculate the magnitude (size) of the car’s average acceleration and give
its direction.
5 The car in Question 4 now slows down from 35 m.s–1 east to 25 m.s–1 east
in 4 s. Select east as the positive direction.
5.1 Draw a labelled vector diagram of the velocities in Question 5.
5.2 Calculate the magnitude (size) of the car’s acceleration and give its
direction.
5.3 Check your answer to Question 5.2 but now take west as the
positive direction.
5.4 Identify at what stage of the car’s motion it is decelerating.

4.2 3 m.s –2 east; 5.2 2,5 m.s –2 west
228
Module 7 Mechanics

Unit 6 Instantaneous velocity and speed
Position vs. time graph for uniform velocity

For uniform velocity, the gradient of a position versus time graph is the same
as the average velocity.
Figure 2 illustrates this. It is a graph of position vs. time for an object
travelling with a uniform velocity (constant velocity) of 2 m.s−1 east. In other
words, the change of position Δx is the same each second and is 2 m east. Figure 1 Air traffic controllers
use data such as position,
The shape of the graph is a straight line. displacement, velocity, time
We now compare the average velocity for the entire motion of the object and altitude to provide a safe
route for each aircraft.
with the gradient of the graph.
Calculation of average velocity New words

Step 1 List the variables Take east as the positive direction. uniform: constant in the
course of time
Total displacement = +10 m
Total time = 5 s gradient: slope of a graph;
vertical change divided by
Step 2 Write the equation total displacement horizontal change
v=
total time
Step 3 Substitute values +10 m
=
5s
Step 4 Simplify = +2 m.s−1
Step 5 Answer The average velocity is 2 m.s−1 east.
Calculation of the gradient of the graph

The triangle drawn on the graph provides the data to calculate the velocity
over smaller intervals. The ratio Δx
Δt is the gradient of the graph. In its case:
Position vs. time

Step 1 Identify variables on See Figure 2. Take east as the 10
the graph positive direction.
Step 2 Write the equation v = Δx 8
Δt
xf – xi
Position x (m)
=
tf – ti 6 ∆x
∆x
v–v =
Step 3 Substitute values 8m–4m ∆t
=
4s–2s 4
∆t
Step 4 Simplify = 2 m.s−1
Step 5 Answer The gradient of the graph is 2
equivalent to 2 m.s−1 east.

0
1 2 3 4 5
The gradient of a position vs. time graph of uniform
Time t (s)
velocity is the same as the average velocity.
We can use either method to calculate average velocity Figure 2 Graph of position vs. time for constant velocity.
provided the velocity is uniform.
Unit 6 Instantaneous velocity and speed 229

Position vs. time graph for increasing velocity Table 1 Data for a ball rolling
down a slope
Table 1 gives the position of a ball from the time it starts to roll down a Time, t Position, x
sloping road. (s) (m)
Figure 3 is a graph of position versus time for the ball. Velocity is increasing 1 1
and so the graph curves upwards towards the right. The graph of position vs. 2 4
time for changing velocity is curved. Now consider the velocity of the ball: 3 9
• In 5 s it rolls 25 m which is an average velocity of 5 m.s−1 down the road. 4 16
• However if you calculate the average velocity for the smaller interval 5 25
between t = 1 s and t = 2 s the answer is 3 m.s−1 down the road.
Calculation of velocity for the interval between Position vs. time

t = 1 s and t = 2 s 25
Step 1 Identify See Figure 3. ”Down

variables on the road” is the positive 20
the graph direction.
Position x (m)
Step 2 Write the v = Δx 15
Δt (4;15)
equation
xf – xi tangent
=
tf – ti 10
∆x
Step 3 Substitute 4m–1m ∆x
= v=
2s–1s ∆t
values 5
Step 4 Simplify = 3 m.s−1 (2;3) ∆t

Step 5 Answer The velocity for the interval 0
1 2 3 4 5
between t = 1 s and t = 2 s is
Time t (s)
3 m.s−1 down the road.
Figure 3 Graph of position vs. time for a ball moving with
This means that to calculate the velocity over a smaller increasing velocity.
time interval gives a better idea of the velocity at a

particular time than the average velocity.
Instantaneous velocity
If the time interval for a change of position is made very small the velocity
will be even closer to the actual velocity at that instant. This is the
instantaneous velocity. New words
infinitesimal: very, very
small
Instantaneous velocity (v) is the displacement (Δx) divided by an
tangent: line that touches a
infinitesimal time interval (Δt). curve at one point only and
does not cross it
• Instantaneous velocity is a vector quantity.
• Instantaneous velocity is the gradient of the tangent at a point on the
position-time graph.
See Figure 3. A tangent is drawn at t = 3 s to the graph. The gradient of the

tangent is the same as the gradient of the graph at that moment.
230
Module 7 Mechanics

Calculation of instantaneous velocity
Step 1 Identify variables on the graph See Figure 3 on page 230.
Step 2 Write the equation Δx
Instantaneous velocity, v =
Δt
x2 – x1
=
t2 – t1
Step 3 Substitute values 15 m – 3 m

=
4s–2s
Step 4 Simplify 12 m
=
2s
= 6 m.s−1
Step 5 Answer The instantaneous velocity at t = 3 s is 6 m.s−1 down the road.
Instantaneous speed
Because the time interval for instantaneous velocity is so small the path length
and the change of position are the same size so the magnitude of the velocity
equals the speed.
instantaneous speed is the same as the magnitude of the instantaneous

velocity.
Activity 1 Answer questions on instantaneous velocity

and speed
1 Write definitions for:
Position vs. time
1.1 instantaneous speed
MODULE 7
1.2 instantaneous velocity.
2 Explain how to calculate the instantaneous
velocity of a car using a position vs.
Position x (m)
time graph.
3 Figure 4 shows the position vs. time graph of (7;14)
14
an object travelling east.
3.1 Use the information on the graph to calculate
its instantaneous velocity at t = 5 s.
3.2 Use the answer to Question 3.1 to state the
instantaneous speed at t = 5 s. Justify tangent
your answer. 4
(3;4)
4 Suggest reasons why a speeding offence is 0
based on instantaneous speed rather than 3 5 7
average speed. Consider if there could be Time t (s)
exceptions to this procedure. Figure 4 Graph of position vs. time for a ball moving with
increasing velocity.
3.1 2,5 m.s –1 east; 3.2 2,5 m.s –1
Unit 6 Instantaneous velocity and speed 231

Unit 7 Investigate uniform acceleration
A position vs. time graph for uniform acceleration

ticker timer
The first activity in this unit is to obtain
trolley
experimental data to plot a position vs. time
tape
graph for uniformly accelerated motion of a
trolley.
An explanation of how to use the apparatus is
given in Unit 4 on page 224.
Figure 1 Adjust the slope of the inclined plane so that the trolley
accelerates uniformly while it pulls the tape.
Experiment 1 btain data and draw a position vs. time

O
graph for uniform acceleration
In this experiment you will record and draw a position vs. time graph of the
New words motion of a trolley undergoing uniform acceleration.
uniform acceleration: You will also provide data (ticker tape) for Experiment 2.
constant acceleration
METHOD
simultaneous: happens at
the same time Step 1 Identify the independent and dependent variables for this activity.
Identify control (fixed) variables.
Step 2 Set the slope of the inclined plane so that the trolley accelerates from
Materials rest as it pulls the tape (see Figure 1).
• ticker timer Step 3 Place the trolley at the top of the slope. Release the trolley and switch
• power supply on the ticker timer simultaneously.
• ticker tape Step 4 Then let the trolley run down the slope. Your tape should look similar
• carbon paper disc to the one in Figure 2.
• dynamics trolley Step 5 Mark off the tape in ten-space intervals starting from the first dot that
• inclined plane (board) you can see clearly.
• rule or measuring
tape
• retort stand
• drawing pins
Table 1 Example of a table for

recording results
Time, t Position, x Figure 2 A ticker tape for a trolley that is accelerating.
(s) (m)
0,2 Step 6 Measure the change of position from the beginning of the first interval
0,4 to the end of each successive interval. If the frequency of the timer is
0,6 50 Hz, then the period is 0,02 s and each ten-space interval is 0,2 s.
0,8 Record the data in a table like the one in the margin.
1,0 Step 7 Draw an accurate labelled graph of position vs. time.
1,2 Step 8 Describe and explain the shape of the graph.
1,4
Step 9 Use the graph to calculate the instantaneous velocity at t = 0,8 s.
232
Module 7 Mechanics

DiSCUSSiON
Alternative
Each successive interval Δx is larger than the one before. The graph curves
upwards showing that the trolley is accelerating and the direction of the If you do not have access to
the apparatus for the above
acceleration is down the slope of the inclined plane. activity or are revising, carry
out Steps 5 to 9 above
using the data on Figure 2.
Compare the shape of your
Acceleration project graph with Figure 3.
The following gives guidance for a project for formal assessment. Your teacher
may give additional requirements. You will need to draw up a full report.
Experiment 2 Investigate uniform acceleration
In this experiment you will:

1 use experimental data to draw and determine the shape of a graph of MaterialS
velocity vs. time for uniformly accelerated motion • ticker tape
2 use the gradient of the graph to determine acceleration of uniformly
3 compare the area under a velocity vs. time graph with total displacement. accelerated motion
(Experiment 1)
hYPOtheSiS
Write a hypothesis for each of the aims listed above.
MethOD Position vs. time
Step 1 Identify the independent and dependent variables for

this investigation. State any control (fixed) variables.
Step 2 Use the ticker tape from the previous investigation.
Position x (m)
Step 3 Measure the length of each 10-space interval and write

it on the tape.
Step 4 Calculate the average velocity of the trolley during each
interval. The average that you calculate is the same as
MODULE 7
the instantaneous velocity at the middle dot of the
interval. Record your results.
Step 5 Draw a labelled velocity vs. time graph of the trolley’s 0
motion. Plot the values for the time of the middle of Time t (s)
each 10-space interval. Figure 3 Position vs. time sketch graph of

Step 6 Describe the shape of the velocity vs. time graph and uniformly accelerated motion.
compare it with the motion of the trolley.
Step 7 Use the velocity vs. time graph to calculate the acceleration.
Step 8 Calculate the area under the velocity vs. time graph and compare your
answer with the total displacement measured on the ticker tape.
CONClUSiON
• Accept or reject the hypotheses that you made earlier. Give reasons.
• Identify sources of error in the experimental method and suggest
improvements.
rePOrt
Write a report of the investigation using the guidelines on page 18 or
guidelines given to you by your teacher.
Unit 7 Investigate uniform acceleration 233

Unit 8 Graphs of motion
Graphs of motion for uniform velocity

The following graphs represent the motion of a cyclist travelling east along a
straight road with a uniform velocity of 4 m.s−1 east measured over a time of
3 s. Figure 1 summarises the information in a sketch.
The position vs. time graph shows that the cyclist moves 4 m further along
the road each second. Because the velocity is uniform his acceleration a is zero.
east Position vs. time

12
positive
direction
Position x (m)
v = 4 m.s–1
a=0
0 3
Time t (s)
Figure 1 A cyclist travels east Figure 2 Position vs. time

along a straight road with a graph of a cyclist travelling with
uniform velocity of 4 m.s−1 east. uniform velocity of 4 m.s−1 east.
The cyclist travels 4 m each
second and in 3 s has changed
position by 12 m east.
Velocity vs. time Acceleration vs. time

Acceleration a (m.s –2 )
4
Velocity v (m.s –1)
0 0 3
1 2 3 Time t (s)
Time t (s)
Figure 3 Velocity vs. time Figure 4 Acceleration vs. time
graph of a cyclist travelling with graph of a cyclist travelling with
uniform velocity of 4 m.s−1 east. uniform velocity of 4 m.s−1 east.
The acceleration is zero because
the velocity is uniform (constant).
Discussion of graphs of motion for uniform velocity

Refer to the graphs to confirm the following:
• The position vs. time graph is a straight line.
• Its gradient equals the velocity of the cyclist: v = Δx
Δt = 4 m.s , east
−1
• The velocity vs. time graph is horizontal.

• The area under the velocity vs. time graph equals the change of position
(or displacement). Calculate the area under the graph:
Area = base × height
= 3 s × 4 m.s−1
= 12 m east (Count the squares on the graph.)
• The acceleration vs. time graph shows that the acceleration is zero.
234
Module 7 Mechanics

Worked example 1
east
Draw position vs. time and velocity vs. time sketch graphs of the motion
of a cyclist travelling west with a constant velocity of 5 m.s−1 measured positive
over a time of 4 s. Take east as the positive direction.

v = –5 m.s–1
Answer
Figure 5 summarises the information. Note that if east is the positive
direction the velocity and displacement are negative.
Position vs. time Velocity vs. time Figure 5 Diagram of data for

Time t (s) 4 Time t (s) 4 Worked example 1.
Position x (m)
0 0
New word
–20 –5 sketch graph: graph
not drawn to scale;
Figure 6 Position vs. time Figure 7 Velocity vs. time shows essential data
sketch graph. At 5 m.s−1, the graph of a cyclist travelling and relationship between
cyclist travels 20 m westwards west with uniform velocity of variables
in 4 s. The displacement is 5 m.s−1 west. The velocity is
negative. negative.
Graphs of motion for uniform acceleration

The following graphs represent a car with an initial velocity of +1 m.s−1 east
that accelerates uniformly for 5 s at +1 m.s−2 east. The acceleration and the
initial velocity are in the same direction so it increases its velocity by 1 m.s−1
east each second (see Figures 8 to 11).
Velocity vs. time

6
MODULE 7
5
east Position vs. time Acceleration vs. time
•
Acceleration a (m.s –2 )
17,5
4
positive
3 1
•
Position x (m)
2
vi = 1 m.s–1
• 1
a = +1 m.s–2 •
• 0
1 2 3 4 5
0 0 Time t (s) 5
Time t (s) 5 Time t (s)
Figure 8 Diagram of data for Figure 9 Position vs. time Figure 10 Velocity vs. time graph Figure 11 Acceleration vs. time
uniformly accelerated motion. graph of a car. During each of a car with an initial velocity graph of car that accelerates
successive time interval the of 1 m.s−1 east that accelerates uniformly for 5 s at 1 m.s−2 east.
car travels further than it did uniformly for 5 s at 1 m.s−2 east.
in the one before. After 5 s its
displacement is 17,5 m east.
Unit 8 Graphs of motion 235

Discussion of graphs of motion for uniform acceleration
Refer to the graphs on page 235 to confirm the following:
• The position vs. time graph has a changing slope or gradient.
• The instantaneous velocity equals the slope of the tangent to the
position vs. time graph at that particular instant (see page 235).
• The velocity vs. time graph is a straight line.
• The gradient of the velocity vs. time graph equals the acceleration.
• The area under the velocity vs. time graph equals the change of position
(or displacement).
For example, in Figure 10:

Area rectangle = base × height
Area = area rectangle + area triangle
1
= 5 m + 12,5 m
Area triangle = base × height
2 = 17,5 m east (Count the squares on the graph.)
The acceleration vs. time graph is constant and non-zero, in this case:
a = 1 m.s−2 east
Activity 1 Answer questions and draw graphs of motion
1 Compare the meaning of the terms uniform acceleration and uniform velocity.
2 Figure 12 is a velocity vs. time sketch graph of the motion of a car
travelling north.
2.1 Explain whether the object is moving with uniform velocity or not.
2.2 Draw position vs. time and acceleration vs. time sketch graphs of the car’s
motion.
2.3 Does the displacement of the car each second increase, stay the same or
decrease during each successive second? Explain your answer.
Velocity vs. time Velocity vs. time

8 B
Velocity
3 A
0 Time 0 Time t (s) 6

Figure 12 Graph for Question 2. Figure 13 Graph for Question 3.
3 Figure 13 is a velocity vs. time graph of two cyclists A and B travelling north.
3.1 Describe cyclist B’s motion in terms of velocity and acceleration.
Exam word 3.2 At any moment, how much faster is B travelling than A?
3.3 Compare the accelerations of the two cyclists. Give a reason to support
describe: give the details
your answer.
and facts of something in
full sentences without giving 4 Draw a velocity vs. time sketch graph of a car that undergoes a uniform
reasons negative acceleration as it approaches a stop street and comes to a stop.
236
Module 7 Mechanics

Unit 9 Using graphs of motion
Solve problems with graphs of motion

Use the following properties of graphs of motion:
• The velocity of an object travelling with uniform velocity equals the
gradient of a position vs. time graph.
• The instantaneous velocity of an object equals the slope of the tangent at a
particular instant on a position vs. time graph.
• The acceleration of an object equals the gradient of its velocity vs. time graph.
• The displacement (change of position) of an object equals the area under a
velocity-time graph.
Worked example 1
Figure 1 is a velocity vs. time graph of a trolley from the time Velocity vs. time
3 A
that it is released with a velocity of 3 m.s−1 up an inclined t
plane. It is stopped 1 s after starting to roll back down the 2
v
slope. Select up the inclined plane as the positive direction 1

2,0 2,5
and calculate: B
0
1 the acceleration of the trolley 0,5 1,0 1,5 D
–1 Time t (s)
2 the displacement of the trolley while it moves up
–2
the slope C
3 the displacement of the trolley while it moves down –3
the slope
Figure 1 Velocity vs. time graph for
4 the resultant displacement of the trolley.
Worked example 1.
Method
1 To determine the acceleration of the trolley:
Step 1 I dentify the variables on “Up the inclined plane” is the positive direction. Use the dashed
the graph (see Figure 1) lines to identify variables:
vf = −2 m.s−1
vi = +2 m.s−1
tf = 2,5 s
ti = 0,5 s
Step 2 Write the equation a = Δv
Δt
vf – vi
= t –t
f i
Step 3 Substitute values −2 m.s−1 – (+2 m.s−1)

=
2,5 s – 0,5 s
Step 4 Simplify = −2 m.s−2
Step 5 Answer The trolley’s acceleration is 2 m.s−2 down the slope.
Note: Acceleration is a vector, so the direction must be given
unless only the magnitude is asked for.
Unit 9 Using graphs of motion 237

2 To determine the displacement of the trolley while it moves up the slope:
Step 1 I dentify the variables Variables:
on the graph (see OA = +3 m.s−1
Figure 1) OB = 1,5 s
Step 2 Write the equation Displacement (interval OB)
= area under velocity vs. time graph
= area of triangle AOB
=12 OB × OA( 2 base × height)
1
Step 3 Substitute values

=1
2 × 1,5 s × (+3 m.s )
−1
Step 4 Simplify = +2,25 m

Step 5 Answer The trolley moves 2,25 m up the slope.
3 To determine the displacement of the trolley while it moves down the slope:
Step 1 I dentify the variables Variables:
on the graph (see DC = −2 m.s−1
Figure 1) BD = 1,0 s
Step 2 Write the equation Displacement (interval BD)
= area under velocity vs. time graph
= area between graph and time axis
=12 BD × DC( 2 base × height)
1
Step 3 Substitute values =1

2 × 1,0 s × (−2 m.s ) (Note: velocity is negative)
−1
Step 4 Simplify = −1,0 m

Step 5 Answer The trolley moves 1,0 m down the slope.
4 To determine the resultant displacement of the trolley:

Step 1 Write the equation Resultant displacement = ΔxAB + ΔxBC
Step 2 Substitute values = +2,25 m + (−1 m)
Step 3 Simplify = +1,25 m
Step 4 Answer The resultant displacement is 1,25 m up the slope.
238
Module 7 Mechanics

Activity 1 Answer questions and draw graphs of motion
Position vs. time
1 Figure 2 shows the position vs. time graph of a ball rolling in a straight line. 6
1.1 State whether the ball’s velocity is uniform. Give a reason for your answer.
5
1.2 Calculate the magnitude of the ball’s velocity.
Position x (m)
2 Figure 3 shows a graph of position vs. time of a ball rolling down a long slope. 4
x
2.1 Describe the motion of the ball in terms of its velocity and acceleration. 3
2.2 Use the information on the graph to calculate the velocity of the ball at
2
t = 4 s. (Do not forget to give both the magnitude and the direction of t
1
the velocity.)
3 Table 1 gives the position vs. time data Table 1 Data for Question 3 0
1 2 3 4
for a bus travelling north that accelerates Time, Displacement, Time t (s)
uniformly from rest for 5 seconds. t (s) x (m) Figure 2 Position vs. time
0 0 graph for Question 1.
3.1 Calculate the average velocity of the bus.
3.2 Plot a position vs. time graph of its motion. 1 0,5
6 Position vs. time
3.3 Use the graph to find the magnitude of the 2 2 (5;5,6)
instantaneous velocity of the bus 3 s after it 3 4,5 5
Position x (m)
starts to move. 4 8 4
4 Figure 4 is the velocity vs. time graph for a 5 12,5 3
car that starts from rest and is travelling west 2

along a straight road. 1
(2;0,4)
4.1 Use the graph to calculate the car’s acceleration during the first 6 s. 0 1 2 3 4 5
4.2 Use the graph to determine the car’s velocity after 2 s. Time t (s)
4.3 Draw a sketch acceleration vs. time graph for the 10 s represented by Figure 3 Position vs. time
graph for Question 2.
the graph.
4.4 How far does the car travel during the first 6 s?
Velocity vs. time
4.5 How far does the car travel in 10 s?
5 Figure 5 shows a velocity vs. time graph for the motion of a train on a 15
straight track between two stations.
MODULE 7
4 6 0
8 10 2
Time t (s)
Figure 4 Velocity vs. time graph
for Question 4.
Time t (s)
Figure 5 Velocity vs. time graph for Question 5.
5.1 For each of the intervals A, B and C, describe the train’s motion in terms
of its velocity and acceleration.
5.2 Use the graph to calculate the distance between the stations.
(The distance between the stations is the magnitude of the displacement
because motion is in a straight line.)
5.3 Draw an acceleration vs. time graph of the train’s motion.

1.2 1,5 m.s–1; 2.2 1,73 m.s–1 down the slope; 3.1 2,5 m.s–1 north; 3.3 3 m.s–1; 4.1 2,5 m.s–2 west;
4.2 5 m.s–1 west; 4.4 45 m; 4.5 105 m; 5.2 1 350 m
Unit 9 Using graphs of motion 239

Unit 10 Equations of motion
Uniform acceleration and average acceleration

In this unit the examples are of situations where the acceleration of an object
is uniform. This means the average acceleration and the actual acceleration are
the same at all times.
New word Kinematic equations of motion

kinematics: branch of A graph of motion enables us to see a lot of information at a glance, but
mechanics concerned drawing a graph and then doing a calculation can take time. For this it is
with the motion of objects useful to have a set of equations to use instead.
without being concerned
with the forces that cause Conditions for using the equations of motion
the motion
• Acceleration must be uniform.
• Motion must be in only one dimension (straight line motion). If one
direction is positive the opposite direction is negative.
Figure 1 illustrates the five quantities of interest in a motion problem: initial

velocity (vi), uniform acceleration (a), time interval (Δt), final velocity (vf) and
horizontal displacement (Δx).
vi a vf
x
t
Figure 1 A car with initial velocity (vi ) accelerates with uniform acceleration (a)
for time, Δt. It reaches a final velocity (vf ) and its horizontal displacement is Δx.
Derivation of equations of motion

The derivations of the equations are based on basic principles and graphs
of motion.
Equation for final velocity

Note
The equation for acceleration is:
The derivation of the
equations of motion is not a = Δv
Δt
for examinations.
vf – vi
=
Δt
Rearranging:
vf = vi + aΔt …Equation 1
240
Module 7 Mechanics

First equation for displacement
The area under a body’s velocity vs. time graph is the same as its displacement.
Look at Figure 2 to see how to calculate the area by dividing the area under
the graph into a rectangle and triangle.
Step 1 Rearrange Equation 1 to find the height of the triangle. This is the
difference between the final and the initial velocities (vf – vi).
vf = vi + aΔt
vf − vi = aΔt
Displacement, Δx = area rectangle + area triangle Velocity vs. time
= base × height + 12 base × height vf

= Δt × vi + 1 Δt aΔt
Velocity v (ms –1)

2 ×
Δx = viΔt + 1
2 a(Δt)
2
…Equation 2 triangle area at
= 1–2 × t × at
Second equation for displacement = 1–2 a(t)2
(vi + vf) vi
Step 1 An expression for average velocity is 2
rectangle area
= vi × t
Step 2 Displacement = average velocity × time vi
= vi t
(vi + vf)
Δx = × Δt …Equation 3
2 Time t (s)
Figure 2 Displacement is numerically equal
equation for (final velocity)2 to the sum of the areas of the triangle and
If we make Δt the subject of Equation 1 and substitute it into rectangle under the graph.
Equation 2, we obtain the following:
vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx …Equation 4
equations of motion
vf = vi + aΔt
Δx = viΔt + 12 a(Δt)2
vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx
(v + v )
Δx = i 2 f × Δt
MODULE 7
How to carry out calculations
Each equation has four variables out of the five: Δx, Δt, vi, vf and a. If you know
the value of three of these variables, you can always calculate the fourth one.
Method
• Draw a simple diagram of the information and list variables in the question.
• Decide on the direction that is positive.
• Select and write down the equation that has the three known variables
and the unknown variable.
• Substitute the known values into the equation and calculate the
unknown variable.
• You may wish to change the subject of the equation before substituting
values. Be sure that what you do is mathematically correct.
• Write the unit of measurement with the answer and the direction (if it
is a vector quantity). Although units are substituted into the following
examples, you do not have to do so but you must remember to write the
unit of the answer.

Worked example 1
A car starts off from rest. Its acceleration is 2 m.s−2 in a straight line. What
is its displacement after 10 s?
Method
Step 1 D
raw a diagram that positive
includes the positive a = +2 m.s–2
direction and variables x?
t = 10 s
vi = 0 m.s–1
Step 2 Choose the equation Δx = viΔt + 1 a(Δt)2
2
Step 3 Substitute values Δx = 0 m + 1 × 2 m.s–2 × (10 s)2
2
Step 4 Simplify = 0 m + 100 m
= +100 m
Step 5 Answer The displacement is 100 m in the same
direction as the velocity.
Worked example 2
A trolley is pushed up a slope with an initial velocity of 1 m.s−1. It rolls up
the slope and then rolls down again. After 3 s its velocity is 0,5 m.s–1 down
the slope. Calculate the trolley’s acceleration.
Method
Step 1 D
raw a diagram that e –1
includes the positive s i tiv m.s

po v i +1 s
direction and variables . s–1
t =3
5m ? 
vf –0, a
Step 2 Choose the equation vf = vi + aΔt

Step 3 Substitute values −0,5 m.s–1= 1 m.s−1 + a × 3 s
Step 4 Simplify −1,5 m.s–1 = a × 3 s
a × 3 s = −1,5 m.s−1
−1,5 m.s−1
a=
3s
a = −0,5 m.s–2
Step 5 Answer The acceleration is 0,5 m.s−2 down
the slope.
Note: An alternative method is to make a the subject of the equation (Step 2)

and then substitute the values of the variables.
242
Module 7 Mechanics

Worked example 3
An aircraft needs to reach a speed of 100 m.s−1 before it can take off. If its
acceleration is uniform at 10 m.s−2, calculate the length of the runway it requires.
Method
Although this question requires a scalar answer, length, the variables in the
equations are vectors. Remember that they have magnitude and direction.
Step 1 Draw a diagram positive

that includes the a +10 m.s–2
positive direction
vf +100 m.s–1
and variables
x ?
vi = 0 m.s–1
Step 2 Choose the equation vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx
Step 3 Substitute values (100 m.s−1)2 = 0 + 2 × (10 m.s−2) × Δx
Step 4 Simplify 10 000 (m.s−1)2 = 20 m.s−2 × Δx
10 000 (m.s−1)2
Δx =
20 m.s−2
= 500 m
Step 5 Answer The aircraft requires a runway of 500 m to take off.
Activity 1 Answer questions on equations of motion
1 Give two conditions for using equations of motion.

2 Figure 3 shows a skateboard rider inside a pipe. Why can you not
use equations of motion to calculate his displacement when he starts
moving along the surface?
3 The car in the Figure 4 has a velocity of 8 m.s−1 as it passes a lamp pole
MODULE 7
and its acceleration (to the right) is 2 m.s−2.
3.1 How much does the velocity of the car change each second? Figure 3 Illustration for
Question 2
3.2 The car passes a tree 4 s later. Calculate:
3.2.1 the car’s velocity when it passes the tree
3.2.2 the distance between the pole and the tree.
4 A train travelling on a straight track at 10 m.s−1 increases its speed and
accelerates uniformly at 0,25 m.s−2 for 30 seconds.
4.1 Calculate:
4.1.1 the final velocity of the train
4.1.2 the displacement of the train during the 30 s. Figure 4 Diagram for
4.2 The train then slows down with uniform acceleration and comes to a Question 3
stop after a further 50 s.
4.2.1 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the train’s
new acceleration.
4.2.2 Did the direction of the train’s velocity change during the 80 s
it was in motion?
4.2.3 Compare the direction of the initial acceleration of the train with the
direction of its acceleration while it is slowing down. Provide an explanation
with your answer as well as labelled vectors of the acceleration.

5 A straight length of road feeds on to a freeway. A car enters the road at
17 m.s−1 and undergoes a uniform acceleration of 2 m.s−2.
5.1 Calculate the magnitude of the car’s velocity after travelling 100 m.
5.2 Show whether the car reaches the national speed limit of 120 km.h–1.
6 A car on a straight road accelerates uniformly from 4 m.s−1 to 16 m.s−1
in 8 s.
6.1 Calculate:
6.1.1 how far the car travels in this time
6.1.2 the acceleration of the car.
6.2 Draw a labelled velocity vs. time sketch graph of the car’s motion.
6.3 Use the graph in Question 6.2 to check your answer to Question 6.1.1.
7 A motorbike travelling in a straight line accelerates uniformly at
1,2 m.s−2 for 25 s.
7.1 Calculate its initial velocity if it travelled a distance of 500 m during
this time.
7.2 A second motorbike starts from rest and undergoes a uniform
acceleration of 2,4 m.s−2. How long in seconds would it take the second
motorbike to cover 500 m?
8 A trolley moving with constant velocity travels 3 m in 1,5 s.
Figure 5 A motorbike
8.1 Draw a labelled position vs. time sketch graph of the trolley’s motion.
accelerates 8.2 What is the magnitude of the trolley’s acceleration?
8.3 Calculate the magnitude of its velocity.
8.4 What is the magnitude of the trolley’s displacement in a time interval
of 10 seconds if its velocity remains constant?
9 A car travelling on a straight road was observed to accelerate uniformly
from 10 m.s−1 to 15 m.s−1 during a time of 4 s. If the car started from
rest and underwent uniform acceleration, calculate:
9.1 the total distance covered from rest by the time it reached a velocity of
15 m.s−1
9.2 the total time taken from rest to accelerate to 15 m.s−1.
10 Figure 6 shows three poles
placed 100 m apart at the side of
100m 100m
a straight road. A car’s velocity is
30 m.s−1 when it passes the first
pole and 25 m.s−1 when it passes
the second pole. Figure 6 Diagram for Question 10
10.1 Explain whether the car’s
initial velocity and acceleration are in the same direction.
10.2 Assume that the car is undergoing uniform acceleration and calculate
its velocity when it passes the third pole.
10.3 Is the time taken by the car to travel the second 100 m longer than, the
same as, or shorter than the time to travel the first 100 m? Write down
only the word in italics that you choose as the correct answer.
10.4 Justify your answer to Question 10.3 by means of calculations.

3.2.1 16 m.s−1 to the right; 3.2.2 48 m; 4.1.1 17,5 m.s−1 in direction of initial velocity; 4.1.2 412,5 m
in the direction of the initial velocity; 4.2.1 0,35 m.s−2 in opposite direction to initial velocity;
5.1 26,25 m.s−1; 6.1.1 80 m; 6.1.2 1,5 m.s−2 in direction of initial velocity; 7.1 5 m.s−1 in direction of
displacement; 7.2 20,41 s; 8.3 2 m.s−1; 8.4 20 m; 9.1 90 m; 9.2 12 s; 10.2 18,71 m.s−1 in direction
of initial velocity; 10.4 3,64 s (1st 100 m), 4,58 s (2nd 100 m)
244
Module 7 Mechanics

Unit 11 Equations of motion and road safety
Braking distance
The shortest distance that it takes for its brakes to stop a motor vehicle is its
braking distance. The brakes of most cars and other light vehicles give them New word
a maximum acceleration of approximately −6 m.s−2. Top professional drivers
braking distance: shortest
manage an acceleration of −10 m.s−2. distance that it takes the
The worked example and activity below compare the braking distances for a brakes of a vehicle to bring
car travelling at the national speed limit of 120 km.h−1 with the limit in built it to a stop
up areas of 60 km.h−1. The one is twice the speed of the other.
Make Δx the subject of the equation before substituting in the values of the
variables. This shows the mathematical relationships involved.
Worked example 1
Calculate the braking distance for a car travelling at 120 km.h−1 using an acceleration of −6 m.s−2.
Method
Step 1 D
raw a diagram that includes the positive
positive direction and variables vi +120 km.h–1 vf = 0
a –6 m.s–2
x ?
Step 2 Convert units Convert 120 km.h−1 to m.s−1.

The conversion factor is 1
3,6
120 km.h−1 = 120 m.s−1
3,6
= 33,33 m.s−1
Step 3 Select an equation vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx
Make Δx the subject of the equation:
v 2 − vi2
Δx = f
2a
Step 4 Substitute values 02 – 33,332 (m.s−1)2
=
2 × (−6 m.s−2)
Step 5 Simplify = 92,57 m
Step 6 Answer The braking distance for a car travelling at 120 km.h−1
and an acceleration of −6 m.s−2 is 92,57 m.
(For a professional driver, the distance could be 55 m.)
Activity 1 Answer questions on braking distance
1 Calculate the braking distance for a car travelling at 60 km.h−1 assuming

that the acceleration while braking is −6 m.s−2. Answers to numerical
2 Compare your answer with the braking distance for 120 km.h−1. questions in this activity are
given on page 247.
Unit 11 Equations of motion and road safety 245

Discussion about braking distances
• The braking distance of 93 m for a vehicle travelling at 120 km.h−1 is
almost the length of a soccer field. It is not often that the driver of a car
travelling at high speed has to bring it to a stop in an emergency. As a
result, many drivers underestimate how far the car travels before stopping.
• The braking distance for a vehicle moving at 60 km.h−1 is 23 m.
Figure 1 Traffic on a freeway. • The braking distance for a vehicle travelling at 120 km.h−1 is four times
that of a vehicle travelling at half the speed. vi2
• The equation of motion that we used can be simplified to Δx = .
2a
This means that the braking distance is proportional to the square of the speed
of the vehicle.
Thinking distance
Although braking distances are large, in practice the vehicle travels even
New words further before stopping. This is for two reasons:
reaction time: time • The driver has to become aware of an unexpected situation. This takes
between realizing that there about 0,75 s. It can take even longer if the driver is not paying attention,
has been a change in the using a cell phone or under the influence of drugs or alcohol.
traffic and doing something
• There is a reaction time from when the driver realizes something must be
about it
done and actually applies the brakes. This is also approximately 0,75 s.
thinking distance: distance
that a vehicle travels before
the driver applies the brakes So thinking distance is how far the car travels at constant speed before the
driver applies the brakes. It is reasonable to use a time of 1,5 s.
Worked example 2
Calculate the thinking distance for a car travelling at 120 km.h−1 using a time of 1,5 s.
Method
Step 1 D
raw a diagram that includes the positive
positive direction and variables vi +120 km.h–1
x ?
a = 0 m.s–2
t = 1,5 s
Step 2 Convert units Convert 120 km.h−1 to m.s−1.
The conversion factor is 1
3,6
120 km.h =
−1 120
3,6 m.s−1
= 33,33 m.s−1
Step 3 Select an equation 1
Δx = viΔt + a(Δt)2
2
Step 4 Substitute values 1
= 33,33 m.s−1 × 1,5 s + × 0 × (Δt)2
2
Step 5 Simplify = 50,00 m
Step 6 Answer The thinking distance for a car travelling at 120 km.h−1
using a time of 1,5 s is 50,00 m.
246
Module 7 Mechanics

Discussion about thinking distance
The thinking distance is proportional to the speed of the car. So the thinking
distance for a car travelling at 60 km.h−1 is 25 m (half that of a car travelling at
120 km.h−1).
Stopping distance New word

The total distance that the car travels before it stops is the stopping distance. stopping distance: total
Stopping distance = braking distance + thinking distance distance needed to stop a
motor vehicle
Using the results of the calculations, the stopping distance for a car travelling
at 120 km.h−1 is 143 m. This depends on the situation. A driver who sees that Some tables of stopping
a dangerous situation could develop and slows down as a precaution will be at distance give only the
a lower speed before starting to brake. However, if the road is wet the stopping braking distance, while in
others the thinking distance
distance can double. is only the reaction time of
the driver.
Following distance
The distance between cars on the road is the following distance. Some drivers
think that they can keep a small following distance provided they brake as
soon as they see the brake light of the car in front. They forget about thinking
distance. They will have driven closer to the other car before braking and
could collide with it.
www.arrivealive.co.za/pages.
The two second rule aspx?nc=followingdistance
www.rotr.ie/rules-for-driving/
If the following distance between two cars is covered in 2 s, the driver of
speed-limits/speed-limits_
the second car has sufficient time to react to changes. To do this, the driver stopping-distances-cars.html
counts two seconds from when the car in front passes an object like a pole: www.science.org.au/
“a thousand and one, a thousand and two”. If the driver passes the object nova/058/058key.htm
before finishing counting the following distance is too small.
MODULE 7
Activity 2 Discuss speed and road safety
1 Identify and explain situations in built up areas where a responsible

driver will drive below the speed limit.
2 Many pedestrians are killed each year by motor vehicles. Use the
concepts of this unit to do the following:
2.1 Prepare guidelines so that pedestrians understand the dangers of
approaching vehicles.
2.2 Prepare guidelines that explain precautions that motorists should take to
avoid accidents involving pedestrians.

Activity 1 (page 245): 1 23,16 m; 2 Δx120 km.h−1 : Δx60 km.h
−1 =4:1
Unit 11 Equations of motion and road safety 247

Unit 12 Different kinds of energy
Content link
Energy
Energy; potential energy
and joule are taught in You may say “I had lots of energy so I did my homework”. Words like energy that
Grade 8. are in everyday use are sometimes given a special meaning in Science. Energy is a
theoretical concept that becomes clearer the more we use it. We cannot see energy
but knowing how we measure it helps us to understand it better.
New words
potential energy: energy
Potential energy
of an object because of its
position, state or shape
Potential energy is the energy which an object has because of its position,
state or shape. Think of it as stored energy. Examples of this are:
gravity: force of attraction
that bodies have for each • position: A stone on top of a wall has more potential energy than when it
other because of their mass is on the ground at the bottom of the wall.
gravitational field: region • state: Steam has more potential energy than the same mass of ice. Steam
or space where an object can push the lid off a pot of boiling water.
experiences a force • shape: The compressed spring in Figure 1 can push the hands apart.
because of its mass
There are a number of forms of potential energy such as chemical potential
energy, electrical potential energy and radiated energy (electromagnetic
waves). The energy that a body has because of gravitation can affect its motion
and is important in mechanics.
Gravitational field
Masses do not have to be in contact with each other for the force of gravity to
act on them. It is helpful to have a picture in our minds of the region around
an object where it can exert a gravitational force on another object with mass.
Such a region is called a gravitational field. The Earth’s gravitational field is
Figure 1 The compressed
shape of the spring stores strongest near the Earth’s surface and becomes weaker as the distance from the
potential energy. Earth increases.
Gravitational potential energy

The gravitational potential energy (EP) of a stone is the energy it has
because of its position in the Earth’s gravitational field. This means
that we need to measure its EP relative to a suitable reference point.
For example, we can use the surface of the Earth as the reference
point and measure the height of the stone above the ground.
Figure 2 Because of its mass an object
experiences a force of attraction towards the Earth The following definition is true wherever something is in
when it comes into the Earth’s gravitational field. the Universe.
The gravitational potential energy (EP) of an object is the energy it has

because of its position in a gravitational field relative to a reference point.
248
Module 7 Mechanics

Calculate gravitational potential energy
Calculate gravitational potential energy (symbol EP) with the equation:
EP = mgh
where m = mass measured in kilograms (kg)
New word
g = acceleration due to gravity measured in metres per second per
second (m.s−2) acceleration due to gravity:
h = the height above the reference point measured in metres (m) downward acceleration of
a body due to the force of
EP = gravitational potential energy measured in joules (J).
gravity; symbol g
In the equation EP = mgh, the product mg is a measure of force. It is the Earth’s

gravitational force of attraction on the object that we call weight.
So mgh is the product of force and displacement. The energy is proportional to
the force and is also proportional to the displacement from the reference point.
Near the Earth’s surface g = 9,8 m.s−2. Although the Earth’s gravitational field
becomes weaker with increasing distance, the equation gives answers with less
than 0,5% error up to the heights of aircraft flying at 10 000 m. m
Ep = mgh
Measuring energy
h g = 9,8 m.s –2
Energy is measured in joules (J) and is a scalar quantity. A joule is the amount
of energy that is transferred when a force of 1 N acts on (or pushes) an object
for 1 m. Take a block of wood and pull it 1 m over a table with a spring balance
Figure 3 Relative to the
that exerts 1 N. You will realise that a joule is a very small amount of energy. ground, the ball’s gravitational
Multiples of the joule are the kilojoule (kJ) and the megajoule (MJ). potential energy EP = mgh
Worked example 1
What is the height above the ground of a tennis ball of mass 57 g when its
gravitational potential energy (relative to the ground) is 5,586 J?
Method
m = 57 g
MODULE 7
Step 1 Draw a diagram
v=0 Ep = 5,586 J
g
9,8 m.s–2 h?
ground
Step 2 List the variables EP = 5,586 J
m = 57 g = 0,057 kg (Change grams to kilograms.)
g = 9,8 m.s−2
h=?
Step 3 Write the equation EP = mgh
Step 4 Substitute values 5,586 J = 0,057 kg × 9,8 m.s−2 × h alternative method:

Step 5 Simplify 0,5586 kg.m.s−2 × h = 5,586 J EP = mgh
Ep
h= 5,586 J h=
mg
0,5586 kg.m.s−2 5,586 J
h=
= 10 m 0,057 kg × 9,8 m.s−2
Step 6 Answer The tennis ball is 10 m above the ground. = 10 m above the ground
Unit 12 Different kinds of energy 249

Answer questions on gravitational
Activity 1
potential energy
1 Write the missing words in your notebook:
1.1 Potential energy is the energy that a body or system has because of its …,
state or ….
1.2 The gravitational potential energy of an object is the energy it has
because of its position in a … field relative to a … point.
2 Explain why potential energy can be thought of as stored energy.
3 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of a kilolitre (1 kL) of water
(mass = 1 000 kg) in a dam relative to a turbine 100 m below it. Give
your answer in joules and kilojoules.
4 Calculate the height of a cricket ball of mass 160 g if its gravitational
potential energy is 7,84 J.
5 Describe the mathematical relationship between the gravitational
potential energy of an object and its height above a reference point.
Answers to numerical 6 If the gravitational potential energy of an object 10 m above the ground
questions in this activity are is 50 J, what is its EP if it moves to 30 m above the ground?
given on page 251.
New word Kinetic energy

kinetic: due to motion Energy also occurs as kinetic energy (EK). When a cricket ball knocks the
stumps out of the ground, it transfers energy (see Figure 4). The ball’s energy
comes from its motion.
Kinetic energy (EK) is the energy that an object possesses as a result of

its motion.
Calculate the kinetic energy of an object with the equation:

1
EK = mv2
2
where m = mass measured in kilograms (kg)
v = magnitude of velocity or speed of object measured in m.s−1
EK = kinetic energy measured in joules (J)
Figure 4 Some of the cricket
ball’s kinetic energy is Worked example 2
transferred to the stumps.
A cricket ball of mass 160 g has kinetic energy of 2,88 J. Calculate its speed.
Method
Note
Energy is a scalar, Step 1 D
raw a diagram v?
so solving for v gives
the magnitude of the m = 160 g
instantaneous velocity Ek = 2,88 J
(without direction) or the
instantaneous speed. Step 2 L
ist the variables EK = 2,88 J
m = 160 g
= 0,16 kg (Change grams to kilograms.)
v=?
250
Module 7 Mechanics

Step 3 Write the equation 1
EK = mv2
2
Step 4 Substitute values 1
2,88 J = × 0,16 kg × v2
2
Step 5 Simplify 2,88 J
v2 =
0,5 × 0,16 kg
v2 = 36
v = √36
= 6 m.s−1
Step 6 Answer The speed of the cricket ball is 6 m.s−1.
Scalar nature of energy

We have not taken the direction of vectors such as velocity into account when
calculating energy. This is because energy is a scalar quantity. However, in Grade 12
we shall study further implications of calculations involving vectors and scalars.
Activity 2 Answer questions on kinetic energy
1 Explain what is meant by kinetic energy.

2 Is the kinetic energy of an object increasing, decreasing or staying the
same if the magnitude of its velocity:
2.1 stays constant?
2.2 increases?
2.3 decreases?
3 Calculate the kinetic energy of a 160 g cricket ball leaving a top fast
bowler’s hand at 42 m.s−1.
4 The kinetic energy of 1,2 kg trolley moving across a table is 1,35 J.
MODULE 7
Calculate the magnitude of its velocity.
5 Explain the mathematical relationship between kinetic energy and:
5.1 the mass of an object
5.2 the velocity of an object.
6 A 1 200 kg car travels along the road. Calculate its kinetic energy at:
6.1 54 km.h−1
6.2 108 km.h−1
7 The speed in Question 6.1 is twice the speed in Question 6.2. Show
whether the answers for kinetic energy agree with the mathematical
relationship given in Question 5.2.

Activity 1 (page 250): 3 980 000 J (980 kJ); 4 5 m; 6 150 J
Activity 2 (page 251): 3 141,12 J; 4 1,5 m.s−1; 6.1 135 000 J (1,35 × 105 J); 6.2 540 000 J
(5,4 × 105 J)
Unit 12 Different kinds of energy 251

Unit 13 Conservation of energy
Energy transfer and energy change

The release of chemical potential energy of petrol causes a car to accelerate
and gain kinetic energy. Some of the energy of the petrol also becomes heat
when it makes the molecules of colder substances vibrate more vigorously.
Figure 1 Petrol stores

chemical potential energy.
Conservation of energy
Conservation of energy means that no matter how many energy transfers or
conversions take place the total energy remains constant.
Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy is never created or destroyed but it can be transferred from one
form to another.
This is one of the most important laws in Science. It means that the sum of all
the energies in the Universe remains constant.
Calculating energy transfer

The most useful thing about the Law of Conservation of Energy is that it is
possible to measure and calculate energy transfer. For example, we can calculate
the energy that a battery supplies to an electric circuit. From this we can calculate
the chemical potential energy transferred to the circuit, the energy transferred to
each resistor or light bulb in the circuit and the energy radiated out of the circuit
as heat and light. This law tells us that the sums always add up.
Mechanical energy
In mechanics there are often transfers between the kinetic energy and
Figure 2 A pendulum with the gravitational potential energy of a moving object. We say that kinetic energy
bob at rest. and gravitational potential energy are forms of mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy (Em) is the sum of the kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy of an object.
New word
Mechanical energy, EM = EK + EP
pendulum: small mass
piece (called a bob) EM = 1 mv2 + mgh
suspended that can
2
EM is the symbol for the mechanical energy of an object and is measured in
swing freely
joules (J). A good example of this is a pendulum (see Figure 2).
252
Module 7 Mechanics

Worked example 1
At a point in its motion the 50 g bob of a pendulum has a velocity of
magnitude 1,0 m.s−1. Calculate its mechanical energy if its height above
the lowest point of its swing is 150 mm.
Method
v = 1 m.s –1
50 g
h 150 mm
Step 2 List the variables v = 1,0 m.s−1

h = 150 mm = 0,15 m
g = 9,8 m.s−2
m = 50 g = 0,05 kg
EM = ?
Step 3 Write the equation EM = EK + EP

1
EM = mv2 + mgh
2
Step 4 Substitute values EM = [0,5 × 0,05 kg × (1 m.s−1)2]
+ (0,05 kg × 9,8 m.s−2 × 0,15 m)
Step 5 Simplify = 0,025 J + 0,0735 J
= 0,0985 J
Step 6 Answer The mechanical energy of the bob is 0,099 J
relative to the lowest point of the pendulum’s
swing.
MODULE 7
Conservation of mechanical energy
Think of the mechanical energy of a ball that you have thrown up into the air
(see Figure 3): Figure 3 The transfer of
• When the ball leaves your hand, it has maximum velocity and so its energy that takes place is
between the kinetic and
kinetic energy is at a maximum. gravitational potential energy
• As the ball moves upwards, its velocity decreases. Its kinetic energy of the ball only.
decreases and changes to gravitational potential energy.
• As the ball falls down again, its gravitational potential energy decreases New word
and changes back to kinetic energy.
• The total mechanical energy remains constant. The only way that energy friction: force between two
surfaces in contact that
is transferred out of the mechanical system is if the ball is affected by resists the movement of the
friction. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy sums this up. one past the other
Principle of conservation of mechanical energy

In the absence of air resistance and friction the mechanical energy of an For slow velocities air
object moving in the Earth’s gravitational field is constant (conserved). resistance can be ignored.
Unit 13 Conservation of energy 253

Observe and describe conservation
of mechanical energy
In this demonstration you will observe and describe the motion of a pendulum
Materials METHOD
• pendulum bob or Step 1 Set up a pendulum (see Figure 4).
small mass piece Step 2 Pull back the pendulum and measure the height of the bob.
• string Step 3 Set the pendulum in motion and observe its motion for three swings.
• hook or retort stand Step 4 Measure the maximum height of each motion using a tape measure.
• metre stick or tape Step 5 Next, place a pencil in the way of the pendulum’s motion.
measure Step 6 Measure the new height of the pendulum.
QUESTIONS
1 Describe how the speed of the bob (or mass piece) changes. Where is its
speed the greatest and the least?
2 Describe the change in the bob’s kinetic and potential energies as it swings.
string
3 Does the bob rise to the same height each time it swings?
4 Place a pencil in the way of the pendulum string (as shown in Figure 5).
bob How high does the bob rise now?
5 Does it appear that the mechanical energy of the system is conserved?
Figure 4 A pendulum for doing
the practical activity. DISCUSSION
1 As the bob swings upwards its velocity decreases to be zero at its
maximum height and then increases as it swings downwards and is a
maximum at the lowest point of the swing.
2 As the bob swings upwards its kinetic energy decreases but its gravitational
potential energy increases. As it swings downwards its kinetic energy
increases but its gravitational potential energy decreases.
3 Each time it swings the bob rises to the same height.
4 When the pencil is placed in the way of the bob it rises to the same
height as before. This shows that mechanical energy is conserved
Figure 5 Observe how high
the bob rises when its path whatever path an object follows.
is changed. 5 The mechanical energy of the system is conserved. The transfer of
energy that takes place is between the kinetic and gravitational potential
energy. Each swing, the bob rises to the same height. The maximum
gravitational potential energy stays the same.
Answer questions on mechanical energy and

Activity 2 conservation of energy
1 Explain what is meant by the term “mechanical energy”.

v
2 Give a reason why the term “mechanical energy” is useful.
3 Figure 6 shows a trolley moving up an inclined plane.
Describe the changes in the trolley’s velocity, and its
kinetic and potential energies as it moves:
Figure 6 Diagram for Question 3 – a trolley on an 3.1 up the inclined plane
inclined plane. 3.2 down the inclined plane.
254
Module 7 Mechanics

4 State the Law of Conservation of Energy.
5 Under what conditions is mechanical energy conserved?
6 A ball of mass 0,2 kg is at a height of 4 m above the ground and has a
velocity of 5 m.s−1.
6.1 Write the equation for calculating the mechanical energy of the ball
relative to the ground.
6.2 Calculate the mechanical energy of the ball.
6.3 Is it necessary to know the direction of the ball’s velocity when you calculate
its kinetic energy and mechanical energy? Give a reason for your answer.
7 At a point in its motion the 100 g bob of a pendulum has a velocity of
1,2 m.s−1. Calculate its height above the lowest point of its swing if its
mechanical energy is 0,17 J.

6.2 10,34 J; 7 0,1 m
Calculations using conservation of mechanical energy

When the mechanical energy of an object is conserved, its mechanical energy
at one position is the same as at a second position:
EK 1 + EP 1 = EK 2 + EP 2
where 1 and 2 in the equation stand for position 1 and position 2.
In order to make the method clear, units of measurement have not been
substituted in the following examples. Nevertheless it is essential to write the
unit of measurement with the answer.
Worked example 2
A girl throws a ball of mass 0,2 kg vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 12 m.s−1.
1 Calculate the maximum height reached by the ball above the girl’s hand (assume that
mechanical energy is conserved).
MODULE 7
2 What is the ball’s speed when it is 4 m above the girl’s hand?
Method
1 To calculate the maximum height reached by the ball above the girl’s hand:
Step 1 Draw a diagram v2 = 0
g
9,8 m.s –2
h 2?
v1
h1 = 0 12 m.s –1
m = 0,2 kg
Step 2 List the variables v1 = 12 m.s−1 g = 9,8 m.s−2

h1 = 0 m v2 = 0 m.s−1
m = 0,2 kg Maximum height = h2 = ?
Step 3 Write the equation EK 1 + E P 1 = E K 2 + E P 2
1 1
mv2 + mgh (position 1) = mv2 + mgh (position 2)
2 2

Step 4 Substitute values 1 1
× 0,2 × 122 + 0,2 × 9,8 × 0 = × 0,2 × 02 + 0,2 × 9,8 × h
2 2
Step 5 Simplify 14,4 + 0 = 0 + 1,96 × h

1,96 × h = 14,4
14,4
h=
1,96
= 7,35 m
Step 6 Answer At maximum height the ball is 7,35 m above the girl’s hand.
2 To determine the speed of the ball 4 m above the girl’s hand:

v2
?
hz 4 m
v1
h1 = 0 12 m.s –1
m = 0,2 kg
Step 2 List the variables v1 = 12 m.s−1 g = 9,8 m.s−2

h1 = 0 h2 = 4 m
m = 0,2 kg Velocity at 4 m = v2 = ?
Step 3 Write the equation EK 1 + E P 1 = E K 2 + E P 2
1 1
mv2 + mgh (position 1) = mv2 + mgh (position 2)
2 2
Step 4 Substitute values 1 1
( × 0,2 × 122) + (0,2 × 9,8 × 0) = ( × 0,2 × v22) + (0,2 × 9,8 × 4)
2 2
Step 5 Simplify 14,4 + 0 = 0,1 × v22 + 7,84
0,1 × v22 + 7,84 = 14,4
0,1 × v22 = 14,4 − 7,84
6,56
v22 =
0,1
v22 = 65,6
v2 = 8,10 m.s−1
Step 6 Answer At 4 m above the girl’s hand the ball’s speed is 8,10 m.s−1.
Solving energy problems

When you use the principle of conservation of mechanical energy to solve a
problem, always remember the following:
• Mechanical energy is conserved provided that no forces such as friction
transfer energy out of the system.
• The variables relevant to a problem are the body’s velocity (v) and its
height (h) above a reference point.
• The path taken by a body can be ignored. It does not matter whether the
body moves in a curve or at an angle to the ground. (Equations of motion
can only be used in one dimension at a time.)
256
Module 7 Mechanics

Answer questions on conservation of
Activity 3
mechanical energy
New word In the following questions assume that mechanical energy is conserved and
negligible: too small to that friction and/or air resistance are negligible.
consider 1 A cricketer hits a 160 g cricket ball and it travels to a maximum height of
20 m above the ground.
1.1 What is the magnitude of the ball’s gravitational potential energy at its
maximum height?
1.2 Calculate the speed of the ball 5 m above the ground.
1.3 If the reference point is the ground, what is the ball’s gravitational
potential energy when it falls down and strikes the ground?
1.4 Calculate the magnitude of the velocity of the ball as it strikes the ground.
2 A bricklayer’s assistant throws a 3,5 kg brick to the bricklayer who is 3 m
vertically above him. He wants the brick to reach its maximum
height when it reaches the bricklayer’s hand.
2.1 With what velocity must he throw the brick vertically
upwards for it to rise 3 m?
2.2 Calculate the increase in the brick’s gravitational potential
energy when it is thrown 3 m upwards.
3 Figure 7 shows a 40 kg boy riding a skateboard at 5 m.s−1
towards a ramp that is 0,8 m high.
Figure 7 Diagram for Question 3 3.1 Calculate the mechanical energy of the boy as he
approaches the ramp.
3.2 Calculate the magnitude of the boy’s velocity at the top of the ramp.
3.3 Give a reason why it would be incorrect to use an equation of motion to
solve this problem.
4 A trolley of mass 1 kg rolls down an inclined plane. The trolley on the
inclined plane has an initial velocity of 0,2 m.s−1. When it reaches the bottom
its velocity is 2,2 m.s−1.
4.1 Calculate h, the change in its vertical height.
MODULE 7
4.2 Analyse the equation and calculation that you used to answer Question
4.1 and explain whether you needed to know the mass of the trolley to
do the calculation.
v1 = 2 m.s –1
4.3 Given the same situation and the same initial and final velocities, would
v2 = ?
m = 100 g the change in vertical height be the same for a 2 kg trolley?
hi h2
100 mm 50 mm
5 Figure 8 shows a pendulum bob of mass 100 g that is 100 mm above its
lowest point and has a speed of 2 m.s−1. Calculate its speed when it is
Figure 8 Diagram for Question 5
50 mm above its lowest point.
6 Figure 9 shows a roller coaster of mass 500 kg rolling down a section of
track. At point A its speed is 10 m.s−1 and
its height above the lowest point on the
track is 30 m. Point B is 35 m above the
lowest point. Show by calculation whether
the roller coaster has sufficient mechanical
energy to reach point B. (Assume that no
Figure 9 Diagram for Question 6 energy is lost in overcoming friction.)

1.1 31,36 J; 1.2 17,15 m.s−1; 1.3 0 J; 1.4 19,80 m.s−1; 2.1 7,67 m.s−1 upwards; 2.2 102,9 J; 3.1 500 J;
3.2 3,05 m.s−1; 4.1 0,24 m; 5 2,23 m.s−1; 6 Maximum height: 35,1 m

Module
7 Summary
Scalars and vectors Instantaneous speed and velocity and

• Time, mass, weight, force and charge are equations of motion
examples of physical quantities. • The gradient of a position vs. time graph gives
• Scalars are physical quantities that have the velocity provided the velocity is uniform.
magnitude only. • Instantaneous velocity is the displacement (Δx)
• Vectors are physical quantities that have both divided by an infinitesimal time interval (Δt). It
magnitude and direction. is a vector quantity.
• Vectors can be represented graphically, either to • The slope of the tangent to a position vs. time
scale or in a sketch. graph gives the instantaneous velocity at a
• Vector properties include: equality of particular time.
vectors, negative vectors, addition and • Instantaneous speed is the same as the
subtraction. magnitude of the instantaneous velocity.
• The resultant is the vector quantity that has the • The gradient of a velocity vs. time graph gives
same effect as two or more vector quantities. the acceleration of an object.
• The resultant can be found by the tail-to-head • The area under a velocity vs. time graph gives the
method and by calculation. displacement of the object.
• Kinematic equations of motion:
Motion in one dimension
vf = vi + aΔt
• A frame of reference is a set of reference
points – such as a set of axes – that enables the Δx = viΔt + 1 a(Δt)2
2
position of an object to be defined at any time. vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx
It has an origin and a set of directions such as (v + vf)
east and west, up and down. Δx = i × Δt
2
• A position on a frame of reference is plotted • Braking and stopping distance of a vehicle are
relative to a reference point. related to its speed.
• One dimensional motion is along a straight line
and can be forwards or backwards. If one direction Energy
is positive, the opposite direction is negative. • The gravitational potential energy of an object
• Distance is the length of the path that an is the energy it has because of its position in a
object moves along from one position to gravitational field relative to a reference point:
another. It is a scalar quantity. EP = mgh
• Displacement is a change in position. It is a • Kinetic energy is the energy that an object
vector quantity that is the straight line from possesses as a result of its motion: EK = 1 mv2
2
the initial to the final position. • Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy is never
• Average speed is the distance travelled divided created or destroyed but it can be transferred
by the total time. It is a scalar quantity. from one form to another.
• Average velocity is the displacement (change in • Mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic
position) divided by the total time taken. It is a energy and gravitational energy of an object:
vector quantity. EM = EK + EP
• To convert km.h−1 to m.s−1 divide by 3,6. • Principle of conservation of mechanical energy:
• Average acceleration is the change of velocity In the absence of air resistance and friction the
divided by the time taken. mechanical energy of an object moving in the
• Acceleration indicates how the velocity changes Earth’s gravitational field is constant (conserved).
but not the direction of the velocity. • EK 1 + EP 1 = EK 2 + EP 2
258
Module 7 Summary

Module
Vectors and scalars Velocity Acceleration

A right left
B right right
descriptions:
C left left
1.1 A physical quantity that has magnitude only.
D left right
1.2 The vector quantity that has the same effect
as two or more vector quantities.
2 Answer the following multiple choice question. 3 A patrol ship leaves port (harbour) and sails
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. (travels) 125 km west and then turns around
2.1 Which of the following is a vector quantity? and travels 75 km east.
A Time 3.1 Draw a labelled sketch vector diagram of
B Mass the ship’s displacement vectors to show the
C Weight movement of the ship.
D Charge 3.2 Determine the final position of the ship.
3 F is a force of 20 N that acts towards the right. 3.3 Name the reference point that is used to
3.1 Draw fully labelled sketch vector diagrams to: answer Question 3.2.
3.1.1 show a vector that is the negative of F. 3.4 Calculate:
3.1.2 determine the force that when 3.4.1 the distance travelled by the ship from
subtracted from F gives a resultant of the port to its final position.
15 N acting to the left. 3.4.2 the displacement of the ship from the
3.1.3 determine the force that when added to F harbour to its final position.
gives a resultant of 15 N acting to the left. 3.5 If the ship took 10 hours to travel to its final
3.2 Compare your answers to Questions position, calculate its:
3.1.2 and 3.1.3. 3.5.1 average velocity (in km.h−1)
4 Three forces act on a body, 100 N to the right, 3.5.2 average speed (in km.h−1).
300 N to the left and 50 N to the right. Find the 3.6 Explain why the answers for average speed
resultant of the three forces by drawing a scale and average velocity are not the same.
vector diagram using a scale of 10 mm : 50 N. 3.7 Convert the speed of the ship calculated in
Question 3.5.2 to m.s−1. Show each step of
Motion in one dimension your calculation.
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following 4 A car travels at 30 m.s−1 for 1 hour and 15 m.s−1
descriptions: for 30 minutes.
1.1 A change of position. 4.1 Calculate the average speed of the car in m.s−1.
1.2 The change of velocity divided by the time taken 4.2 The car then approaches a stop street and slows
2 Answer the following multiple choice questions. down from 15 m.s−1 to come to rest in 5 s.
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. 4.2.1 Calculate the magnitude of the average
2.1 Which of the following is an example of a rate? acceleration of the car while it slows down.
A Position 4.2.2 If the car is moving eastwards towards
B Displacement the stop street, draw a labelled vector to
C Force represent its acceleration.
D Acceleration
2.2 A car that is moving to the right slows down. Speed, velocity and the equations of motion
The directions of its velocity and acceleration 1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following
are to the: descriptions:

1.1 Displacement divided by an infinitesimal 4.2 Read the time at which the driver applied the
time interval. brakes from the graph.
1.2 Gradient of a velocity vs. time graph. 4.3 Use the graph to calculate the magnitude and
2 Answer the following multiple-choice question. direction of the car’s acceleration from t = 1 s
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. to t = 3 s.
2.1 Which of the following position vs. time 4.4 Initially at t = 0 s, the obstacle is 30 m
graphs best represents the motion of an from the car. Use the graph to calculate the
aircraft that accelerates uniformly from rest to distance between the car and the obstacle
take off from a runway? when the car comes to a stop.
5 A train travelling with an initial velocity
x
x
of 10 m.s−1 accelerates uniformly until its
velocity is 20 m.s−1. While it accelerates it
covers a distance of 1 500 m. Calculate the
0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t time taken by the train to cover the 1 500 m.
A B C D 6 A car was observed to accelerate uniformly
3 The figure below shows a ticker tape that a from 10 m.s−1 to 15 m.s−1 in 2,5 s. If the car
trolley has pulled behind it. started from rest with the same uniform
acceleration, calculate:
direction of motion
6.1 the distance covered from rest to when it
4 3 2 1 reached 15 m.s−1
6.2 the total time taken to accelerate to 15 m.s−1.
Energy
1 A car of mass 2 000 kg travelling at 20 m.s−1
121 mm 118 mm 122 mm 119 mm slows down to a speed of 12 m.s−1.
1.1 Explain what is meant by saying that a moving
The ticker tape has been divided into 10-space object such as a car has kinetic energy.
intervals and the displacement that it made 1.2 Calculate the initial kinetic energy of the car.
during each 10-space interval is indicated on it. 1.3 Calculate the change in the car’s kinetic energy.
3.1 If the frequency of the timer is 50 Hz, calculate 1.4 Describe at least two energy transfers that
the time taken for each 10-space interval. could have taken place that caused the
3.2 Is the velocity of the trolley uniform or not? kinetic energy of the car to decrease.
Give a reason to support your answer. 2 A 180 g ball is thrown up into the air.
3.3 Calculate the magnitude of the average 2.1 State the Law of Conservation of Energy.
velocity of the trolley. 2.2 Ignore air friction and describe the energy
4 The velocity vs. time graph represents the changes that take place while the ball is moving:
motion of a car from the time that the driver 2.2.1 upwards 2.2.2 downwards.
sees an obstacle in the road ahead to when 2.3 State the Principle of Conservation of
the car comes to a stop. Mechanical Energy.
2.4 Calculate:
14 Velocity vs. time 2.4.1 the mechanical energy of the ball if
its velocity is 3 m.s−1 when it is 6 m
above the ground.

2.4.2 t he ball’s speed when it is 2 m above
the ground.
Vectors and scalars: 3.1.2 35 N to the right; 3.1.3 35 N to the left;
0 1 3 4 150 N to the left
Time t (s)
Motion in one dimension: 3.2 50 km west; 3.4.1 200 km;
4.1 Describe the velocity of the car during the 3.4.2 50 km west; 3.5.1 5 km.h−1 west; 3.5.2 20 km.h−1;
first second represented by the graph. 3.7 5,56 m.s−1; 4.1 25 m.s−1; 4.2.1 3 m.s−2
Speed, velocity and the equations of motion: 3.1 0,2 s;
3.3 0,6 m.s−1; 4.2 1 s; 4.3 7 m.s−2 opposite direction to vi;
4.4 2 m; 5 100 s; 6.1 56,25 m; 6.2 7,5 s
260
Module 7 Revision and extension Energy: 1.2 4 × 105 J; 1.3 2,56 × 105 J (decrease); 2.4.1 11,39 J; 2.4.2
9,35 m.s−1

MODULE
8
Chemical systems
Earth is a dynamic planet. Four different systems or spheres interact with each
other to shape the planet and support life on it. One of these systems, the
hydrosphere, interacts with the others through the water cycle. This cycle is a
continuous flow of water in changing phases.
Humans also depend on the water cycle. As the human population grows;
our need for water increases. We invent ways to interfere with the water cycle to
accommodate our growing need for water. During the last century, dams were
built all around the world. These structures control the flow of rivers to supply
water for household needs. Dams also cause problems for people and for other
living organisms that rely on the complex ecosystem of the river.
In this module we will discuss the hydrosphere.
Chemical systems
Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Biosphere
Water and the water

cycle
The ecology of dams

and rivers
Testing water to
determine water
quality
Module 8 Chemical systems 261

Unit 1 The hydrosphere
Earth’s global systems

The global systems on Earth consists of four major inter-connected systems or
spheres. Life and all the materials found on or near the surface of the Earth can
be divided into one of the following:
• lithosphere (or geosphere) – consists of all the rocks that form Earth’s surface
• hydrosphere – consists of all of Earth’s water
• atmosphere – consists of all the air that surrounds the Earth
• biosphere – consists of all living organisms found on Earth.
These systems are interrelated. Any change that occurs in one system affects
the other systems.
The hydrosphere
The hydrosphere consists of Earth’s water. Water is essential to all life. It is
the main reason for Earth being the only planet (we know of) that hosts
living things. Oceans of water cover more than 70% of the Earth’s surface. It
is this large amount of water that has made it possible for life to develop so
successfully on Earth.
Water flows in an endless cycle that we call the water cycle. All water on
Earth forms part of the cycle, but at different phases of the cycle water is
Figure 1 Earth, the blue planet stored for different amounts of time.
The water cycle

Water moves through the global systems and affects them all. Figure 2
shows how the water cycle collects, purifies and distributes the water in the
hydrosphere through interaction with the other global systems.
Solar energy drives the water cycle,

providing the energy for evaporation
Water vapour Precipitation

carried by winds over land
Evaporation
Precipitation from the sea
over the sea Evaporation
and
transpiration
Runoff into
Runoff and waterways and
groundwater percolation into
groundwater
Figure 2 The water cycle and its interaction with the global cycles.
262
Module 8 Chemical systems Kent: Advanced Biology
Figure: 23-7.1

Interaction with the lithosphere
Rain falls on the Earth’s surface and dissolves salts and other chemicals from the
soil. It also washes soil particles from the soil and the water seeps into the soil.
Soil is carried down rivers and then when the rivers slow down fresh soil is
dropped on the bottom and the banks of the river. Some farmers rely on this
fresh soil to plant their crops.
The flow of water is powerful. It can grind down rocks and carve a path
through the Earth’s surface. When water freezes to ice in cold weather it can
split rocks and ice rivers (called glaciers) grind rocks down to soil. Liquid water
has sculpted and smoothed the surface of our planet.
Interaction with the atmosphere

Water evaporates from the sea, dams and rivers into water vapour. The vapour
in the air absorbs some of the heat of the Sun, while at the cooler, higher levels
it condenses into water droplets that form clouds.
The white surface of clouds reflect heat and help to keep the surface of the
Earth cool. When the water droplets in clouds become too heavy for the rising
air to hold up, they fall to the Earth as rain, hail, snow or sleet.
Interaction with the biosphere

As the water falls to the ground, it soaks into the ground and becomes
groundwater. This groundwater is absorbed by the roots of plants. The roots
of plants hold soil in place. This slows down surface runoff and therefore
prevents the soil erosion.
Both animals and plants contribute to the flow of water in the cycle. Plants
release water back into the atmosphere by transpiration (evaporation from the
leaves). Animals also release water vapour back into the atmosphere as they
breathe. Water is essential for the life of plants and animals. Animals and plants
store water in their bodies for a time. It is used to transport food within their
structures. Animals also use water to excrete waste and to cool them down.
The unique properties of water

Water has many unique properties. Some of these are crucial for living organisms.
Table 1 Physical or chemical properties of water and its importance to the biosphere
Physical or chemical property Importance to the biosphere

Water exists as a liquid over a wide The average temperature on Earth is about 15 °C. This means that water is
temperature range mostly found in the liquid phase.
Liquid water changes temperature very Water heats up and cools down slower than soil and rocks. This moderates
slowly the range of temperatures on the Earth and therefore protects living organisms
from abrupt temperature changes.
Liquid water is a good solvent Water carries dissolved nutrients through the tissues of living organisms. It also
flushes out waste products.
Water expands rather than contracts Ice floats on water because it has a lower mass per volume than liquid water.
MODULE 8
when it freezes Without this property lakes and streams in cold climates would freeze from the
bottom up and many forms of aquatic life would not exist.
Unit 1 The hydrosphere 263

Did you know? Human intervention in the water cycle
Everyday we use water for agriculture, households and industry. We intervene
Some scientists have
estimated that 30% of
in the water cycle by:
the world’s fresh water is • withdrawing large quantities of fresh water from streams, lakes and
stored as groundwater. underground storage
These aquifers fill extremely
slowly and, if we pump
• building dams that control the flow of rivers
water from them as we • clearing vegetation which reduces seepage of water to recharge
often do, it will not be groundwater supplies, increases the risk of flooding, speeds surface runoff
replaced in our lifetime.
and produces more soil erosion.
We dissolve much of the waste that is produced in modern society in water.
If polluted water reaches drinking water reserves, it poses a threat to human
health. Groundwater moves slowly and contaminated groundwater can
therefore be permanently polluted.
The ability of water to dissolve compounds also means that it can carry
diseases in the form of bacteria or viruses.
Table 2 The distribution of water on Earth The three states of water

Percentage
Location of water Most of the water on Earth is found in the liquid state. Natural
of world
supply lakes and rivers, and human-made dams and canals capture some
water (%)
of the water falling as rain. Large quantities of water seep into
Oceans 97,08
the earth and become groundwater, often stored in aquifers, huge
Ice sheets and glaciers 1,99 underground water reservoirs.
Ground water 0,62 In the atmosphere water is found in the gas state as water vapour.
Atmospheric vapour 0,29 We find water in the solid state as ice in the polar ice caps.
Here water is stored in icebergs, glaciers and as ice in frozen soil
Freshwater lakes 0,01
layers called permafrost.
Inland seas and seawater 0,005
lakes Distribution of water on Earth
Soil moisture 0,004 Most of the water on Earth is found in the oceans. Only a small
Rivers 0,001 fraction is fresh water. Most of the fresh water is locked up as ice
Source: geography.about.com/od/ in the polar ice caps. Table 2 shows how much of Earth’s water is
physicalgeography/a/hydrologiccycle.htm available for use as fresh water.
Activity 1 Answer questions on the hydrosphere
1 Draw a diagram of the water cycle.

1.1 Label the processes involved in the transfer of water from one part of the
Exam words cycle to the next.
1.2 State which global system each process interacts with.
state: write a piece of 2 Describe the interaction between the hydrosphere and plants in the
information, as asked
biosphere.
explain: give the details of 3 Explain why most water on Earth is found in the liquid phase.
something in full sentences
4 Water is a good solvent. This property has benefits to living organisms.
without giving reasons
Human intervention of the water cycle also means that this property can
list: write the names,
cause problems.
one below the other, each 4.1 List two ways that this property benefits humans. Explain your answer.
on a new line 4.2 List two problems that arise from this property. Explain your answer.
264
Module 8 Chemical systems

Unit 2 Human interaction with the hydrosphere
The ecology of rivers

A river system is an important part of the water cycle.
The downward flow of water from mountain highlands
takes place in three phases. Because of the different
conditions in each phase, a river system is a series of
different ecosystems.
First, mountain streams with cold, clear water
rush over waterfalls and rapids. As the water flows it
dissolves oxygen from the air. This allows fish and
plants to live in this part of the river.
In the second phase, streams merge to form
wider, deeper streams that flow down gentler Figure 1 Three phases of the flow of water.
slopes. This is home for plants and fish that require less oxygen rich water.
In the third phase, streams join into wider and deeper rivers that meander
across valleys. At its mouth, a river may divide into many channels forming a New words
delta or wetlands. ecosystem: biological
The ecology of life in a river depends on a regular cycle of disturbances such community of organisms,
as flooding. Many fish and insects regulate their reproductive cycles in tune with interacting with each other
regular flooding and the extra food sources which floods bring down the river. The and their environment
soil washed down in a flood ends up enriching the river banks and flood plains. ecology: relationship of
organisms to one another
The interactions of flowing water and plant and animal life result in a
and to their physical
complex ecosystem where each part of the system plays an important role. We surroundings
call this interdependence.
Activity 1 Study the ecology of rivers in your area

Exam words
In this activity, you will study the ecology of a river.
identify: find, name and
1 Study maps of a river in your area or visit a river. If possible, walk from
mention
the source to the river mouth.
describe: give the details
2 Identify the three phases of the river system.
and facts of something in
3 Describe the ecology of the river by drawing a diagram showing the full sentences without giving
interactions of the river’s ecosystem. reasons
Human interaction with rivers

Since early times people have settled on the banks of rivers. Settlements were
usually situated on flood plains with rich soil, where it was easy to get water
for households and farms. Fish were a source of food and the river provided
MODULE 8
easy transport by boat.

As settlements grew into towns, the need for water increased. People
required water for industry, agriculture and lifestyle. People also needed to
protect their towns from flooding.
Unit 2 Human interaction with the hydrosphere 265

Managing water resources
To manage the increasing need for water resources people

have several options. These include:
• building dams
• tapping groundwater
• desalination.
Figure 2 South Africa’s biggest dam, the Gariep Dam on
the Orange River.
Dams and their impact on the environment

A dam is a barrier that controls the flow of water in a river. Dams are usually
New words created by building a dam wall across a narrow valley. This creates a large area of
desalination: purification water above the wall. Below the wall the flow of water is controlled by opening
of salty water by removing or closing flood gates. A dam impacts the environment in many ways.
dissolved salts
hydro-electricity: electricity
generated using the power
Supplying water with dams
of flowing water Dams have many benefits for people. They:
• store drinking water
• provide water for household needs and agriculture
• can control floods that damage buildings and farmlands
• can generate electricity through hydro-electricity.
Hydro-electricity
When water flows down a slope it loses gravitational potential energy and
gains kinetic energy. In a hydroelectric power station, the energy of the water
turns the blades of a turbine – which is attached to a generator and transfers
electrical energy to the National Grid. This in turn transfers electrical energy
across the country to where it is needed.
Problems caused by dams

A dam can cause problems both above and below the dam wall.
Above the dam wall

Above the dam wall the original valley is flooded. People who live here have
to move when the dam is built.
Below the dam wall

A dam disturbs the natural rhythm of the ecology of the river. Below the dam
wall flooding now only occurs when the dam releases a large amount of water.
This may not match the breeding season of animals and insects living here.
Release floods are more severe than seasonal floods and may rip the soil from
the bottom of the river leaving a hard unproductive bottom.
The water trapped in the dam forms layers of water at different temperatures
with cold, airless water trapped at the bottom. When this water is released its
lack of oxygen can kill aquatic life in the river below.
266

If a dam is built in a narrow valley or an unstable part of the Earth’s
surface the massive weight of the trapped water can trigger landslides and
even earthquakes.
Dams in southern Africa

During the past 100 years, dams were built all around the world. In southern
Africa we have several large dams.
The Kariba dam

One of the largest dams in southern Africa is Kariba dam in Zimbabwe. It is a
hydro-electric dam that controls the flow of the Zambezi river.
When the Kariba Dam was built, 57 000 Tonga people living on the river
bank in Zimbabwe and Zambia had to leave their homes in the fertile valley.
They had been farming here for many generations. Around 6 000 animals
were rescued from the rising waters.
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project

The governments of Lesotho and South Africa work in a partnership
constructing several large dams and tunnels through the two countries. It is
Africa’s largest water transfer scheme.
The Gariep dam

The Gariep dam is the largest water storage reservoir in South Africa. It is a
hydro-electric dam that controls the flow of the Orange River.
Activity 2 Poster project on the impact of a dam
In this activity you will study the ecology of a dam. You will research how the
building of a dam has changed the ecology of the river that feeds the dam and
the livelihood of the people who live in the area.
1 Study the ecology of the dams built to provide water for communities in
your area. Exam words
1.1 Find out the purpose of the dam. research: find, interpret
1.2 State the benefits that the dams brought to the community. and apply information from
1.3 Identify any problems that have emerged. different sources
2 Investigate how the building of dams has changed the ecology of the investigate: follow a
river that supplies the dam with water. systematic way of analysing
a problem to arrive at a
3 Conduct interviews with people who have lived in the area under
proven conclusion
investigation for many years, or find literature about the dam.
present: give information in
3.1 How has their livelihood changed after the dam was built?
a well-prepared way
4 Produce a poster to show the results of your investigation.
Alternative suggestion
Investigate one of the dams discussed in this unit.
MODULE 8
Unit 2 Human interaction with the hydrosphere 267

Unit 3 Water quality and purification
Water has many properties. It is a reactive chemical and a good solvent. Water
can therefore:
• dissolve carbonates as it flows through limestone areas
• extract chlorides from salty soils
• dissolve nitrates in fertilisers from fields.
A number of different chemicals can also affect its pH or acidity. The quality
of our water is affected by the chemicals that it contains.
Test the water quality of a water source in

Experiment 1 your area
In this experiment you will collect water samples from a local dam or river
and assess the quality of the water.
METHOD
Caution Step 1 Collect a water sample from a local dam, river or stream.
Step 2 Divide the water sample into five test tubes. Perform one test on
Wear rubber gloves when
each sample.
handling unfiltered water as
water can carry diseases. Step 3 Test for the presence of carbonates by adding solutions of barium nitrate
and nitric acid. Write down the chemical equation and record your result.
Step 4 Test the second sample for chlorides by adding solutions of silver nitrate
Hint and nitric acid. Write down your chemical equation and record your result.
The first two tests are Step 5 Determine the pH (use universal indicator strips). Record your result.
precipitation tests. These
are covered in Module 6, Step 6 Test for nitrates and nitrites (use TETRA-test strips). Record your result.
Unit 3. To test for pH and Step 7 Look at a water sample under a microscope and look for particles and
nitrates; wet a test paper microscopic life. Record your results.
and compare its colour to
the colour shown on the
packet. DISCUSSION
The presence of high concentrations of some chemicals can lower the quality
of the water. Assess the water quality of the water by comparing the test results
to the following facts:
• Hard water contains dissolved calcium carbonate ions. The water will not
lather and the ions form a white layer inside kettles and pans.
• A high concentration of chloride makes the water salty and unfit for
drinking and irrigation.
• A high or low pH affects the kinds of plants and animals that can live in
the water.
• A high concentration of nitrate or nitrite ions makes water unfit for drinking.
It can also cause heavy vegetation growth which blocks rivers and streams.
SCIENTIFIC REPORT
• Write up the practical investigation in the form of a scientific report.
268

Water purification
Water purification is the process of removing solid and chemical waste as well
as biological contaminants from water. The goal is to produce water fit for
human consumption (drinking water). New word
flocculation: method
A brief overview of the water purification process of removing suspended
Different methods are used for water purification. In general, these include: particles from water
• a variety of physical processes, such as sedimentation and filtration
• chemical processes, like flocculation and chlorination
• biological processes. Did you know?
According to a 2007 World
Flocculation is chemical treatment of waste water. It is a process which clarifies Health Organization report,
the water. This is done by causing a precipitate to form in the water. The water 1,1 billion people lack
access to an improved
then exits the flocculation basin and enters a sedimentation basin. As particles drinking water supply and
settle on the bottom of the basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor. This 1.8 million people die from
layer can be removed by straining the water through large filters. Filters also diseases each year. Simple
techniques for treating
remove objects such as logs, plastic bags, container and other floating debris. water at home, such as
The last step in water purification is usually disinfection. Disinfection is chlorination, filtering and
usually done by adding chlorine to the water. storing it in safe containers
could save a huge number
Biological processes used to treat waste water include activated sludge basins of lives each year.
where organic solids are removed.
Project 2 The purification and quality of water
• Do research into the different methods that are used to purify water. Also
do research into the ways water quality is assessed.
• Select one of the questions in the topics listed below and use your research
to design an experiment/investigation that will answer the question.
Project topic 1: Determine which water purification method would remove Visit these websites
the most bacteria from water. Methods of water purification include boiling,
www.usc.edu/CSSF/
chlorination and ionisation. History/2010/Projects/J1116.
The aim of this project is to compare the effectiveness of different methods pdf
of purifying water. Conduct the test by putting old yogurt with active bacteria www.usc.edu/CSSF/
into water samples. (Remember to include an untreated control in the sample History/2004/Projects/J0821.
pdf
group.) Bacteria levels are checked before and after the treatments.
www.odec.ca/projects/2004/
brit4m0/public_html/
Project topic 2: Determine which of the following indigenous water
purification method would decrease the level of bacteria the most:
• The Western method of boiling polluted water.
• The African method of adding moringa olefeira seeds to polluted water.
• The German technique of adding iodine to polluted water.
• The Japanese method of inserting scallop shells into polluted water.
MODULE 8
Project topic 3: Find a method of purifying water which is simple, effective

and inexpensive, and could be used in a third world country.
Project topic 4: Determine if our tap water is safe to drink. Compare this to
bottled water.
Unit 3 Water quality and purification 269

Module
8 Summary
The hydrosphere Human interaction with the hydrosphere

• The global systems on Earth consists of four major • A river system is a series of different ecosystems.
inter-connected systems: the lithosphere, the In each system, the interactions of flowing water
hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere. and plant and animal life are interrelated.
• Global systems are interrelated. Any change that • Mountain streams are cold with oxygen rich
occurs in one system affects the other systems. water. These flow into wider rivers that flow
• The hydrosphere consists of Earth’s water. All down gentler slopes and meander across
water on Earth forms part of an endless cycle valleys. At its mouth a river may divide into
called the water cycle. many channels forming a delta or wetlands.
• Water interacts with the atmosphere through • The ecology of life in a river depends on a
evaporation and precipitation. regular cycles of disturbances such as flooding.
• Water interacts with the biosphere through • A dam is a barrier that controls the flow of
animals and plants. water in a river. Dams are usually created by
• The roots of plants draw up groundwater. Their building a dam wall across a narrow valley.
leaves release water by transpiration. • Dams store drinking water and water for
• Animals release water vapour as they breathe. household and agricultural needs. They can
• Animals use water to excrete waste and to cool also control floods.
them down. • A dam can cause problems for people who live
• Humans intervene in the water cycle by nearby. Above the dam wall the original valley
withdrawing large quantities of fresh water, is flooded. People who live here have to move
building dams that control the flow of rivers when the dam is built.
and by clearing vegetation. • A dam disturbs the natural rhythm of the
• Waste is dissolved in water. Polluted drinking ecology of the river.
water poses a threat to human health. Water • A dam built in a narrow valley or an unstable
can also carry diseases in the form of bacteria part of the Earth’s surface can trigger landslides
or viruses. and even earthquakes.
• Most of the water on Earth is found in the
liquid phase in lakes, rivers, dams and aquifers. Water quality and purification
• Water is found in the gas phase as water vapour • The quality of our water is affected by the
• Water is found in the solid phase as ice in chemicals that it contains.
icebergs, glaciers and ice in frozen soil layers. • Water purification is the process of removing
• Most of the water on Earth is found in the solid and chemical waste as well as biological
oceans. Only a small fraction of Earth’s water is contaminants from water.
fresh water and most of this is locked up as ice • Different methods are used for water purification.
in the polar caps.
270
Module 8 Summary

Module
The hydrosphere 3.1 Name and briefly describe the three spheres
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following marked A, B and C.
descriptions: 3.2 Describe how the three spheres interact with
1.1 Oceans, lakes, rivers and ice caps form the ... each other.
sphere. 3.3 Name the fourth system. Where is it found?
1.2 A global cycle that consists of physical 4 Explain why water’s ability to heat up slowly
changes only. and lose heat slowly is important to aquatic
1.3 The evaporation of water from the leaves of organisms and life on Earth.
plants.
2 Answer the following multiple choice questions. Human interaction with the hydrosphere
Write only the letter (A–D) of the answer. 1 Briefly describe the ecology of a river.
2.1 A learner performed a sampling technique 2 A town gets its water from a dam that has been
as part of a first-hand investigation on water built downstream from it. The dam is situated
quality and repeated the sampling technique along the river that runs past the town.
many times. What aspect of the experiment 2.1 List the processes that lead to rainfall at
was improved by repeating the procedure? the dam.
A Accuracy 2.2 The people who lived along the river and used
B Reliability to irrigate their crops were moved to the town
C Safety upstream. They were told that they would
D Fairness never run out of rainwater. The dam and the
2.2 You wish to test the purity of tap water and rainfall would ensure they always had water.
bottled water. The tests are done on the same Recently, the amount of rainfall has decreased
volume of water, at the same temperature. considerably. Various reasons have been
These variables are controlled to ensure that given to explain the drought. Some of the
the experiment is … community members are blaming the group
A accurate. who told them that it will never stop raining.
B reliable. 2.2.1 What scientific arguments can you use
C safe. to convince the community members
D fair. that this group of people should not
3 Our Earth has four main systems. The Earth’s be blamed for
crust is the region where all the systems meet. the drought?
2.2.2 What possible strategies can the
community adopt to ensure that they
A have a regular supply of water?
2.2.3 List and explain two negative impacts
the dam had on the community and
the environment.
2.2.4 List and explain two positive impacts
of a dam on the community and the
B environment.

Study and exam skills
In Grade 10, you will have to complete a variety of A project normally requires you to produce
different tasks to demonstrate that you understand evidence of your work in the form of a report,
your subject. This section will help you to prepare presentation and so on. You will need to complete
for your tasks and assessments. the parts of a project over time.
How to do demonstrations and experiments

Types of activities Your teacher will explain what you are going to do
and what you need for each experiment. Here are
You will be asked to complete assignments, research
a few things you need to remember when you do
projects, practical investigations, tests and exams.
scientific experiments:
How to approach assignments
Handling apparatus
Assignments can be varied. You can be asked to
• Find out how to use the apparatus correctly.
answer questions based on a case study, answer
• Collect everything you need before you begin.
data response questions, write a report, and so on.
• Clean up when you have finished the
experiment.
Answering case studies
You may be asked to answer questions from case
Handling data
studies, scenarios and so on. You may also need to
Most experiments involve collecting data. The data
respond to other data sources, such as quotations,
are the measurements that you observe while doing
illustrations, graphs and tables, cartoons,
the experiment. Here are some tips for handling
quotations and lists. Make sure that each answer is
data:
relevant to the case study or other source text.
• Decide how you will record your measurements.
• Prepare a recording sheet.
Writing reports
• Write down measurements as you make or
Writing a report requires carefully planning. Once
observe them.
you know exactly what you have to do, make a
• Then sort your data and present it in a table, a
mind map or a list of what you want to include
bar graph or a pie graph.
in your report. Make sure your report is structured
correctly:
Interpreting data
• An introduction presents the topic of your
To “interpret” means to look at the data and draw
report and explains your approach.
conclusions. You may have to compare the results
• The body of your report must be organised
of two experiments or you may have to draw a
logically into paragraphs with headings.
conclusion, using what you have learnt.
• A conclusion must summarise your key points.
How to read instructions
How to approach research projects
Activities will always give your instructions
A project is longer than an assignment and you will
about what to do. Key words in instructions are
have to do more work. You will need to research a
usually verbs like “label” or “describe”. These key
problem and collect information. Visit your local
instruction words are used in your test and exam
library, and consult magazines and newspapers for
papers as well, so we have called them “exam
this research. Use the Internet if this is available at
words” in this Learner’s Book. Make sure you
your home, school or library. You can also collect
understand what each word means.
information by interviewing people.
272

Table 1 Exam words used in this Learner’s Book 2 Record: Make notes in your own words. Draw
Exam word Meaning mind maps of key ideas. Practise drawings
Calculate Work out following a method and graphs.
Choose Pick the best or most correct option between 3 Recall: Answer questions. Write down the
many options given
Compare Describe what is similar and what is different answers without looking in your textbook
between two or more things or notes. Explain what you have read to
Conclude Give a short interpretation of results or give a someone else. Draw a new mind map about
summary
Define Give the full meaning of something accurately, a section of work without looking in your
as in a dictionary textbook or at your notes.
Describe Give the details and facts of something in full
sentences without giving reasons
Discuss Talk or write in detail about something, giving How to approach tests and exams
different ideas and arguments about the topic Your teacher will tell you in more detail what to
Draw Show in a visual way
expect in your controlled tests and exams.
Evaluate Look at the facts carefully and form your own
conclusion
Explain Give the details of something in full sentences Planning your time
and give reasons
You will be given time to read through your test or
Find Identify from amongst other options, or get
relevant information exam paper before you start writing. Use this time
Formulate Write down an idea or a hypothesis in a way to read all the questions. Then plan how much
that explains it clearly
time you will spend on each question. In Grade 10,
Give reasons Explain and use examples to justify
Hypothesise Develop a theory to explain something
you have 2,5 hours to complete each exam paper.
Illustrate Give an example of what you mean or explain The paper will be marked out of 150 marks.
it visually
Identify Find, name and mention How to read questions
Investigate Follow a systematic way of analysing a
problem to arrive at a proven conclusion There are two important things to remember when
List Write the names, numbers, or things asked for reading questions:
one below the other, each on a new line
1 Read the instructions: Read them at least
Name Give what something is called with no explanation
twice and make sure you know what you
Plan Decide and prepare in advance how, when,
where and by whom something will be done have to do. Understand the exam words
Present Give information in a well-prepared way (instruction verbs).
Research Find, interpret and apply information from 2 Note the mark allocation: Do not write a
different sources
Select Choose paragraph for one mark. Give four facts if the
State Give, say, or write down the information asked for question is for four marks.
Suggest Give ideas, solutions or reasons for something
Support Use examples to prove what you have said How to answer the different types of questions
• Multiple-choice questions: You have to choose
the best answer. Read all the optional answers
How to prepare for tests before you decide. Do not guess.
and exams • Questions with short answers: Give one word
only if you are asked to do so. Do not write full
You need to know what to expect in tests and
sentences unless you are asked to do this.
exams and you need to study for the tests and
• Questions that require longer answers:
exams in an active way.
Look at the mark allocation. Understand the
instructions. For example, do you have to
Three Rs of active studying
“compare” or “explain”? Plan your answers.
Studying actively will help you to remember things.
Make a few notes first.
1 Read: Read headings and look at pictures and
graphs to get the general idea first. Make sure
you understand what you read. Read the text
more than once. Highlight key words.
Study and exam skills 273

Test Practice control test: Term 1
SECTION A SECTION B
Question 1: One-word answers Question 3

1 Give ONE word/term for each of the 3 You find two bottles of white powder on a
following descriptions: shelf marked only as “metal chlorides”. You
1.1 The measure of the ability of an atom in a decide to find out which chlorides are in
molecule to attract bonding electrons. (1) the bottles. You mark the first bottle A and
1.2 The number of cycles of a wave per second.(1) the second bottle B. You know that metal
1.3 Sound that has a frequency above the range ions burn with different colours. The flame
of human hearing. (1) colours are recorded in Table 1. You perform
1.4 A statement that can be proved right or wrong flame tests on the two samples. The first
and that answers an investigative question powder gives a red flame and the second
during a practical investigation. (1) [4] powder a bright yellow flame.
Question 2: Multiple-choice questions Table 1 Flame test colours
2 Four options are provided as possible answers Symbol Element Colour of ion
to the following questions. Write only Ba Barium Pale/yellowish green
the letter (A–D) of the answer next to the Ca Calcium Orange to red
question number (2.1–2.3). Mg Magnesium No colour
2.1 An unknown metal, X, combines with
Na Sodium Intense yellow
nitrogen to form the compound XN. Metal
X also combines with oxygen to produce the
3.1 State an aim for the investigation. (1)
compound X2O3. Metal X is most likely:
3.2 List the apparatus you will need for your
A Li
investigation.(2)
B Mg
3.3 List two precautions you must take to ensure
C Ga
that you get accurate and reliable results. (2)
D Sn (2)
3.4 Write down the chemical formula of the
2.2 The three variables in the relationship
compounds A and B. (4)
v = f λ are …
3.5 What type of ion does the “metal ion”
A speed, amplitude and frequency.
form?(1) [10]
B wavelength, speed and amplitude.
C period, wavelength and speed. Question 4
D frequency, speed, and wavelength. (2)
4 In the final step in iron ore extraction is:
2.3 When sound travels through a solid, the
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → Fe(l) + CO2(g)
solid’s particles …
4.1 Describe the type of bonding that takes place
A travel in the same direction as the
in each of the reactants and compounds in
sound travels.
the above reaction. Give a short explanation
B vibrate parallel with the direction of the
for your choice:
sound wave.
4.1.1 Fe2O3
C remain stationary.
4.1.2 Fe
D vibrate at right angles to the direction of
4.1.3 CO2(3  2)
the sound wave. (2) [6]
4.2 Draw an Aufbau diagram for carbon. (3)
4.3 Write the electron configuration for an
atom of oxygen. (2)
4.4 Draw the Lewis diagram for an oxygen
molecule.(2)
274

4.5 Naturally occurring iron (Fe) consists of 6.2 Explain your answer to Question 6.1 by
four isotopes: 5,845% of 54Fe; 91,754% of describing the motion of the point on
56
Fe; 2,119% of 57Fe and 0,282% of 58Fe. the rope. (2)
4.5.1 What is an isotope? (2) From the information on the graph:
4.5.2 Calculate the average atomic mass 6.3 Write the amplitude of the wave. (1)
of iron. (3) [18] 6.4 Calculate the frequency of the wave. (4)
6.5 Calculate the speed of the wave if its
Question 5
wavelength is 0,6 m. (3)
5 The graph below illustrates the first ionisation
6.6 The boy doubles the frequency of the
energies of the elements from hydrogen
vibration but the speed of the wave remains
to calcium. Use this graph to answer the
constant. State with an explanation what the
questions that follow.
size of the new wavelength will be. (2) [13]
Question 7
7 A fan at the soccer stadium is blowing on
a vuvuzela. The sound of a vuvuzela and
an instrument such as a guitar sound quite
different even when they play the same note.
7.1 Write a word that describes the difference in
the sound. (1)
7.2 Describe the change to the sound wave if the fan
blows harder and produces a louder sound. (2)
5.1 Explain the term ionisation energy. (1) 7.3 Another fan taps on the steel railing of the
5.2 Which element shown has the strongest stand. Choose the word in italics that makes
attraction for its outer electrons? (1) the following sentence correct: Compared
5.3 Which element shown will most readily with the speed of sound in air, the speed of
form positive ions? (1) sound in steel is faster, the same, slower.(1)
5.4 What feature of electronic structure can be 7.4 Support your answer to Question 7.3 with
most readily explained using this graph? (1) an explanation of the propagation of sound
5.5 The noble gases do not easily form in the different media. (3) [7]
compounds. Use the graph to explain this
Question 8
phenomenon.(2)
5.6 Which element shown has the largest 8 Some aspects of the behaviour of
atomic radius? (1) electromagnetic radiation can be explained
5.7 Define electron affinity. Explain the trend using one scientific model and other aspects
of electron affinity and atomic number are explained using another.
across a period. (2) [9] 8.1 Name the two models referred to above. (2)
8.2 Which model of electromagnetic radiation
Question 6 includes the concept of photons? (1)
6 A boy shakes one end of a rope from side to 8.3 State the mathematical relationship between
side to produce a wave. The graph of y vs. t the frequency of a photon and its energy. (1)
shows the displacement of the rope. 8.4 Calculate the frequency of a gamma ray
y (m) photon if its energy is 1,32  10 −12 J.(3)
8.5 Arrange gamma, infrared and ultraviolet
+0,2
radiation in order of increasing frequency. (1)
0 8.6 If you are outside standing in the sunshine
0,8 in the summer, which radiation from the Sun
–0,2 Time t (s) is likely to cause more damage to your skin,
infrared or ultraviolet? (1)
6.1 Name the type of wave that the boy is 8.7 Give an explanation for your answer to
producing in the rope. (1) Question 8.6. (3) [12]
Total: 79 marks

Test Practice control test: Term 3
SECTION A A B
x x
Question 1: One-word answers
descriptions:
1.1 The type of reaction that occurs when two
solutions are allowed to react and form 0 t 0 t
a solid as a product. (1) C D
1.2 A physical quantity that has both
x x
magnitude and direction. (1)
1.3 The area under a velocity vs. time graph. (1)
1.4 Change in position divided by the total
time taken. (1) [4]
0 t 0 t
Question 2: Multiple-choice questions
(2) [8]
2 Four options are provided as possible answers
to the following questions. Write only the
SECTION B
letter (A – D) of the answer next to the
question number (2.1–2.4).
Question 3
2.1 Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) +
3 A learner wants to determine experimentally
2NaNO3(aq)
the formula of copper oxide. She knows that if
The correct net ionic equation for this
the copper oxide is strongly heated in a stream
reaction would include which of the
of hydrogen gas it is reduced to copper metal.
following species?
She first weighs an empty crucible. She places
A All of them
some copper oxide in the crucible and records
B Only Pb(NO3)2 and PbCl2
the new mass. She then heats the crucible with
C Pb2+, Cl– and PbCl2
the copper oxide over a Bunsen burner until
D Na+, NO3 – and NaNO3(2)
only copper remains in the crucible. Lastly,
2.2 Which equation represents a physical change?
she weighs the crucible and its contents after
A H2O(s) → H2O(l)
heating. Her data is recorded in the table below.
B 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
C H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g)
D N2(g) + 2O2(g) → 2NO2(g)(2) Mass (g)
2.3 Which of the following has two vector Empty crucible 15,0
quantities? Crucible and copper oxide before heating 18,97
A Time; velocity Copper oxide before heating A
B Distance; speed Copper oxide and crucible after heating 18,17
C Weight; displacement Mass of copper after heating B
D Acceleration; mass (2) Mass of oxygen removed C
2.4 Which of the following position vs. time
graphs represents the motion of a body 3.1 Distinguish between molecular mass and
travelling at constant velocity? molar mass. (2)
3.2 Calculate the values A, B and C in
the table. (3)
3.3 Calculate the formula of copper oxide based
on the results of the experiment. (4) [9]
276

Question 4 Question 7
4 Turpentine (C10H16) burns in chlorine (Cl2) to 7 A car accelerates from rest with a uniform
produce carbon (C) and hydrogen chloride acceleration of 2 m.s−2 for 8 s.
(HCl) according to the equation: 7.1 Calculate the magnitude of its velocity
C10H16(l) + 8Cl2(g) → 10C(s) + 16HCl(g) after 8 s. (3)
4.1 Name the type of reaction that takes place.(1) 7.2 The driver then applies the brakes so that the
4.2 Calculate the mass of carbon that is made if car comes to rest after a further 5 s. Calculate
50 g of chlorine is used in the reaction. (4) [5] the total distance covered by the car from
when it started to move until it came to rest
Question 5 again. Assume that while the car slows down
5 The figure below shows three forces that act its acceleration is uniform. (7) [10]
on a block as well as the magnitudes of F1 and
F2. The resultant of the three forces is zero: Question 8
8 The velocity vs. time graph below shows the
F33
F motion of a car over a time interval of 15 s.
FF22 45 N Velocity vs. time
21
F11
F 25 N
Velocity v (m.s–1)
5.1 Explain in your own words what it means to
say that the resultant of the forces is zero. (2)
5.2 Use a scale vector diagram to find the
magnitude of force F3. Take to the right as
the positive direction and use a scale of 0 15
1 mm : 1 N. (4) Time t (s)
5.3 Confirm your answer to Question 5.1 by
means of a vector equation. (Hint FR = …)(2) [8] 8.1 Identify the dependent variable on the graph.
(1)
Question 6 8.2 Refer to the graph and state with a reason
6 The coach of a soccer team walks up and down whether the acceleration of the car is
along the sideline of the field which is in an uniform.(2)
east-west direction. During a time interval of 8.3 Use the information on the graph to
one minute he is seen to walk 15 m east, then calculate the:
20 m west followed by 13 m west. 8.3.1 magnitude of the acceleration of
6.1 Define distance. (2) the car (3)
6.2 Write down the total distance that the 8.3.2 distance covered by the car in
coach walks. (1) the 15 s. (3)
6.3 Use a labelled sketch vector diagram to obtain 8.4 Draw a labelled sketch position vs. time graph
the coach’s resultant displacement. Take east for the 15 s interval. (4)
as the positive direction. (4) 8.5 If, after 15 s, the car’s acceleration is
6.4 Calculate the average velocity of the coach.(3) zero, what will its change of position be
6.5 Explain whether the average speed of the each second? (1) [14]
coach is greater, the same or less than the Total: 70 marks
magnitude of his average velocity. (2) [12]

Exam Practice mid-year exam
SECTION A 2.3
Through which of the following substances
does sound travel the slowest?
A Steel
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the
B Water
following descriptions:
C Air
1.1 When platinum is heated, then cooled
D Aluminum (2)
to its original state, this is a (physical/
2.4 The potential difference across the two circuits
chemical) change. (1)
is the same and the light bulbs are identical.
1.2 The random zig-zag motion of microscopic
particles.(1)
1.3 The number of cycles (oscillations)
per second. (1) A2
1.4 Materials that are strongly magnetic. (1) A1 A3
1.5 A place where the Earth’s magnetic field is at
right angles to the horizontal. (1) [5]

Which of the following statements about the
2 Four options are provided as possible answers
readings on the ammeters is correct?
to the following questions. Write only the
A A1 = A2
letter (A – D) of the answer next to the
B A2 = 2A1
question number (2.1–2.4).
C A 2 < A3
2.1 Dalton devised the first modern atomic model.
D A1 > A3(2) [8]
Which one of the following characteristics is
TOTAL SECTION A: 13 marks
NOT part of Dalton’s atomic model?
A Atoms of different elements are different. SECTION B
B All atoms of the same element are
identical. Question 3
C Atoms combine to form compounds. 3 Lead has four stable isotopes. Lead isotopes can
D Atoms consist of positive particles and be used in archaeology to date ores used in
negative particles. (2) artifacts.
2.2 The table below contains a list of properties 3.1 What is the meaning of the term isotopes. (1)
for an unidentified element, X. 3.2 The table below gives the relative abundance
of each isotope in a mass spectrum of a sample
of lead, Pb. Use the data to calculate the
Physical Very soft with a silvery white
characteristics lustre when cut relative atomic mass of this sample of lead. (3)
Ignites in air and reacts
Reactivity
violently with cold water Mass (u) 204 206 207 208
Melting point (°C) 39,1 Relative 1,5 23,6 21,4 53,5
Boiling point (°C) 688 abundance (%)
Based on the properties in the table, to which 3.3 Lead is used in lead-acid car batteries.
of the following groups from the periodic 3.3.1 Write and balance the equation,
table does the element X most likely belong? given below, for the overall reaction
A 1 which occurs when a lead-acid battery
B 2 produces a current:
C 14 lead(IV) oxide + lead + hydrogen
D 16 (2) sulfate → lead(II) sulfate + water (4)
278

3.3.2 Name a substance that is covalently 5.2 Compare the relative positions of these two
bonded in the reaction. Give a reason elements on the periodic table. (1)
for your choice. (2) 5.3 How do the first ionisation energies of these
3.3.3 Draw the Lewis structure two elements compare with each other? (1)
for water. (2) 5.4 How many valence electrons does each of
3.4 Lead is a metal. these elements have? (2)
3.4.1 Describe the chemical bonding 5.5 What is the valency of each of these two
present in a piece of lead. (2) elements? Explain your answer. (3)
3.4.2 Use the bonding model to explain 5.6 Give the Aufbau diagram for the electron
why lead can conduct electricity. (1) arrangement in the potassium atom. (2)
3.5 When a lead-acid battery is over-charged, 5.7 Name the element to which the bromide ion
the water in the battery is electrolysed to electron configuration is similar. (1)
produce hydrogen and oxygen gas, forming 5.8 Name the type of chemical bonding in
an explosive mixture. potassium bromide. Give a reason for
3.5.1 Is this reaction a synthesis or your answer. (2)
decomposition reaction? (1) 5.9 Briefly explain how the bond will form. (2)
3.5.2 Is the mixture of hydrogen and oxygen 5.10 Illustrate the formation of this bond using a
gas homogeneous or heterogeneous? Lewis diagram. (2)
Explain your choice. (2) [18] 5.11 Explain what is meant by “crystalline” in the
description of the compound. (2) [20]
Question 4
4 The first ionisation energies of some elements Question 6
are shown below: 6 Tin combines with oxygen to form two
compounds whose common names are stannic
Element First ionisation energy (kJ.mol-1)
oxide and stannous oxide. A learner wishes
H 1 312
He 2 372 to find out the empirical formula of the two
Li 520 compounds. He believes the compounds will
Be 899 have the same empirical formula as the Law
B 801 of Constant Proportions will be followed. He
C 1 086 conducts the following experiment. He weighs
N 1 402 out 100 g of tin and heats each in the presence
O 1 314
of oxygen in a gas jar. He weighs the mass of
the product after the reaction. He records his
4.1 Define first ionisation energy. (1) findings in a table:
4.2 What is the trend of first ionisation energy
down a group? (1) Tin-oxygen Tin mass (g) Total mass (g)
4.3 Explain your answer to Question 4.2. (1) Compound 1 100 113,507
4.4 Write a reaction equation to represent the Compound 2 100 127,065
first ionisation energy of a sodium atom. (1)
4.5 Explain why carbon’s first ionisation energy 6.1 State a suitable investigation question
is so much larger than that of boron. (2) for the experiment. (2)
4.6 Explain why there is a drop in ionisation 6.2 State a hypothesis for the investigation. (2)
energy from helium to lithium. (2) [8] 6.3 Why was the mass of tin the same for
both experiments? (1)
Question 5 6.4 What can the learner do to ensure that his
5 Potassium bromide is a white crystalline solid results are accurate and reliable? (1)
that is prescribed by vets for the treatment of 6.5 Calculate the empirical formula of
epilepsy in dogs. compound 1. (2)
5.1 Which two elements make up potassium 6.6 Calculate the empirical formula of
bromide?(2) compound 2. (2)

6.7 What conclusion can be reached from 9.3.1 Describe the properties of ultrasound
experiment?(1) [11] that make this possible. (3)
9.3.2 Give a health reason why an
Question 7 ultrasound scan may be preferred
7 Two learners are holding a rope and create to an X-ray photograph. (1) [8]
pulses that travel from each end as illustrated
in the diagram below. Question 10
10 Without the electromagnetic radiation
crossing space from the Sun to the Earth, life
as we know it would not exist on Earth.
10.1 Explain what electromagnetic waves are and
how they are able to travel through space
without a medium. (5)
60 mm 90 mm 10.2 Under certain circumstances we use the
wave model of electromagnetic radiation to
7.1 Describe how they moved the ends of the explain phenomena. State the name of the
rope to create the pulses. (1) other model that is used. (1)
7.2 Draw a diagram to show the pulses when 10.3 Calculate the energy of an X-ray photon
they cross. Write labels on the diagram that that has wavelength of 10 nm. (4) [10]
indicate the following: amplitude; size of
amplitude; type of interference. (4) Question 11
7.3 Draw a diagram to show the pulses after 11 A girl charges a plastic ruler negatively by
they have crossed. Use arrows to indicate the rubbing it on her woollen jersey.
direction of motion of each pulse. (2) [7] 11.1 Name and give the sign of the charges that
transfer during this process. (2)
Question 8 11.2 If a total charge of 2 nC transfers, calculate
8 A fisherman is sitting at the side of a lake and the number of charges named in
looks across the water to a stationary pole Question 11.1 that transfer. (3)
that sticks up above the water. He notices that 11.3 Explain whether there are only negative
41 wave crests pass the pole each minute. charges on the ruler. (2)
8.1 Explain whether the crests of a wave are in 11.4 State whether the combined charge on the
phase or out of phase. (3) jersey and ruler changes during this process. (1)
8.2 If the amplitude of the wave is 0,3 m, 11.5 Name the law that applies to your answer
write down the vertical distance from a to Question 11.4. (1)
trough to a crest. (1) 11.6 The girl now brings the charged ruler near to
8.3 Calculate the period of the wave. (3) [7] water that is flowing slowly out of a tap. She
observes that the water is attracted towards
Question 9 the ruler.
9 The propagation of sound can be illustrated 11.6.1 Explain what the girl observes by
by producing a longitudinal wave in a slinky describing what happens to the water
spring. molecules when they come close to
9.1 Explain how to produce a longitudinal wave the negatively charged ruler. (4)
in a slinky spring. (2) 11.6.2 Write down the name of the charging
9.2 Give the name of the parts of the wave effect in Question 11.6.1. (1) [14]
where the turns are:
9.2.1 closer together (1)
9.2.2 further apart than usual. (1)
9.3 In medicine, ultrasound is used to make
scans of the interior of the human body.
280

Question 12 12.1 Write a hypothesis for the investigation. (2)
12 Groups of learners in a Science class carry out 12.2 Identify the:
an experiment to check whether the current 12.2.1 independent variable (1)
supplied by a battery increases if additional 12.2.2 dependent variable. (1)
resistors are connected in parallel. They used 12.3 One of the groups changes both the number
the circuits shown in the diagrams below. of resistors in parallel as well as the voltage
of the energy source by connecting another
V 3V battery in series. Criticise their investigative
technique.(3)
12.4 Calculate the resistance of the parallel
connection of three resistors in the second
A circuit.(4)
12.5 Predict whether the current in the circuit
with the single resistance is greater, the same
10 Ω as or less than the reading on the ammeter in
the circuit with three resistors. (1)
12.6 Give a reason to support your answer to
V 3V
Question 12.5. (2)
12.7 Compare your answer to Question 12.5 with
your hypothesis in Question 12.1. (2)
12.8 Explain whether the current in the 10 Ω
A
10 Ω
resistor changed when more resistors were
connected in parallel with it. (2) [14]
15 Ω
TOTAL SECTION B: 117 marks
30 Ω GRAND TOTAL: 130 marks

Exam Practice final exam: Paper 1 (Physics)
SECTION A
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following descriptions:
1.1 Change in velocity divided by time taken. (1)
1.2 Gradient of a tangent to a point on a position vs. time graph. (1)
1.3 Distance between two consecutive crests on a wave. (1)
1.4 Unit of measurement of electric charge. (1)
1.5 Instrument used to measure electric current. (1) [5]

2 Four options are provided as possible answers to the following questions. Write only the letter (A–D)
of the answer next to the question number (2.1–2.10).
2.1 Which of the following physical quantities cannot be represented by a vector drawn to scale?
A Displacement C Velocity
B Mass D Weight (2)
2.2 A boy and a girl are running in opposite directions along the sideline of a field. Over a time interval
of 10 s it is observed that they cover the same distance. During the time interval their …
A displacement is the same. C average speed is the same.
B average velocity is the same. D acceleration is the same. (2)
2.3 Which of the following position vs. time graphs represents the motion of a ball that is rolling down
a steep inclined plane?
A B C D
x x x x
0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t
(2)
2.4 The diagram alongside shows three shelves labeled 1, 2, 3 with the same
3
height h between them above the floor. If a box of mass m on the bottom
shelf is lifted up to the top shelf the change in its gravitational potential h
shelf
energy is equal to… 2
A mgh. C 3mgh. h
B 2mgh. D 4mgh.(2)
1
2.5 A girl is running with velocity v and has a kinetic energy equal to EK. She
then slows down until her speed is 1
h
2v. Compared with the original EK i her floor
kinetic energy is now equal to …
A EK i C 1 3 EK i
B 1E D 1
2 Ki 4EK i(2)
2.6 A glass test tube is given a positive charge by rubbing it with a plastic shopping bag. It obtains the
charge because …
A protons transfer from the glass to the bag.
B protons transfer from the bag to the glass.
C electrons transfer from the glass to the bag.
D electrons transfer from the bag to the glass. (2)
282

2.7 The circuit diagram alongside shows three identical
light bulbs connected in parallel. If the reading on
ammeter A2 is 2 A, what is the reading on ammeter A1
A1? A2
A 2A
B 3A
C 4A
D 6 A (2) y A
2.8 The diagram alongside shows a transverse wave. In
0 B D E
which of the following pairs are the points in phase? x
A AC
C
B AB
C BE
D DE (2)
2.9 Which of the following types of electromagnetic radiation are arranged in order of increasing
frequency?
A Radio, infrared, visible light C Gamma radiation, visible light, microwaves
B Ultraviolet, infrared, X-rays D Visible light, microwaves, X-rays (2)
2.10 Which of the following increases when the pitch of a sound is made lower?
A Frequency C Amplitude
B Speed of sound D Wavelength (2) [20]
SECTION B
Question 3
3 Three forces act on a body. Forces of 30 N and 25 N act to the east and a force of 40 N
acts to the west.
3.1 Explain the meaning of the term resultant vector.(2)
3.2 Draw a fully labelled scale vector diagram to find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force. Use a scale of 1 mm : 1 N. (6) [8]
Question 4
4 A soccer team is carrying out warming up exercises in preparation for a practice session. For the
one exercise, the coach tells the players to run from the one goal line to the other and back again.
The goal lines are 100 m apart. According to the coach’s stop watch the players come back to the
starting point 50 s later.
4.1 Calculate the average speed of the players during the exercise. (3)
4.2 Explain whether the instantaneous speed of the players is likely to be equal to the average
speed throughout the exercise. (3)
4.3 Write down the magnitude of the displacement of the players from the start to the end of
the exercise. (1) [7]
Question 5
5 A learner carries out an experiment to confirm the relationship between displacement and time
for a trolley that moves with constant velocity. The learner obtains the following results:
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4
Position (m) 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
5.1 Write a suitable hypothesis for the experiment. (2)

5.2 Identify the:
5.2.1 independent variable (1)
5.2.2 dependent variable. (1)
5.3 On a sheet of graph paper, draw a fully labelled position vs. time graph of the trolley’s motion. (5)
5.4 State whether the graph confirms the hypothesis written in Question 5.1. (1)
5.5 Use the graph to calculate the velocity of the trolley. (3) [13]
Question 6
16
6 A car is travelling at 16 m.s−1. The driver sees a small Velocity vs. time
Velocity v (m.s–1)
child runs into the road 34 m ahead of the car.
She applies the brakes 0,8 s later. The velocity vs.
time graph shows the motion of the car from the
time that the driver first sees the child to when the 0
0,8 Time t (s) 3,3
car comes to a stop.
6.1 Use the velocity vs. time graph (not kinematic equations of motion) to calculate:
6.1.1 the distance covered by the car from the time the driver saw the child to when she
applied the brakes. (3)
6.1.2 whether the driver stops before reaching the child or not. (4)
6.1.3 the acceleration of the car while the brakes are being applied. (3)
6.2 Draw a sketch graph of acceleration vs. time of the car’s motion from the time that the
child is first observed to when the car comes to a stop. (5) [15]
Question 7
7 The traffic light turns green and a motorcyclist accelerates uniformly from rest due north. Three
seconds after starting to move his speed is 9 m.s−1 and at five seconds his speed is 15 m.s−1.
7.1 Draw a diagram to show the variables given above. (2)
7.2 Calculate the:
7.2.1 magnitude of the acceleration of the motorbike. (4)
7.2.2 distance covered during the first 4 s of motion from rest. (3)
7.3 What is the direction of the motorcyclist’s acceleration when, after 5 s, he slows down. (1) [10]
Question 8
8 The diagram alongside shows a 1 kg trolley rolling –1
, 2 m.s
down an inclined plane that has been set up on a 0
P
bench. At position P it is 400 mm above the bench
and its velocity down the plane is 0,2 m.s−1. trolley
8.1 Calculate the kinetic energy of the trolley 1 kg
when it is travelling at 0,2 m.s .(3)
−1 100 mm 400 mm
bench
8.2 Write down the missing words: The mechanical
energy of a body is the sum of its kinetic energy and
…………(1)
8.3 Assuming that there is no friction, calculate the magnitude of the velocity of the trolley when it is
100 mm above the bench. (6) [10]
Question 9
9 Two learners are investigating pulses and waves in a large pool of water.
9.1 At opposite sides of the pool each learner creates a single pulse by dipping a plank in the water. The
two pulses move towards each other. The one pulse has an amplitude of 20 mm and when the two
meet their combined amplitude is 45 mm.
284

9.1.1 Name and state the principle that applies to this situation. (3)
9.1.2 Write down the amplitude of the second pulse before the two pulses meet. (1)
9.1.3 Name the type of interference that takes place when the pulses meet. (1)
9.1.4 Choose the correct word or group of words that describe what happens after the pulses
meet. Each pulse stops/carries on moving in the same direction / moves in the reverse direction.(1)
9.2 In their next experiment the learners throw two
plastic bottle tops on to the water and then produce bottle top
direction of
a wave with a wavelength of 0,4 m from one side of progation
the pool. The diagram alongside shows the positions

of the bottle tops at a particular moment as the wave
moves past them.
9.2.1 If the wavelength of the wave is 0,4 m, how far apart are the bottle tops? (1)
9.2.2 Explain whether the bottle tops are moving in phase with each other. (2)
9.2.3 If the amplitude of the wave is 20 mm how far do the bottle tops move from
the lowest point to the highest point of their motion? (1)
9.2.4 Each bottle top makes two up and down movements each second. Calculate
the speed of the wave. (3) [13]
Question 10
wave movement
10.1 The diagram alongside shows a wave that is
moving from left to right along a slinky spring.
10.1.1 Name the type of wave travelling in A B
C
the spring. (1)
10.1.2 Write down the missing labels A, B and C. (3)
10.2 Bats hunt at night and make use of short bursts of ultrasound to detect obstacles in their path and
also to detect prey such as flying insects.
10.2.1 Identify the type of particles that transmit ultrasound between a bat and its prey. (1)
10.2.2 Explain what happens when ultrasound hits an insect that enables the bat to
detect the insect. (1)
10.2.3 Is the pitch of the ultrasound emitted by a bat higher or lower than that of the human
voice? (Write only the word in italics that you choose.) (1)
10.2.4 If the speed of sound in air at 15 °C is 340 m.s−1, calculate the wavelength of the
ultrasound emitted by a bat if its frequency is 22 kHz. (3)
10.2.5 Compared with the wavelength of ultrasound calculated in Question 10.2.4, would the
ultrasound’s wavelength in the human body be shorter, the same or longer?
(Write only the word in italics that you choose.) (2) [12]
Question 11
11 It has been found that the range of frequencies of X-rays and gamma rays overlaps. For this reason we
often name the radiation according to its origin. X-rays are emitted by electrons undergoing relatively
large energy changes outside the nucleus of the atom. Gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus.
11.1 State what has to happen for electromagnetic radiation to be produced. (2)
11.2 Calculate the energy of a photon that has a frequency of 5  1021 Hz. (3)
11.3 Describe the properties of X-rays that make it possible to take X-ray “photographs” of the
interior of a body. (2)
11.4 Give a use of gamma rays. (1) [8]
TOTAL SECTION B: 96 marks
GRAND TOTAL: 121 marks

Exam Practice final exam: Paper 2 (Chemistry)
SECTION A
1 Give ONE word/term for each of the following descriptions:
1.1 A mixture with all its components in different states. (1)
1.2 The particles in this state of matter possess the greatest kinetic energy. (1)
1.3 The number of nucleons in an atom. (1)
1.4 The sphere on Earth that consists of all our water. (1)
1.5 An element in Period 3 that is a metalloid. (1) [5]

2 Four options are provided as possible answers to the following questions. Write only the letter
(A–D) of the answer next to the question number (2.1–2.5).
2.1 Elements in Group 16 of the periodic table usually…
A form large molecules.
B gain electrons when bonding.
C act like metals.
D solidify at room temperature. (2)
2.2 The following chemical equation shows CaCO3 being heated: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Which of these statements best describes the mass of the products if 100 g of CaCO3 is heated?
A The difference in the products’ masses is equal to the mass of the CaCO3.
B The sum of the products’ masses is less than the mass of the CaCO3.
C The mass of each product is equal to the mass of the CaCO3.
D The sum of the products’ masses equals the mass of the CaCO3.(2)
2.3 Which Lewis structure represents an atom X in Period 4 with the highest first ionisation energy?
A B C D
X X X X (2)
2.4 The mass of a rusty bicycle is found to be slightly greater than the mass of the same bicycle before it
rusted. The change in mass indicates that the rusting process …
A is a physical change.
B involves an energy-to-matter conversion.
C decreases the density of the metal.
D is a chemical change. (2)
2.5 The chemical behaviour of an element is determined by the number and arrangement of its ...
A protons.
B neutrons.
C electrons.
D atoms. (2) [10]
286

SECTION B
Question 3
3 The following are valence electron structures of five hypothetical elements and all are found in the
same period on the periodic table. W is not hydrogen.
V: s2p4 Y: s2p5
W: s 1
Z: s2p6
X: s2p1
3.1 What is meant by valence electron structure? (1)
3.2 To what do the letters s and p refer in the above electron structures? (1)
3.3 Use the letters V to Z to answer the following questions:
3.3.1 Which element is a halogen? (1)
3.3.2 Which element consists of diatomic molecules at room temperature? (1)
3.3.3 Between which two elements will a covalent bond form? (1)
3.3.4 Which element is the best thermal conductor? (1)
3.3.5 Write down the formula for the compound that forms when elements X and Y bond. (1)
3.3.6 In which group on the periodic table does element V occur? (1)
3.3.7 Which element has the smallest atomic diameter? (1) [9]
Question 4
4 Rutherford carried out an experiment in which thin sheets of gold foil were bombarded with alpha
particles. The observations made during the experiment led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus.
4.1 In this experiment it was observed that most of the alpha particles went straight through the
gold foil. Two other observations were made. State these observations and explain how
they helped Rutherford deduce that the atom has a charged nucleus. (4)
4.2 Describe and name the model of atomic structure which existed immediately prior to this
experiment.(3)
4.3 Name the scientist that described this model. (1)
4.4 Rutherford’s model of the atom was modified by Bohr in 1913. Describe the three main
ideas of Bohr’s model. (3) [11]
Question 5
5 You wish to investigate the phase change of an unknown powder and record its temperature at
different times while heating the powder in a test tube in a water bath. Your teacher gives you the
following materials: thermometer, retort stand and clamp, Bunsen burner, gauze, tripod, test tube,
unknown powder, matches, beaker, water.
5.1 Write down an investigation question for the experiment. (1)
5.2 What is the:
5.2.1 independent variable? (1)
5.2.2 dependent variable in the investigation? (1)
5.3 Explain how you ensure that you conduct a fair experiment. (2)
5.4 Explain how you ensure that the experiment gives accurate and reliable results. (1)
5.5 Give a suitable method for the experiment. (3)
5.6 You plot a graph after collecting your data. The graph is shown on page 288.
5.6.1 What is the melting point of the substance? (1)
5.6.2 What is the boiling point of the substance? (1)
5.6.3 What letter on the diagram indicates a solid is present only?(1)
5.6.4 What letter on the diagram indicates a gas is present only?(1)
5.6.5 What letter on the diagram indicates a liquid is present only? (1)

5.6.6 What letter on the diagram indicates both a solid
100
AND a liquid are present? (2) D
5.6.7 Explain why the temperature remains constant C
between 10 minutes and 20 minutes. (4) 80
Temperature (˚C)
5.7 Energy is absorbed as water changes states from ice to liquid
and then to a gas. Explain how the following changes as 60 B
water changes from one state to another:
A
5.7.1 movement of the particles (1) 40
5.7.2 space between the particles (1)
5.7.3 strength of the forces between the particles (1)
20
5.7.4 energy of the particles. (1) 0 10 20 30 40
5.8 Name the model that was used to answer Question 5.7. (1) [25] Time (minutes)
Question 6
6 Chlorine occurs in two isotopic forms 35Cl and 37Cl. The two isotopes have the same yellow colour,
the same suffocating smell, the same efficiency as poisons and bleaching agents and the same
readiness to combine with hydrogen. The natural abundance is 75,53% 35Cl and 24,47% 37Cl.
6.1 State one similarity and one difference between atoms of the two isotopes of chlorine. (2)
6.2 Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine. (3)
6.3 Describe one benefit and one disadvantage of chlorine to humanity. Your answers must be based on
the information supplied above. (2) [7]
Question 7
A group of learners investigated the relationship between atomic radius and ionisation energy for eight
elements. They collected data during the investigation and the first ionisation energies of the elements
lithium to neon are given below.
Period 2 elements Li Be B C N O F Ne
First ionisation energy (kJ.mol ) –1 519 900 799 1 090 1 400 1 310 1 680 2 080
7.1 Define the term first ionisation energy of an element. (2)

7.2 Explain why the ionisation energies show an overall tendency to increase across the period. (4)
7.3 Explain the irregularity in this trend for boron. (4)
7.4 Explain the trend in the ionisation energies with increasing atomic number in Group 1 of the
periodic table. (2) [12]
Question 8
8 Two different compounds are analysed. Compound A is found to be made up of 11,19% hydrogen
and 88,81% oxygen. Compound B is made up of 5,92% hydrogen and 94,07% oxygen.
8.1 Define the term empirical formula of a compound. (3)
8.2 Calculate the empirical formulae of compound A and B. (6) [9]
Question 9
9 Silicon is found in the Earth’s crust. Pure silicon can be prepared in a series of steps started by
heating pure silica sand (SiO2) with purified coke to about 3 000 °C. The reaction is represented
by the following unbalanced equation:
SiO2(s) + C(s) → silicon liquid + carbon monoxide gas
9.1 Silicon is classified as a metalloid. What is a metalloid and why does silicon fall into this group? (2)
9.2 Draw the Aubau diagram for carbon. (3)
288

9.3 What type of chemical bond occurs between the silicon and oxygen in the compound silicon
dioxide? Give a reason for your choice. (2)
9.4 Draw the Lewis diagram for SiO2.(3)
9.5 Rewrite the equation and give the chemical formulae of the products. Balance the reaction. (3)
9.6 This reaction can be classified as a redox reaction.
9.6.1 Define a redox reaction. (2)
9.6.2 Which substance is oxidised in the reaction? (1)
9.7 Explain why this reaction is harmful to the environment and to humanity. (4)
9.8 The molar mass of SiO2 is 60,1 g.mol–1 and of coke is 12 g.mol–1.
9.8.1 Calculate the mass of products (silicon and carbon monoxide) that is produced if
one mole of SiO2 reacts completely with coke. (1)
9.8.2 Name and state the law used to answer Question 9.8.1. (3)
9.8.3 The products are weighed at the end of the reaction. The mass is found to be 28,1 g.
Is the law named in Question 9.8.2 not always true? Explain what could have happened. (2)
9.9 Carbon occurs in two crystal structures – diamond and graphite. Graphite is soft while diamond
is extremely hard.
9.9.1 What type of bond holds the carbon atoms together in the crystal structure? (1)
9.9.2 Use the diagrams to explain why diamond is hard, while graphite is soft. (2) [26]
Question 10
10 You are given two samples of a white powder: Sample A and Sample B. The teacher tells you they
could be any of the following compounds: potassium carbonate, calcium carbonate, sodium
carbonate, calcium sulfate, sodium sulfate, sugar or potassium bromide.
The cation in the compound would give the following colour in a flame test: potassium – lilac;
sodium – yellow; calcium – brick red.
The test results are summarised in the table below:
Test 1 Observation
Sample A heated in a flame on a piece of nichrome wire Brick red flame
Sample B heated in a flame on a piece of nichrome wire Lilac flame
Test 2 Observation
Sample A is dissolved in distilled water and a few drops No visible reaction with the AgNO3(aq) and concentrated
of AgNO3(aq) is added followed by concentrated HNO3 HNO3
Sample B is dissolved in distilled water and a few drops The solution goes milky yellow with the addition of
of AgNO3(aq) is added followed by concentrated HNO3 AgNO3 and then remains milky yellow with the
addition of HNO3
10.1 Write down the names and formulae of the unknown compounds that are identified from
Test 1 and Test 2. (6)
10.2 Write down the chemical equation to show how the compound in Sample A dissolves in water. (3)
10.3 Write down an ionic chemical reaction for Sample B with the addition of AgNO3.(3)
10.4 A 100 g of AgNO3 is dissolved in 200 ml of distilled water to make the solution used in test 2.
Calculate the concentration of the solution. (5) [17]
Question 11
11 A mass of 80 g of hydrogen is heated with nitrogen to form ammonia. The reaction that takes place is:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
11.1 Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen in the sample. (3)

11.2 Calculate the mass of ammonia that will be produced. (4)
11.3 Calculate the volume of nitrogen that would be used at STP. (4) [11]
Question 12
12 South Africa’s growth in population and increased industrialisation has led to an increased
demand for water. The water cycle is a closed system. This means that the water on Earth will
remain constant.
12.1 Describe and name the three steps in the water cycle. (6)
12.2 Does a contradiction exist between the fact that the amount water on Earth is constant
and that we are running out of water? Explain briefly. (3) [9]
Total Section B: 135 marks
GRAND TOTAL: 150 marks
Cation and anion tables

Table 1 List of common cations Table 2 List of common anions
Hydrogen H +
Fluoride F–
Lithium Li+ Chloride Cl–
Sodium Na +
Bromide Br–
Potassium K+
Iodide I–
Silver Ag+ Hydroxide OH–
Mercury(I) Hg +
Nitrite NO2–
Copper(I) Cu+ Nitrate NO3–
Ammonium NH4+ Hydrogen carbonate HCO3–
Beryllium Be 2+
Hydrogen sulfite HSO3–
Magnesium Mg2+ Hydrogen sulfate HSO4–
Calcium Ca 2+
Dihydrogen phosphate H2PO4–
Barium Ba2+ Hypochlorite ClO–
Tin(II) Sn2+ Chlorate ClO3–
Lead(II) Pb 2+
Permanganate MnO4–
Chromium(II) Cr2+ Acetate (ethanoate) CH3COO–
Manganese(II) Mn 2+
Oxide O2–
Iron(II) Fe2+ Peroxide O22–
Cobalt(II) Co2+ Carbonate CO32–
Nickel Ni 2+
Sulfide S2–
Copper(II) Cu2+ Sulfite SO32–
Zinc Zn 2+
Sulfate SO42–
Aluminum Al3+ Thiosulfate S2O32–
Chromium(III) Cr3+ chromate CrO42–
Iron(III) Fe 3+
Dichromate Cr2O72–
Cobalt(III) Co3+ Manganate MnO42–
Chromium(VI) Cr 6+
Oxalate (COO) 22–/C2O42-
Manganese(VII) Mn7+ Hydrogen phosphate HPO42–
Nitride N3–
Phosphate PO43–
Phosphide P3–
290

Physical constants and SI units
Physical constants
The most common physical constants used in introductory Physical Sciences are listed below.
Table 1 Common physical constants
Constant Symbol Value

Acceleration due to gravity g 9,8 m.s–2
Electron mass me 9,11 × 10–31 kg
Charge on an electron qe –1,6 × 10–19 C
Coulomb’s constant k 9,0 × 109 N.m2.C–2
Gravitational constant G 6,67 × 10–11 N.m2.kg–2
Molar gas volume at STP Vm 22,4 dm3.mol–1
Planck’s constant h 6,63 × 10–34 J.s
Speed of light (in vacuum) c 3,0 × 108 m.s–1
Standard pressure P q
1,013 × 105 Pa
Standard temperature Tq 273 K
System of units
Physical experiments involve the measurement of different quantities. Table 2 shows the seven base units
and their SI units of measurement.
Table 2 The seven base units and their SI units of measurement
Physical quantity SI unit of measurement Unit symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
Glossary
A atomic number: number of protons in the B
accelerate: rate of change of velocity; nucleus of the atom of an element base: number in terms of which other
involves a change in speed and kinetic atomic theory: theory that explains that all numbers are expressed
energy matter is made up of atoms BCE: before the common era or years before
acceleration due to gravity: downward atomic radius: distance from the nucleus to the birth of Jesus
acceleration of a body due to the force of the outermost stable electron orbital bias: to make the results come out the way
gravity; symbol g Aufbau principle: gives the order in which you want them to
alloy: homogeneous mixture of two or more orbitals are filled boiling point: temperature at which a liquid
metals average acceleration: change of velocity boils
ammeter: instrument used to measure the divided by the time taken braking distance: shortest distance that it
electric current in a circuit average speed: total distance travelled takes the brakes of a vehicle to bring it to
ampere: unit of measurement of current divided by the total time a stop
amplitude: maximum disturbance that a average velocity: displacement (change in Brownian motion: random movement of
particle moves from its rest (or position) divided by the total time taken microscopic particles suspended in a
equilibrium) position Avogrado’s constant: number of atoms or liquid or gas
anion: negatively charged ion; formed when molecules in one mole of substance;
an atom gains electrons symbol NA C
anomalies: irregularities; something which catalyst: substance that chagnes the speed
axis: imaginary line through the centre of an
does not fit a pattern (rate) of a chemical reaction without
object, around which the object turns
atomic: to do with an atom or atoms being permanently changed itself

cation: positively charged ion; formed when diagnosis: identification of a medical experimental error: measure of how much
an atom losses electrons problem results differ from accepted values or how
central processing unit (CPU): key diatomic: molecules composed of only of accurate they are
component of a computer system that two atoms; either the same or different exponent: number that indicates how many
interprets and executes program chemical elements times a number is multiplied by itself; for
instructions diffusion: spontaneous movement of a 103 the exponent 3 means 10 × 10 × 10
charge: a property of some particles that substance from an area of high concentration
gives rise to electrical phenomena to an area of low concentration F
chemical bond: electrostatic force holding dipole: two poles of electric charge in one fair test: an investigation that has only one
atoms together in a molecule or a crystal molecule independent variable.
chemical change: change in which atoms are direct proportion: relationship between two ferromagnetic: materials (such as iron) that
rearranged during a chemcial reaction to variables where one quantity is a constant can be magnetised strongly
form a new substance multiple of the other: y = kx first ionisation energy: energy required to
coefficient: number that multiplies an discharge (electricity): when a charged remove the most loosely held electron
exponential number or a variable; the object loses charge from an atom in the gas state
coefficient of 3,5 × 103 is 3,5 displacement: change in position flat battery: emf of a battery has dropped
distance: length of the path that an object because its potential energy has been
combustion: chemical reaction in which a
moves along from one position to another transferred to the circuit
substance reacts with oxygen with the
domain (magnetism): regions where flocculation: method of removing suspended
production of heat and light
particles from water
composition: parts or components of matter magnetic fields of atoms combine to
create a stronger field fraction: quotient of numbers or variables;
and their relative proportions
dual: two forms written in the form a/b where a is the
conductivity (electrical): measure of the ability
numerator and b is the denominator
of a substance to conduct electric current
E frame of reference: set of reference points –
constant: quantity which, in a given context,
ecology: relationship of organisms to one such as a set of axes – that enables the
has a fixed value
another and to their physical position of an object to be defined at any time
constructive interference: when the
surroundings freezing point: temperature at which a
amplitude of the combined pulses is
ecosystem: biological community of liquid freezes
greater than the individual amplitudes
organisms, interacting with each other frequency: number of cycles of a wave per
controls: fixed variables
and their environment second
conversion factor: factor that expresses the
effervescent: giving off bubbles of gas friction: force between two surfaces in
equivalence of a measurement in two
electric charge: a property of some particle contact that resists the movement of the
different units
that gives rise to electrical phenomena one past the other
cooling curve: graph showing changes in
electric field: a region or space where a
temperature over time for a substance G
electric charge experiences a force
being cooled geographic poles: the northernmost and
electrolysis: decomposition of a substance
core electrons: electrons that fill the inner southernmost point of the Earth’s axis of
using an electric current
energy levels rotation
electrolyte: liquid that conducts electricity as
covalent bonds: bonds formed when gradient: slope of a graph; vertical change
a result of the presence of ions
electrons are shared between two atoms divided by horizontal change
electron affinity: energy change that occurs
covalent network structure: structure of gravitational field: region or space where an
when an atom or molecule gains an
covalent bonds extending throughout a object experiences a force because of its
electron to form a negative ion
crystal mass
electron configuration: arrangement of
crest: highest point in a wave gravitational potential energy: energy
electrons in the orbitals of an atom
crystal lattice: three-dimensional (3-D) because of position in a gravitational field
electronegativity: measure of how strongly
regular pattern of the atoms, molecules or relative to a reference point
the atom attracts the pair of electrons in a
ions in a crystal substance gravity: force of attraction that bodies have
chemical bond
current (electricity): rate of flow of charge; for each other because of their mass
electrostatic force: force charged particles
symbol I group (periodic table): vertical column of
exert on each other
current divider: resistors in parallel divide elements
electrostatics: interactions of electric charges
the current in inverse proportion
that are mainly stationary H
cycle: repeat of a motion such as from one
emf: voltage measured across the terminals halide: compound of a halogens and a metal
crest to the next of a wave
of a battery when it is not producing a heating curve: graph showing changes in
D current temperature over time for a substance
deceleration: a moving body is slowing empirical formula: chemical formula that being heated
down shows the simplest ratio between the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: states
decomposition: breaks down into atoms in a compound that it is impossible to determine with
component parts endothermic: product have less energy than perfect accuracy both the position and
delocalised: not limited to a particular place reactants; there is an overall release of momentum of a particle at any given
dependent variable: variable that the energy (heat) point in time
independent variable causes to change energy level: fixed energy that a system (such heterogeneous mixture: consist of
desalination: purification of salty water by as an atom) can have substances that are visibly different or are
removing dissolved salts equivalent resistance: resistance of a single In different states
design an investigation: think of a way to resistor that can take the place of a homogenous mixture: substances are evenly
carry out the investigation number of resistors connected together distributed throughout the mixture
destructive interference: when the exothermic: products have more energy that Hund’s rule: states that when filling sublevels
amplitude of the combined pulses is the reactants; there is an overall of p-orbital, electrons are placed in
smaller than the individual amplitudes absorption of energy (heat) individual orbitals before they are paired up
292
Glossary

hydrate: salt that contains water of Law of Conservation of Energy: states that musical note: name given to a sound with a
crystallisation energy is never created or destroyed but it specific frequency
hydration: process where ions became can be transferred from one form to mutually: done by two parties with reference
surrounded with water molecules in an another to each other
aqueous solution Law of Conservation of Mass: states that N
hydro-electricity: electricity generated using that total mass of substances on a closed negligible: too small to consider
the power of flowing water system remains constant, no matter what net charge: sum of the charges
hypothesis: proposed explanation that can processes are acting inside the system net reaction: reaction that includes only ions
be tested to see if it is correct such as the Lewis diagram: diagram where dots that take part in the reaction
mathematical relationship between two represents valence electrons neutral (electricity): zero net charge; the
variables longitudinal wave: wave where particles object has as many positive charges as
vibrate in the same line as the direction negative charges
I that the wave travels or propagates nucleus: central core of an atom
inclined plane: plane or flat surface that
slopes relative to the horizontal M O
independent variable: variable that an macroscopic properties: properties large octet rule: states that atoms tend to combine
investigator changes or allows to change enough to be visible to the naked eye in such a way that they each have eight
indicator: substance used to show the presence magnetic field: a region or space where a electrons in their outer energy level,
of a chemical substance by its colour magnet or ferromagnetic material will giving them the same electronic
inert: element that is not chemically reactive experience a force configuration as a noble gas
infinitesimal: very, very small magnetic field lines: lines that show the ohm: unit of measurement of resistance;
instantaneous speed: same as the magnitude direction of the magnetic field symbol W
of the instantaneous velocity magnetism: phenomena associated with one dimension: along a straight line
instantaneous velocity: displacement magnetic fields one-dimensional (1-D) motion: motion
divided by an infinitesimal time interval mass number: number of neutrons and along a straight line that can be either in
insulator: material that does not allow protons in an atomic nucleus one direction or in the opposite direction
charges to travel through it mechanical energy: sum of the kinetic orbit: curved path around an object
interference: when two or more pulses (and energy and gravitational energy of an orbital: region of space around the nucleus
waves) interact with each other in the object where there is a 90% chance of finding an
same space and at the same time mechanics: study of the interactions between electron
intermolecular: between molecules matter and the forces acting on it oxidation: process whereby a reactant loses
inversely proportional: mathematical medium: substance through or along which electrons
relationship where two variable are something moves or is transmitted oxide: compound of oxygen and a metal
inversely proportional to each other if, as melting point: temperature at which a solid
melts P
the one increases, the other one decreases
metallic bonds: bonds formed when a paper chromatography: technique for
and their product remains constant
separating and identifying mixtures that
ion: atom or a group of atoms that has lost delocalised electron “pool” is shared
among positive ions in a metal are or can be coloured
(positive ion) or gained (negative ion)
microscopic properties: properties so small particle model: scientific theory that
electrons
explains the properties of solid, liquids
ionic bond: bond formed when one or more as to be visible only with a microscope
model: simplified description of a system of and gases, and also that matter are made
electrons are transferred from a metal
phenomenon that contains the essential up of tiny particles
onto a non-metal
Pauli’s exclusion principle: states that only
ionisation energy: energy required to move aspects of the system
molar concentration: number of moles of two electrons can occur in an orbital and
an electron from an atom
these must spin in opposite directions
isolated system: no energy or material can solute per volume of solution in litres
molar mass: mass of one mole of atoms, pendulum: a small mass piece (called a bob)
enter or escape the system
suspended so as to swing freely
isotopes: elements with the same atomic molecules or formula mass units
molar volume: volume of one mole of gas percentage yield: actual yield/ theoretical
number (Z) but different mass number (A)
occupying 22,4 dm3 at 0 °C and one yield × 100%
J period: time taken to complete a single cycle
atmosphere
joule: unit of energy of a wave.
mole: unit of number of particles of a
period (periodic table): horizontal row of
K substance
elements
kinematics: branch of mechanics concerned mole: amount of substance that contains the
periodic law: many of the physical and
with the motion of objects without being same number of elementary units as there
chemical properties of the elements tend
concerned with the forces that cause the are carbon 12 atoms in exactly 12 g of
to follow a pattern with increasing atomic
motion carbon 12
number.
kinetic: due to motion molecular formula: chemical formula that
periodic table: table of chemical elements
kinetic energy: energy that an object shows the number and types of atoms in a
arranged in order of their atomic number
possesses as a result of its motion molecule
periodicity: gradual change of physical and
molten: reduced to liquid form by heating
L chemical properties in the periodic table
momentum: quantity of motion affecting an
latent energy: heat released or absorbed permanent: existing all the time
object; the greater the velocity of an
during a state change; temperature of perpendicular: at a right angle
object, the greater its momentum
substance stays constant photon: quantum (or wave packet) of
monatomic: element in which the atoms are
Law of Constant Composition: states that a electromagnetic radiation
not bound to each other; single atoms
chemical compound always contains the physical change: change which results in no
motion: change in position of a body with
same elements in the same proportions by ne chemical substances being formed
respect to time
weight
Glossary 293

physical property: property that can be reduction: process whereby a reactant gains switch (electricity): electrical component
observed or measured without changing electrons that can make a break in an electrical
the identity of that matter reflects: bounces off circuit
pitch: how high or low a sound is; depends regenerate: to create or produce again synthesise: to make or form
on its frequency relative: compared with something else system: set of connected things or parts
Planck’s constant: proportionality constant relative atomic mass: ratio of the average
mass of an atom of an element to 1/12 of T
relating the energy of a photon to its
the mass of a carbon-12 atom; symbol Ar tangent: line that touches a curve at one
frequency
point only and does not cross it
polarisation: process of causing an object to relative formula mass: sum of the atomic
theories: set of ideas proposed by reasoning
be polarised masses of each atom in the chemical
from known facts to explain something
polarised (electrostatics): an object that is formula
thinking distance: distance that a vehicle
polarised has an uneven distribution of relative molecular mass: sum of all the
travels before the driver applies the brakes
charge relative atomic masses of the atoms
tone: distinctive sound of a musical
poles (magnet): regions near the ends of a present in the molecule; symbol Mr
instrument
magnet where its magnetic forces appear resistance: ratio of the potential difference
transmitted: passed on
to be concentrated across an electrical component to the
transparent: see-through
polyatomic: formed from several atoms current passing through it; symbol R
transverse: across or at right angles
p-orbital: double teardrop shaped orbital resistor: component that is present in a
transverse pulse: pulse in which the
position (on a frame of reference): points circuit because of its resistance
particles of the medium move at right
plotted relative to a reference point or rest position: position where the particles of
angles to the direction of propagation
origin the medium stop when they are in a state
transverse wave: succession of transverse
potential difference: change in electrical of balance (equilibrium)
pulses
potential energy per unit charge between resultant: vector quantity that has the same
trough: lowest point in a wave
two points; symbol V effect as two or more vector quantities
potential energy: energy of an object U
because of its position, state or shape S
ultra-: beyond or on the other side of
precipitate: insoluble solid that deposits s-orbital: spherical orbital
ultrasound scan: image of the internal
from a solution as a result of a chemical saturated solution: solution that contains
organs of the body made using ultrasound
reaction the maximum quantity of solute
uniform: constant in the course of time
Principle of conservation of charge: states scalar: physical quantity that has magnitude
uniform acceleration: constant acceleration
that the net charge of an isolated system (size) only
unit: specified measure of a physical quantity
remains constant during any physical scale: ratio of sizes
process scientific method: system of experimental V
Principle of conservation of mechanical investigation that enables the investigator vacuum: space in which there is no matter
energy: states that in the absence of air to come to a conclusion based on valence electrons: electrons in outermost
resistance and friction the mechanical evidence shell of atom
energy of an object moving in the Earth’s scientific notation: expresses a number as a valency: number of bonds an atom can form
gravitational field is constant (conserved) product of two number; N × 10n variable: quantity that can change
Principle of quantisation of charge: states simultaneous: happens at the same time vector: physical quantity that has both
that every charge in the universe is an sketch graph: graph not drawn to scale, magnitude and direction
integer multiple of the electron charge shows essential data and relationship vector diagram: graphical representation of
Principle of superposition: when pulses between variables vectors
cross, the combines disturban at any point solute: substance dissolved in another vibrate: make a continuous to and fro
is equal to the sum of the disturbances substance movement
proportional: when one quantity is a solvent: substance in which another volatile: evaporating easily at normal
constant multiple of the other: y = kx substance is dissolved temperatures and pressures
proportionality constant: constant value of sound waves: longitudinal waves caused by volt: unit of measurement of emf and
the ratio of two proportional quantities: vibrations that produce a regular variation potential difference
k = y/x in pressure in the medium voltage: emf or potential difference measured
pulse: single disturbance spectator ions: ions present in a solution that in volts
do not take part in a reaction voltage divider: resistors in a series circuit
R spectrum: a range of frequencies or divide the voltage proportionately
radiation: emission and transmission of wavelengths of radiation arranged in order voltmeter: instrument used to measure the
energy (much of which is invisible) spontaneously: happens without external potential difference between two points
radioactivity: property of atoms that break cause
up spontaneously and send out radiation stoichiometry: quantitative measurements W
capable of penetrating opaque bodies and relationships of reactants and water of crystallisation: water contained In
rarefactions: turns or particles are products in a chemical reaction crystals of certain salts
further apart stopping distance: total distance needed to wave: succession of pulses
rate: change per second stop a motor vehicle wave speed: distance travelled by a wave (or
ratio: comparison of the value of two or structural formula: formula showing the crest of a wave) in one second.
more parts arrangement of atoms and the bonds wavelength: distance between two successive
reaction time: time between realizing that between the atoms of a compound crests or two successive troughs
there has been a change in the traffic and sublimation: direct change of state from weight: gravitational force that the Earth
doing something about it solid to gas phase exerts on an object
redox reaction: chemical reaction in which superposition: placed on top of each other
there Is a transfer of electrons
294
Glossary

Index
A coulomb, 158 formulae, of substances, 26–27, 55–57
acceleration, 226–28, 232–33, 235–36 covalent bonding, 66–68 fractions, 15
acid-base reactions, 191 covalent structures, 112–15, 119, 120 frames of reference, 217–18
acid rain, 183–84 crystal lattice, 72, 114–15, 117–19 freezing point, 30–32
alkali metals, 60–61 current, electric, 166–67 frequency of waves, 84–85, 90, 94
alkaline-earth metals, 60
D G
alloys, 73
Dalton, John, 37, 136 gas-forming reactions, 191, 200
ammeters, 166–67
dams, 266–67 gases, molar volume of, 202–203, 208
amperes, 166
deceleration, 227 graphite, 114
aqueous solutions, 180–82, 210
decomposition reactions, 128–29 graphs, of motion, 234–39
atmosphere, 263, 264
density of elements, 54 gravimetric analysis, 200
atoms, 108, 126
destructive interference, 80–81 gravitational field, 248
conservation of, 126, 134–35, 144
diagrams gravitational potential energy, 248–50, 252
diameter, 40–41
of atomic orbitals, 44–45 Group 1 elements, 60–61
mass of, 40, 67, 194–95, 208
of circuits, 162 Group 2 elements, 61
models, 37–39
Lewis diagrams, 63 Group 3–12 elements, 55, 62
orbitals, 44–48
of magnetic fields, 150–51 Group 17 elements, 61–62
radius, 53
vector diagrams, 213 Group 18 elements, 62
structure of, 42–43, 154
diamond, 114
Aufbau diagrams, 46 H
diffusion, 35
aurora, 153 halides, 56
dimensional analysis, 13
Avogadro’s constant, 194–95 halogens, 61–62
dimensions, 217–18
hard water, 183, 189
B direct proportion, 16
hazards, 20
balanced chemical equations, 138–43 direction of currents, 167
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, 44
biosphere, 263, 264 displacement, 219–21
Hund’s rule, 45
boiling point, 30–32, 54 dissolving, 180–81
hydration, 180
bonding distance, 219–21
hydrosphere, 262–67, 270
chemical, 63–65, 76 domain theory, 149
hypotheses, 18–19
covalent, 66–67
E
ionic, 69–71 I
earthquakes, 97, 99
metallic, 72–73 insulators, 28
electric circuits, 161–62, 176
boron compounds, 115 interference, 80–81
electric current, 166–67
braking distance, 245–46 inverse proportion, 16–17
electrolysis, 108–109
Brownian motion, 34–35 investigation skills, 18–20
electrolytes, 184–87, 208
ion-exchange reactions, 182, 188–91, 208
C electromagnetic radiation, 98–101, 104
ionic bonding, 69–70, 108, 116–17, 119, 120
calculators, 11, 13 electromagnetic spectrum, 100–101
ionisation energy, 57–58
cations, 42, 49 electron affinity, 58–59
ions, 42
charges electronegativity, 59, 63–65
in aqueous solutions, 180–83, 208
of atoms, 42–43 electrons
isotopes, 43
conservation of, 158–59, 161 configuration, 38–39, 44–45
kinds of, 154 orbitals, 44–46 J
quantisation of, 159–60 valence electrons, 52–53, 69 joules, 104, 249
chemical bonding, 63–65, 74 electrostatics, 154–57, 176
chemical change, 127–31, 144 elements, 24, 108, 110–11 K
chemical equations, balanced, 138–43 EM radiation see electromagnetic radiation kinematic equations of motion see equations
chemical formulae, 55–57, 109–10 emergencies, 20 of motion
circuits see electric circuits emf, 163 kinetic energy, 250–51
composition of substances, 200–201 empirical formulae, 109, 199 Kinetic molecular theory, 34–36, 124
compounds, 25–27, 108–111, 120 energy L
compression, 89 in chemical reactions, 131 lattice structures, 70, 114–15, 116–17
condensation, 31 conservation of, 253–57 Lavoisier, Antoine, 132
conducting spheres, 158–59 kinds of, 248–51, 258 Law of Conservation of Energy, 252–57
conductivity, 184–87, 208 physical change and, 124–25 Law of Conservation of Mass, 126, 132–35,
conductors, 28 equations of motion, 240–44, 258 138, 144, 204
conservation evaporation, 31 Law of Constant Composition, 136–37
of atoms, 126, 134–35, 144 exam skills, 272–73 Lewis diagrams, 63
of charges, 158–59, 161 exchange reactions, 128 lithosphere, 262, 263
of energy, 252–57 experiments, 19–20 longitudinal waves, 90–91, 104
of mass, 126, 132–35, 138, 144, 204 loudness, 93
F
constants, 16
ferromagnetic material, 29, 149 M
constructive interference, 80–81
flame tests to identify cations, 49 magnetic declination, 152
conversion of units, 12–14, 225
following distance, 247 magnetic fields, 98–99, 150–51
cooling curve, 33
Index 295

magnetic materials, 28–29 Pauli’s exclusion principle, 45 solubility, 186
magnetic storms, 153 period of waves, 84, 90 sound, 92–95, 104
magnetism, 148–49, 176 periodic table, 50–59, 74 speed, 222–23, 231, 258
mass pH scale, 191 of waves, 85–87, 90
of atoms, 40, 67, 71, 194–95, 208 phase, 83 static electricity see electrostatics
conservation of, 126, 132–35, 138, photons, 102–103 Stock system, 140–41
144, 204 physical change, 124–26, 144 stoichiometric calculations, 204–207
of molecules, 194–95 physical quantities, 212 stopping distance, 247
mathematical relationships, 14–17 physical states of matter, 30–33, 36, 74 structural formulae, 110
matter pitch, 92 study skills, 272–73
overview of, 22 Planck’s constant, 102–103 subject of formulas, 17
physical states of, 30–33, 36, 74 polarisation, 156–57 sublimation, 32
mechanical energy, 252–57 position, 217–18 superposition, 80–81
melting point, 30–32, 54–55 potential difference (voltage), 163–65 synthesis reactions, 128, 130
metallic bonding, 72–73, 108, 118–19, 120 potential energy, 248
T
metalloids, 27–28 precipitation reactions, 188–90, 200
theoretical yield, 207
metals, 27, 72 properties of materials, 22
thermal conductors, 28
mixtures, 23 protons, 38, 42
thinking distance, 246–47
models Proust, Joseph, 136
tone, 94
of atoms, 37–39 pulses, 78–81
transition metals (Groups 3–12), 55, 62
of compounds, 110–11 pure substances, 24–25
transverse pulses, 78–81, 104
of elements, 110–11
Q transverse waves, 82–83, 104
scientific, 9
quality of water, 268–69 triboelectric charging, 154–56
molar concentration, 203, 208
quantisation, 102, 159–60
molar mass, 196–99, 208 U
molar volume of gases, 202–203, 208 R ultrasound, 96–97
molecular compounds, 108, 119 radiation, discovery of, 38
molecular formulae, 109 V
see also electromagnetic radiation
molecules vacuums, 91, 98
rarefaction, 89
mass of, 194–95 valence electrons, 52, 69
rate, 14–15
non-conservation of, 134–37 valency, 55–56
ratios, 15
moles, 194–95, 202, 208 vectors, 212–16, 258
reactivity, 60–62
motion, 217–18, 258 velocity, 222–25, 229–31, 234–36, 258
redox reactions, 182, 192–93, 208
equations of, 240–47 voltage, 163–65
relative formula mass, 71
graphs of, 234–39 voltmeters, 164
relative molecular mass, 67
resistors, 168–69 W
N
in parallel, 173–75 water
names of substances, 26–27
in series, 170–72 of crystallisation, 196–99
neutrons, 39, 42
resultants, 214–15 cycle, 262, 264
noble gases, 58
rheostats, 169 phases of, 264
non-magnetic materials, 28–29
rivers, 265 physical changes of, 124–26
non-metals, 27–28
road safety, 245–47 properties of, 263
notation, scientific, 10–12
quality of, 268–70
S
O as solvent, 180–83
safety, 20
Octet rule, 60 waves
scalars, 212–16, 258
ohms, 168–69 longitudinal waves, 90–91, 104
scientific method, 18–20
oxidation and reduction reactions, 182, sound waves, 92–95, 104
scientific models, 9
192–93, 208 transverse waves, 82–83, 104
scientific notation, 10–12
oxides, 56
semi-conductors, 28
P series circuits, 162, 170–72
parallel circuits, 162, 173–75 silicon, 28, 115
particle model see kinetic molecular theory solar wind, 152
296
Index

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OXFORD SUCCESSFUL Physical Sciences L E A R N E R ’ S B O O K

OXFORD SUCCESSFUL ENGLISH (FIRST formal assessment and exams.

9 780195 997354 We recommend these reference books for

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It is illegal to photocopy any pages from this book

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Oxford University Press Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd

Final OS PS Gr 10 LB 21-10-13.indb 2 2013/10/21 2:25 PM

Module 1 Matter and materials (Part 1) 21

Module 2 Waves, sound and light 77

Module 3 Matter and materials (Part 2) 107

Module 4 Chemical change (Part 1) 123

Final OS PS Gr 10 LB 21-10-13.indb 3 2013/10/21 2:25 PM

Module 6 Chemical change (Part 2) 179

Module 7 Mechanics 211

Module 8 Chemical systems 261

Study and exam skills........................................................................................................................................ 272

Cation and anion tables........................................................................................................................................290

Final OS PS Gr 10 LB 21-10-13.indb 4 2013/10/21 2:25 PM

About the authors/Acknowledgements 5

Final OS PS Gr 10 LB 21-10-13.indb 5 2013/10/21 2:25 PM

Atomic models The atom Matter and materials

Mind map: Unpacks the sub-topics of the module. Sub-topics are

separate units within the module.

Molecular substances Ionic substances Metallic substances

Covalent molecular structures Covalent network structures Metal crystal structures

Molecular formulae Empirical formulae

Module 3 Matter and materials (Part 2) 107

At the end of each module, you will find the following:

You will see the following features throughout the book:

make it easier for you to understand the text.

Interference is when two or more pulses (and

Notice in Figure 3 that after crossing each other,

Figure 3 After crossing, the two pulses carry on unchanged.

Constructive and destructive interference

80 Module 2 Waves, sound and light

6 How to use this book

Final OS PS Gr 10 LB 21-10-13.indb 6 2013/10/21 2:25 PM

calculation using a relevant example. This will help you to see

how a question must be answered and set out in a test or an exam.

Give two conditions for using equations of motion.

you learnt in the unit.

Unit 10 Equations of motion 243

You will also find examples of these features in this book:

At the end of this book, you will find:

The Authors and Publisher

How to use this book 7

Final OS PS Gr 10 LB 21-10-13.indb 7 2013/10/21 2:25 PM

Formal assessment opportunities in this book

8 Formal Programme of Assessment

Final OS PS Gr 10 LB 21-10-13.indb 8 2013/10/21 2:25 PM

In Science, a model is a simplified description of a system or phenomenon

The purpose of scientific models

The limitations of scientific models

How to recognise a scientific model

How models change with new information

Skills for Physical Sciences 9

Addition and subtraction

10 Skills for Physical Sciences

Final OS PS Gr 10 LB 21-10-13.indb 10 2013/10/21 2:25 PM

Multiplication and division

Square and square roots