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EXTREME TRIBOLOGY
Fundamentals and Challenges
Ahmed Abdelbary
Ph.D., M.Sc., B.Sc.(Eng.), EGTRIB Mem
Chief Engineer and Tribology Consultant
Egyptian Government
Alexandria, Egypt

p,
p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Version Date: 20191113

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-32815-0 (Hardback)

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This book is dedicated to the memory of my father
Foreword

Tribology is the science and engineering of interacting surfaces in relative motion. It

includes the study and application of the principles of friction, lubrication and wear.
This field is highly interdisciplinary in nature and draws upon several academic areas,
including physics, chemistry, materials science and engineering (Wikipedia, 2019).
The term “tribology” became widely used following ‘The Jost Report’, published in
1966 (Jost, 1966). The report highlighted the huge cost of friction, wear and corrosion
to the UK economy. Despite considerable research since then, the global impact of
friction and wear on energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions is still
considerable. In 2017, Kenneth Holmberg and Ali Erdemir (Holmberg, 2017) attempted
to quantify their worldwide impact on economic aspects. They considered the four main energy consuming
sectors: Transportation, manufacturing, power generation and residential.
The following facts were concluded:
– In total, ~ 23% of the world’s total energy consumption originates from tribological contacts. Of that,
20% is used to overcome friction and 3% is used to remanufacture worn parts and spare equipment
due to wear and wear-related failures.
– By taking advantage of the new surface, materials, and lubrication technologies for friction reduction
and wear protection in vehicles, machinery and other equipment worldwide, energy losses due to
friction and wear could potentially be reduced by 40% in the long term (15 years) and by 18% in the
short term (8 years). On a global scale, these savings would amount to 1.4% of GDP annually and
8.7% of the total energy consumption in the long term.
– The largest short term energy savings are envisioned in transportation (25%) and in the power
generation (20%) while the potential savings in the manufacturing and residential sectors are estimated
to be ~ 10%. In the longer term, the savings would be 55%, 40%, 25% and 20%, respectively.
– Implementing advanced tribological technologies can also reduce global carbon dioxide emissions
by as much as 1460 metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (Mt CO2) and result in 450,000 million
Euros cost savings in the short term. In the long term, the reduction could be as large as 3140 Mt CO2
and the cost savings 970,000 million Euros (Friedrich, 2018).
The new book written by Professor Ahmed Abdelbary on “Extreme Tribology” focuses especially
on tribological situations under extreme operating conditions. The latter, as defined in the book, can be
related to high loads and/or temperatures, or severe environments, such as in space. Also, they may be
related to high transitory contact conditions (e.g., wheel/rail interface), or to situations with near-impossible
monitoring and maintenance opportunities (e.g., mechanical sub-sea oil pipe repair connectors). In general,
extreme conditions can typically be categorized as involving abnormally high or excessive exposure to
cold, heat, pressure, vacuum, voltage, corrosive chemicals, vibration, or dust.
Operation in such extreme conditions is a great challenge for tribologists to develop tribosystems that
could meet these extreme requirements. Often, only multifunctional materials fulfill such requirements
(Friedrich, 2015). However, more work needs to be done in order to reveal the physical and chemical
nature of these extreme tribological characteristics and to generate reliable data for design. So far, most
of the publications in this field have been written for engineers and scientists who are already active in
the field of tribology and want to broaden and update their knowledge towards more complicated loading
vi Extreme Tribology: Fundamentals and Challenges

situations. On the other hand, there are not too many papers or books that are especially dedicated to the
education of senior and graduate students interested in these important issues.
The new textbook of the author is, therefore, an ideal solution to this problem. After a comprehensive
introduction to the field of tribology in general, in which the effects of the volume properties of the
tribo-materials, their surface properties and the use of possible lubricants on friction and wear of tribo-
systems are also described, the author focusses the attention of the reader on the theory of friction, factors
affecting the latter, measurement techniques, and friction related heat and temperature effects. Two other
important subjects follow: (a) A description of possible wear mechanisms, including corresponding wear
measurements, and (b) the lubrication of tribo-systems by fluidic, gaseous, grease or solid media, including
various types of additives incorporated in them. In the following, Dr. Abdelbary dedicates two other
chapters to the tribology of polymers and their composites, and to the tribology of automotive components.
Especially in this field, polymer composites have been very successfully used in recent times. It would be
hard to find a polymer for automotive tribo-applications which is not in a composite or a polymer/metal
hybrid form. His work is then concentrated on friction and wear under other extreme conditions, where he
especially emphasizes the mechanisms and effects that occur at high or low cryogenic environments, in a
vacuum, and at high speeds. Also, abrasion aspects in mining, mineral processing, and treatment of solid
concrete are touched upon. This is followed by a chapter on lubrication and coating challenges in extreme
conditions, which also considers vacuum effects in space tribology and lubrication in artificial joints, to
mention only a few. The two concluding chapters deal with the simulation and modelling of tribo-systems,
and with failures in particular types of wear components, like gears, bearings, wheels and artificial implants.
The book is not only intended to teach postgraduate students in the field of tribology in general,
but also under extreme conditions in particular. Nevertheless, it will be also of interest as a balanced
textbook for different levels of readers: (1) those who are active or intend to become active in research on
materials’ tribology in general (material scientists, physical chemists, mechanical engineers); (2) those
who have encountered a practical friction or wear problem and wish to learn more methods of solving
such problems (designers, engineers and technologists in industries dealing with selection, processing and
application of engineering materials); (3) professors at universities, who want to set-up new courses in this
field. This is very important, since by now, the average mechanical engineer receives only a few hours of
instruction on wear during his/her university studies. Therefore, the book is highly recommendable for a
broad engineering community.
Kaiserslautern, 28th June 2019
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. hc Klaus Friedrich
Institute for Composite Materials (IVW GmbH)
67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany

References
Friedrich, K. 2018. Polymer composites for tribological applications (A review). Advanced Industrial and Engineering
Polymer Research 1: 3–39.
Friedrich, K. and Breuer, U. (eds.). 2015. Multifunctionality of Polymer Composites, Elsevier, Oxford, UK.
Holmberg, K. and Erdemir, A. 2017. Influence of tribology on global energy consumption. Costs and Emissions,
Friction 5: 263–284.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribology.
Jost, H.P. 1966. Lubrication (Tribology)—A Report on the Present Position and Industry’s Needs. Department of
Education and Science, H.M. Stationary Office, London, UK.
Acknowledgment

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr. MN Abouelwafa, who has
been instrumental in completing my postgraduate degrees and has been my role model since the moment
I started my research career until his death in 2013.
I would like to record my gratitude and thanks to Prof. Klaus Friedrich. His contribution to this work
is immense and cannot be acknowledged in words.
I was fortunate to have assistance from Dr. Maged E Elnady for proof reading this book. His invaluable
mentorship, stimulating discussions and support were instrumental in completing this work.
I would also like to extend my gratitude and thanks to Dr. Yasser S Mohamed (Assistant Professor,
Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University) for going through the book and suggesting helpful changes
and ideas.
I owe my family the deepest debt. My mother, thank you for your love and constant support. My wife,
Gigi, and my children, thank you for bearing added stress during the elaboration of this book.
A Abdelbary
Contents

Foreword v
Acknowledgment vii

1. Introduction to Tribology 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 History of Tribology 3
1.3 Development and Future Challenges 6
1.4 Knowledge of Tribology: Education, Publications and Researches 8
References 19

2. Tribo-material Properties 20
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Volume Properties 20
2.2.1 Elastic Deformation 20
2.2.2 Plastic Deformation 22
2.2.3 Creep Deformation 23
2.2.4 Hardness 24
2.2.5 Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics 25
2.3 Thermal Properties 27
2.4 Surface Properties 27
2.4.1 Adhesion 27
2.4.2 Surface Reactivity 30
2.4.3 Surface Roughness 31
2.5 Lubricant Properties 35
2.5.1 Density and Specific Gravity 36
2.5.2 Viscosity 36
2.5.3 Thermal Properties 38
2.5.4 Other Properties 39
References 41

3. Friction 43
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Contact of Solid Surfaces 43
3.3 Theories of Friction 44
3.3.1 Adhesion Theory of Friction 44
3.3.2 Junction Growth Theory 47
3.3.3 Asperity Interlocking Theory 48
3.3.4 Stick-Slip Theory 48
3.4 Laws of Sliding Friction 49
3.5 Laws of Rolling Friction 50
3.6 Factors Affecting Friction and Wear 51
x Extreme Tribology: Fundamentals and Challenges

3.6.1 Applied Load 52

3.6.2 Temperature 54
3.6.3 Sliding Speed 54
3.6.4 Material Compatibility 56
3.6.5 Surface Roughness 56
3.6.6 Environment and Surface Films 58
3.7 Friction Measurements 58
3.7.1 Sliding Friction Measurement 58
3.7.2 Rolling Friction Measurement 62
3.8 Frictional Heating 64
3.9 Contact Surface Temperature 64
3.10 Contact Temperature Measurement 67
References 69

4. Wear 72
4.1 Introduction 72
4.2 Wear Mechanisms 72
4.2.1 Adhesive Wear 72
4.2.2 Abrasive Wear 75
4.2.3 Surface Fatigue Wear 77
4.2.4 Corrosive Wear 79
4.2.5 Fretting Wear 80
4.2.6 Impact Wear 82
4.2.7 Erosive Wear 83
4.2.8 Thermal Wear 86
4.2.9 Other Types of Wear 87
4.3 Wear-regime Maps 87
4.4 Generation of Wear Debris 90
4.5 Measurement of Wear (Tribo-measurements) 94
4.5.1 Sliding Wear Test 96
4.5.2 Rolling Wear Test 97
4.5.3 Scratch Wear Test 99
4.5.4 Abrasion Wear Test 100
4.5.5 Erosion Wear Test 101
4.5.6 Impact Wear Test 102
References 102

5. Lubricants and Lubrication 105

5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Types of Lubricants 106
5.2.1 Solid Lubricants 106
5.2.2 Liquid Lubricants 109
5.2.3 Gaseous Lubricants 110
5.3 Fluid Film Lubrication 110
5.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 111
5.3.2 Derivation of Reynolds Equation 111
5.3.3 Lubrication Regimes 114
5.3.4 Hydrostatic Lubrication 122
5.4 Gas-lubricated Bearings 125
5.4.1 Definition and Background 125
5.4.2 Fundamentals and Design Features 126
5.4.3 Classification and Configurations 128
 Contents xi

5.5 Solid Film Lubrication 130

5.5.1 Solid Lubrication Mechanisms 130
5.5.2 Advantages and Applications of Solid Lubrication 130
5.5.3 Disadvantages of Solid Lubrication 130
5.5.4 Friction and Wear Testing of Solid Lubricants 131
5.6 Grease Lubrication 132
5.6.1 Definition 132
5.6.2 Scientific Fundamentals 133
5.6.3 Applications 134
5.6.4 Testing of Grease 134
5.7 Additives 136
References 137

6. Tribology of Polymer and their Composites 141

6.1 Introduction 141
6.2 Wear of Polymers 141
6.2.1 Abrasive Wear 142
6.2.2 Adhesive Wear 143
6.2.3 Surface Fatigue Wear 144
6.2.4 Other Forms of Wear 144
6.3 Friction of Polymers 145
6.4 Severity Parameters for Friction and Wear of Polymers 147
6.4.1 Sliding Speed 147
6.4.2 Sliding Temperature 148
6.4.3 Counterface Roughness 148
6.4.4 Applied Load and Contact Pressure 149
6.4.5 Material Properties 150
6.4.6 Humidity and Surface Wettability 151
6.5 Lubrication 152
6.5.1 External Lubrication 153
6.5.2 Internal Lubrication 155
6.5.3 Factors Contributing to Water Lubricated Polymers 157
6.6 Sliding Mechanics of Polymers 158
6.6.1 Transfer Film Formation 158
6.6.2 Wear Regimes 158
6.6.3 pv-limit 160
6.6.4 Thermal and Chemical Degradation 162
6.6.5 Generation of Wear Debris 163
6.6.6 Surface and Subsurface Cracking 164
6.7 Wear and Friction of Polymer Composites 165
6.7.1 Mechanisms of Failure 166
6.7.2 Continuous Unidirectional Fiber Composites 166
6.7.3 Short Fiber Reinforced Composites 168
6.7.4 Particulate-filled Composites 169
6.7.5 Laminated Fiber Reinforced Composite 170
References 172

7. Tribology of Automotive Components 176

7.1 Introduction 176
7.2 Piston Ring 177
7.2.1 Piston Ring Assembly 177
xii Extreme Tribology: Fundamentals and Challenges

7.2.2 Piston Ring Groove 178

7.2.3 Tribology of Piston Ring 178
7.3 Valvetrain Mechanism 181
7.3.1 Valve and Valve Seat 182
7.3.2 Cam and Tappet 185
7.4 Crankshaft Bearing 187
7.5 Clutches and Brakes 190
7.5.1 Clutches 190
7.5.2 Brakes 194
7.6 Automotive Lubricants 199
7.6.1 Engine Oils 199
7.6.2 Transmission Fluids 200
7.6.3 Gear Lubricants 201
References 202

8. Friction and Wear in Extreme Conditions 206

8.1 Introduction 206
8.2 Challenges in Tribology 206
8.3 Friction and Wear Under Extreme Loads 207
8.3.1 Wheel-rail Interactions 207
8.3.2 Effect of Cyclic Loading on Wear of Polymers 210
8.4 Micro/Nano-Scale Friction and Wear 212
8.5 Friction and Wear at Extreme Temperatures 215
8.5.1 Mechanisms of Wear at High Temperatures 216
8.5.2 Effect of Surface Oxidation 218
8.5.3 Effect of Applied Load 221
8.5.4 Effect of Surface Texture 222
8.5.5 High Temperature Tribometers 224
8.6 Friction and Wear at Extremely Low Temperatures 224
8.6.1 The Challenge in Wheel/Rail Interaction 224
8.6.2 Sliding on Snow and Ice 226
8.6.3 Low Temperature Tribometers (Cryotribometers) 230
8.7 Friction and Wear at High Speeds 231
8.8 Friction and Wear Under Vacuum Conditions 234
8.8.1 Friction in Vacuum 234
8.8.2 Wear in Vacuum 239
8.8.3 Vacuum Tribometers 240
8.9 Wear in Mining and Mineral Processing 241
8.10 Geotribology 242
8.11 Abrasion of Concrete Paver Blocks 243
8.11.1 Effect of Slag Replacement Level 244
8.11.2 Effect of Slag Content (Mix Ratio) 245
References 246

9. Lubrication and Coating Challenges in Extreme Conditions 250

9.1 Introduction 250
9.2 Lubrication Challenges 250
9.2.1 Lubrication at High Temperatures 250
9.2.2 Lubrication at Low Temperatures and in Cryogenic Environments 251
9.2.3 Lubrication Under Extreme Pressures 255
9.2.4 Lubrication in Vacuum (Space Tribology) 257
9.2.5 Lubrication in High Dust and Dirty Areas 258
 Contents xiii

9.2.6 Lubrication in Radiation Environments 258

9.2.7 Lubrication in Corrosive Environments 258
9.2.8 Lubrication in Limited Weight Applications 259
9.2.9 Lubrication in Natural and Artificial Joints 259
9.3 Coating Challenges 259
9.3.1 Space Applications 262
9.3.2 Biomedical Applications 262
9.3.3 Plasma Sprayed Slag Coatings 264
9.3.4 Polymer Coatings for Extreme Working Conditions 266
9.4 Surface Treatment Challenges 268
9.4.1 Applications in Automotive Industry 270
9.4.2 Surface Treatment of Polymers 271
References 272

10. Simulation and Modeling of Tribo-Systems 275

10.1 Introduction 275
10.2 Empirical Equations and Mathematical Models 275
10.2.1 Empirical Equations 275
10.2.2 Mathematical Models 278
10.3 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) 279
10.3.1 FEA of Wear in Pin-on-disk Configuration 281
10.3.2 FEA of Frictional Heating and Contact Temperature (Thermal FEA) 282
10.4 Dimensional Analysis 283
10.5 Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) 286
10.5.1 Fundamentals of Neural Network Approach 286
10.5.2 Prediction of Wear and Friction of Aluminum Composites 287
10.5.3 Prediction of Wear of Polyamide 287
References 296

11. Failure of Tribo-Systems 298

11.1 Introduction 298
11.2 Bearing Failure 298
11.2.1 Rolling Contact Fatigue (RCF) 299
11.2.2 Overheating 299
11.2.3 Wear 299
11.2.4 Corrosion 301
11.3 Gear Failure 301
11.4 Cam/Follower Failure 304
11.5 Wheel/Rail Failure 305
11.6 Failure of Artificial Joints 308
References 311
Index 313
Chapter 1
Introduction to Tribology

1.1 Introduction
Tribology is a relatively new word, although it represents phenomena and problems that have been
around since the Stone Age and extend to our present lives. The word “tribology” was introduced in 1964,
when a working group chaired by Dr. H. Peter Jost CBE was invited by the UK Department of Education
and Science to investigate the state of lubrication education and research, and to give an opinion on the
needs of the industry. When the group introduced the report in February 1966, they proposed, for the
first time, the word “tribology” to describe this field (Jost, 1966). The word comes from the ancient Greek
“tribo” meaning “rubbing” and the suffix “logy” for “the knowledge of”, so the literal translation would
be “the science of rubbing”. Currently, dictionaries define tribology as “the study of friction, wear and
lubrication, and the design of bearings” or “the science of interacting surfaces in relative motion” (Oxford,
Dictionary).
By definition, tribology is an interfacial phenomenon that is affected by physical and mechanical
properties of the two interacting surfaces as well as operational conditions. Since surface interactions are
highly complex aspects, their understanding requires studying a variety of fields, including mechanical
engineering, material science, surface topography and fluid mechanics. Moreover, there is a further
complexity due to the fact that tribology is strongly associated with a wide range of practical applications,
with small possibilities of theoretical formulation for a limited range of them.
If we try to explore the principal constituents of tribology of interacting solid surfaces, we realize that
friction and wear are very ancient ones. In fact, solid surfaces are in contact with each other in relative
motion, that is, surfaces sliding, rolling and rubbing on each other. For effective solution of tribology
problems, all three constituents should be considered carefully and equally.
Since time immemorial, efforts have been made in order to minimize wear and control friction. This
has triggered the need for lubrication, in which fluids (or solids) are introduced as a lubricant film to
reduce the contact between moving surfaces in order to save power and material, Fig. 1.1 represents an
illustration for tribology triangle.
The word “friction” came into usage in the middle of the 16th century, it comes from the Latin
frictiō, meaning “a chafing or rubbing”, and from Middle French friction as a noun of action from the
past participle stem of fricare, meaning “to rub”. The first record of using friction as “resistance to motion”
was in the middle of the 17th century (Oxford, Dictionary). Even though many scientific definitions were
introduced in order to describe this phenomenon, most of them have the common essence that there are
two regimes of friction: Static friction between non-moving surfaces and kinetic (or dynamic) friction
between moving surfaces.
Friction is expressed in quantitative terms as the force generated between the two surfaces in the
direction opposite to the direction of motion (for kinetic friction) or potential motion (for static friction). To
easily differentiate between the two cases, one can observe that, in static friction, the force is insufficient
to cause motion, whereas in dynamic friction, it is sufficient.
2 Extreme Tribology: Fundamentals and Challenges

Figure 1.1: Tribology triangle.

In general, the friction force is described in terms of a coefficient of friction (µ) which is the ratio of
the friction force (F) to the normal load (W) acting between both surfaces:
F
µ= (1.1)
W
The coefficient is called either static or dynamic coefficient of friction, depending on the friction case.
The main factors contributing to the friction coefficient are: Topography of surfaces in contact, surface
area, normal pressure, sliding velocity and the time during which the surfaces remain in contact. Other
factors, such as temperature, humidity, etc., may have a considerable influence on the nature of friction
(Dowson, 1998).
In the late of the 13th, century the word “wear” was used in reference to clothing in order to express the
gradual damage caused by continued use. In material science, wear is related to the removal and deformation
of material on a solid surface as a result of mechanical action of the opposite surface (Materials, 2001).
Among several definitions of this process, wear can be simply expressed as “progressive loss of substance
from the operating surface of a body occurring as a result of relative motion at the surface” (Materials,
1969; Rabinowicz, 1995; Halling, 1979).
Although wear is generally thought of as a harmful phenomenon, this is not totally true. Even though
this can be found in the majority of practical cases, there are a considerable number of useful applications
of the wear process. For instance, surface production and surface finishing of manufactured objects using
abrasion processes and the use of a pencil or a chalk are examples of desirable wear. Thus, practically
speaking, wear is not always to be avoided.
Wear can be described by three basic terms: (i) wear mechanism, (ii) wear process, and (iii) wear
type. Although our consideration of the various mechanisms of wear is now improving, no unique law
(compared to that for friction) has been generalized. The main reason for this is that the wear process
involves diverse phenomena interacting in a largely unpredictable manner.
The first record of using the word “lubrication” was in the early 19th century. The Latin
lūbricātus, past participle of lūbricāre, means “to make slippery” (Oxford, Dictionary). Since lubrication
can effectively change the performance of tribo-systems (any system containing tribological components),
one of the most general definitions is that “a lubricant is a substance capable of altering the nature of the
surface interaction between contacting solids”. We should emphasize here that the term “substance” in
the previous definition is not simply exclusive to oil or grease as it may be thought of, even though they
are the most common lubricants in use. In fact, there are other conditions of lubrication, such as fluid
lubrication, grease, solid lubrication, and air and gas lubrication.
 Introduction to Tribology 3

In Fluid lubrication, any fluid, including water, can be used as a lubricant in the proper application.
In fluid lubrication, the lubrication regime is considered according to the condition of the lubricant
introduced into a sliding system. The three distinct situations are fluid film lubrication, boundary
lubrication, and mixed lubrication. The most important property of the lubricant in fluid lubrication is the
viscosity of the lubricant.
Grease is a stabilized mixture of a liquid lubricant (mineral or synthetic fluid) and a thickening agent.
Some additives may be introduced to add particular properties.
Solid lubrication occurs when a soft solid film (e.g., Molybdenum disulfide MoS2) is introduced
between sliding surfaces. Also, it may be found as a result of a chemical reaction between the sliding
surface and its environment.
Air or gas is now a rather common lubricant in high-speed bearing applications.
For all previous kinds of lubrication, the main task is to reduce friction, wear and surface adhesion. In
other cases, lubrication is introduced in tribo-systems in order to control the interfacial temperature. When
lubrication breaks down, components can rub destructively against each other, causing heat, local welding,
destructive damage and, finally, failure.

1.2 History of Tribology

With the beginning of humankind, the first man used tribology concepts to facilitate his daily activities.
The first practical application of tribology was the use of the friction phenomenon in lighting fires, rapidly
grinding pieces of solid burnable materials, such as wood, against each other or a hard surface in order to
create heat. In this Paleolithic period, archeologists found evidence for using the friction and grinding wear
concepts in the development of weapons, tools and construction. As far back as the middle of Mesolithic
period in Egypt, records show the use of studded wheels and bearings for stone potter’s wheels, reducing
friction in transnational motion, Fig. 1.2.
Furthermore, there is some indication that these 5000-year-old wheel bearings were lubricated with
bitumen.
Ancient Egyptians were the earliest pioneers in using lubricants in the transportation of large
stone building blocks and monuments. Figure 1.3 is an artwork from the tomb of Djehutihotep in
El Bersheh (1800 B.C.). It was discovered in the Victorian era and depicts the use of a sledge to transport
a heavy statue of the Middle Kingdom. In this transportation, 172 slaves dragged a large statue weighing
about 600 kN along a wooden track. Closer examination shows a man, often referred to as the first
tribologist, standing on the sledge supporting the statue and pouring a liquid (most likely water) onto the

Figure 1.2: (a) Drawing of a car with two studded wheels, circa 1338 A.D., and (b) Wooden bearing for stone wheels,
ancient Egypt.
4 Extreme Tribology: Fundamentals and Challenges

Figure 1.3: Transporting an Egyptian statue, El Bersheh, circa 1900 B.C. (Artificial arrangement of the persons probably
arises from the Egyptian artist’s inability to draw perspective).

Figure 1.4: Drawing of sled friction test geometry, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519).

path of motion (Bhushan, 2013). Dowson assumed that each slave can pull about 800 newtons (Dowson,
1998). Consequently, the total work required should be at least equal to the friction force. This would
suggest a coefficient of friction of about 0.23 which is comparable to lubricated sliding of wood. Thus,
we can infer that Fig. 1.3 is a true record of what actually occurred (Davison, 1961).
 Introduction to Tribology 5

Egyptians also used organic lubricants around the same period. A chariot in an Egyptian tomb still
contains some of the original animal-fat lubricant in its wheel bearings. It is interesting to know that this
lubricant was contaminated with road dirt in the form of quartz, compounds of aluminum, iron and lime
(Halling, 1979).
From a tribological point of view, the wheel has been considered as one of the most important
innovations, with the transition from sledges to wheeled vehicles first discovered in about 3500 B.C. The
remains of many wheels, dating back to the third millennium, have been found in Europe, Asia and Africa.
In 1928, fragments of what looks like a 2000-year-old thrust ball-bearing were found in Italy, near Rome.
This ball-bearing was probably used in supporting a statue in a sculptor’s workshop.
The scientific study of the friction phenomenon is much more recent than what the abovementioned
applications might suggest. During the Renaissance period (1450–1600 A.D.), Leonardo da Vinci
(1452–1519) postulated the first scientific approach to study friction in his manuscripts, Fig. 1.3. The
most important mathematical result of his studies demonstrated that the friction force is proportional to
load and independent of the apparent (or nominal) area of contact. Another important study was a description
of a low-friction bearing alloy, early form of ball-bearing cage, and ball-and-roller pivot bearings. Although
da Vinci was a pioneer in his findings, his manuscripts had no historical influence because they remained
unpublished for hundreds of years.
Another development for wheel bearings was achieved in 1684 by Robert Hooke (1635–1703). He
suggested that the combination of steel shafts and metal bushes would be preferable to the direct contact
between wooden wheels and iron shafts. Consequently, he presented a series of concepts on bearing design,
seals, materials and lubrication.
The German mathematician Leonard Euler (1707–1783) published two important papers concerning
friction. He introduced a mathematical definition of the force required to move a weight up a slope inclined
to the horizontal plane and defined the coefficient of friction as a function of that slope. The most important
outcome of his studies was his differentiation between kinetic and static friction.
However, in 1699, Guillaume Amontons, independently of Leonardo da Vinci, discovered the rules
of friction after he studied dry sliding between two flat surfaces.
Another important finding in tribology studies, introduced in 1785 by Charles-Augustin Coulomb,
states that once motion starts, the friction force becomes independent of velocity (Amontons, 1699;
Coulomb, 1785). It is important to mention here that the above findings of friction are still considered as
reasonably true, even today.
In 1920, a resurgent interest in the adhesion hypothesis began and it became readily possible to
examine the friction properties of a surface with different degrees of contamination (Hardly and Hardly,
1919; Tomlinson, 1929). Further investigations pointed out that there was a crucial difference between the
apparent and the real area of contact, and that it was the real area alone which determined the magnitude
of the friction force (Holm, 1938; Bowden and Tabor, 1950). To date, there has been an increasing interest
in studying the friction process, especially the way the friction force is produced.
Developments in lubrication were coupled with the petroleum industry. The production of bitumen and
oils from petroleum started in Scotland, Canada and the United States in the 1850s. In fact, the scientific
understanding of the principles of hydrodynamic lubrication started with the experimental investigations
of Beauchamp Tower (Tower, 1884) and the perceptive theoretical interpretation by Reynolds (Osborne,
1886) and related work by Petroff (Petroff, 1883). Since that time, there has been a steady increase of
interest in hydrodynamic bearing theory and practice to meet the demand for reliable bearings in new
machinery.
Conversely, when we turn to investigate the history of wear and adhesion, we find it a much younger
subject than friction and bearing development, although wear phenomena must have been first recognized
many years earlier. This unexpected situation is attributed to the historically very late study of wear process
and the very recent explanation of its governing laws. The Industrial Revolution period (1750–1850) was
the golden age of rapid production machinery development. Consequently, the need for reliable machine
components emerged. Since the beginning of the 20th century, enormous industrial growth has lead to
6 Extreme Tribology: Fundamentals and Challenges

high demand for better tribology. Accordingly, knowledge in wear process has expanded tremendously.
The earliest substantial contributions to the scientific study of wear were performed in the mid-twentieth
century by Holm (Holm, 1946) and followed by Bowden and Tabor (Bowden and Tabor, 1950). Over the
past three decades, the understanding of wear mechanisms, especially in extraordinary operation conditions,
has developed rapidly with the use of advanced measuring devices and methods. There are now many
examples of advanced engineering products whose development and successful use are possible only
through the understanding and successful control of wear processes.

1.3 Development and Future Challenges

Since the publication of the Jost Report (Jost, 1966) in 1966, the understanding and ability to model many
tribology subjects has increased enormously. The report’s promise of saving 5 billion pounds per year in
the UK motivated tribologists to work on applying the existing knowledge of friction, wear and lubrication
to solve engineering problems. During the past 50 years, tribology proved to represent an important area
of technical engineering.
The development of tribology was not an easy task. Many undesired problems began with the definition
of the tribological process. There is also a great discrepancy between studying triosystems as a black box
system and the traditional way of studying friction, wear and lubrication independently.
Another important challenge is that there is no general model or mathematical tool to be used in
tribology. In fact, it is very difficult for tribologists to use the results obtained under one condition in other
condition. For example, in studying the tribology process on macro- and micro-scales, many studies failed
to relate the macro-mechanisms of friction and wear to what happens on the micro-scale.
It was realized that most of the techniques can be applied only to a specific branch of field for a
specific target. However, prediction of friction and wear is still possible in some rather restricted cases.
Over the last three decades, tribology has extended beyond the field of machinery. New areas of
tribology have emerged, namely, space tribology, biotribology, green tribology, micro/nano-tribology and
others. These multidisciplinary areas involve studying friction, wear and lubrication at different scales. It
also covers biological systems and ecological aspects.
Currently, the world trends of tribology development significantly change the subjects of tribological
studies. This was aimed at creating tribological materials capable of serving under the most adverse external
impact conditions (Sviridenok et al., 2015). Table 1.1 is a summary the world’s most popular tendencies
in tribology development and areas of application for the next two to three decades.
There has been a great deal of interest in improving lubricants to achieve low wear rates with thinner
films. Therefore, during the 1950s to 1970s, the improvment of film lubrication led to the development of
the elastro-hydrodynamic lubrication. This was followed by the development of the first biodegradable
lubricants which were produced from harvestable fatty materials. Presently, there is also active research
in lubricants and lubricant additives which are effective for non-ferrous metals, ceramics and engineering
surfaces.
The future challenges in the field of tribology are related to many critical features and performance
requirements for modern engineering. Therefore, tribological developments are often focused on improving
engineering systems, engineering products and manufacturing processes. Examples for such challenges
involve high-speed sliding or rolling, small dimensions, and hostile environments. These also include gas
turbine engines, artificial human joints, automotive engines and transmissions, tires and brakes, hard disk
drives for data storage and an increasing number of electromechanical devices for domestic and industrial
use. Tribological developments of space mechanisms to work in a vacuum and at extreme temperatures
also play a major role in the overall success of a space mission.
Finally, It is obvious that the engineers of the future need to be aware of and informed about tribology.
The management at all levels also need to appreciate the importance of the application of tribological
knowledge.
 Introduction to Tribology 7

Table 1.1: World’s tribology developments and tendencies in the 21st century. After Sviridenok et al. (2015), with permission
from Springer.

General lines Problems and goals

of tribology
research
− miniaturization of tribo-technical devices;
General requirements of tribology

− greening (reduction of noise and environmental pollution);

− significant decrease of energy consumption when translating motion and power;
− significant prolonging of the operating life at high rates of loading, speed, and temperature during
in 21st century

operation in abrasive environments;

− extending life of human joints and other organs functioning in friction and lubrication conditions;
− use of new physical, chemical, and biological principles and effects when solving the problems of
tribology;
− estimation of the role of friction in snow and stone avalanches;
− development of theory and methods of study of tribo-couplings in deep space, at high doses of
radiation exposure, hypersonic speeds, and high pressure at extreme temperatures above and
below zero.

− switching from micro- to nano-level of analysis of nature and frictional activity mechanisms;
tribobiology, tribomechanics)
(tribophysics, tribochemistry,

− development of discrete frictional contact mechanics with regard to the three level model (macro,
micro, nano);
Triboanalysis

− development of thermal calculations of frictional contact in order to measure the mutual influence
between basic force, speed, and structural characteristics of friction materials and surfaces;
− development of theory of frictional adhesion in discrete zones of micro- and nano-contacts;
− expanding the field of research of friction behavior features in moving biological objects in order
to apply biological control methods of friction properties created by nature and implemented in
human articulation joints;
− studying the mechanisms and modelling of resistance against the motion of fish and sea creatures.

− creation of multipurpose tribo-technical materials adapting to external impact;

Tribological Material

− development of new micro- and nano-filled lubrication agents of high temperature resistance and
load bearing capacity;
Science

− creation of lubricants of extraordinarily low resistance (friction factor) in ultrathin layers to ensure
functioning of new micro- and nano-mechanisms;
− creation of a new class of low degrading friction (braking) materials;
− creation of a new class of extra hard friction materials for cutting instruments, including
drilling tools.

− development of additive technologies of creation of multilayer and multipurpose hardening coatings

Tribotechnology

for tribosurfaces;
− development of theory and methods of frictional properties control during pressure treatment of
metals, recycling into polymer and composite items, during jet transportation of bulk products, etc.;
− development of application methods for thin ultra-lubricant coatings; improving durability of
cutting tools during processing of materials at a high speed.

− analysis and creation of friction units for micro- and nano-electromechanical systems, nano-
computers, nano-manipulators, etc.;
− development of the 3D prototyping method in terms of modeling complex friction units;
Tribotechnics

− development of new principles of consumption (use) of vehicle braking friction energy in order to
increase their effectiveness and operation life and to reduce noise and environmental pollution;
− creation of new tribo-devices of increased operation life having been exposed to ionizing radiation
and high temperatures, operating in the void and in sea water;
− development of CAD systems for the majority of unified tribojoints;
− development of new structures of tribo-joints with a provision for computer-based control of
friction parameters.

Table 1.1 contd. ...

8 Extreme Tribology: Fundamentals and Challenges

...Table 1.1 contd.

General lines Problems and goals

of tribology
research
− development of methods and instruments of multi parameter tribo-diagnostics and active use of
controlling signals in order to improve;
and Tribodiagnostics
Tribomonitoring

− frictional properties of critical tribo-joints;

− development of new methods and instruments to study the nature and mechanisms of friction
activities at the micro- and nano-levels;
− development of direct measuring methods of friction and wear of tribo-couplings in biological
objects;
− promotion of participation in the development of international research standardization for friction
and wear.

− creation of tribo-technical data banks and sharing computer based access to them with broad
Triboinformatics

researcher and student audiences;

− initiating the creation of an international association of tribology related journals in order to rapidly
communicate the latest information;
− issuing high-quality reading tutorials and textbooks dedicated to the basics of tribology;
− introduction of the main tribology-related editions issued in the Russian language in the list of
peer-reviewed international journals.

1.4 Knowledge of Tribology: Education, Publications and Researches

Since the publication of the Lubrication Report, there has been an increasing awareness of the knowledge
of tribology. The details of tribological knowledge relating to the basic sciences, to lubricants, and to wear
or machine elements, have been recognized in numerous aspects.
In 1987, the ASME/STLE Tribology Conference was concerned that some of engineering students
may not be learning enough about the fundamentals of tribology (Jahanmir and Kennedy, 1991). For
instance, in the USA, there were approximately 250 universities and colleges offering engineering degrees
and only 30% offered tribology courses. Furthermore, there is no single widely-accepted textbook for a
comprehensive tribology course. Since knowledge of tribology is required for the design of reliable and
efficient mechanical systems, it was recommended that tribology fundamentals should be included in the
education of future engineers, especially mechanical engineers. Now, tribology is universally recognized
as a generic technology underlying many industrial sections. Tribology courses are now included in the
curricula of most engineering colleges and universities, in all countries, with textbooks covering all aspects
of tribology. Subsequently, many research institutes and societies were established all over the world in
order to study the fields of friction, wear, lubrication and material science. A valuable contribution to the
development of tribology is made by research groups of such institutes. Table 1.2, introduces samples
of these facilities and their frameworks and Table 1.3 introduces samples of advocacy and professional
societies (Jahanmir and Kennedy, 1991).
Many international conferences and symposia in tribology are held to provide opportunities to
academic scientists, researchers and research scholars and those working in related fields to share, discuss
and assimilate their experiences on all aspects of tribology. Table 1.4 provides data of the most famous
tribology conferences.
Scientific publications in the field of tribology are numerous; several reports and books are aimed at
providing the academic community and industry with many subjects related to tribology. Besides, a number
of international journals are dedicated to publishing papers to provide an archival resource for scientists
from all backgrounds. The journals facilitate reporting experimental and theoretical studies and address
the fundamentals of friction, lubrication, wear and adhesion. Tables 1.5 and 1.6 introduce a number of
classical and modern publications, books and journals, in the field of tribology.
 Table 1.2: Tribology higher education and facilities (Sviridenok, 2015; Jahanmir, 1991) (listed in Alphabetical order).

Country University/Institute Facility Website

Curtin University Tribology Laboratory http://www.curtin.edu.au
Australia
University of New South Wales Tribology and Machine Condition Monitoring http://www.unsw.edu.au
Belgium Ghent University Soete Laboratory http://www.ugent.be

National Academy of Sciences of Belarus V.A. Belyi Metal Polymer Research Institute http://www.nasb.gov.by/rus
Belarus Belarusian National Technical University Mechanical Engineering Technology http://www.en.bntu.by
Russian Academy of Sciences Interdepartmental research council on tribology http://www.ras.ru/en/index.aspx
Brazil University of Sao Paulo Surface Phenomena Laboratory http://www.usp.br
Dalhousie University Advanced Tribology Lab http://dal.ca
Canada University of Waterloo Tribology Research Group http://www.uwaterloo.ca
University of Windsor Tribology of Materials Research Group http://www.uwindsor.ca
Chinese Academy of Sciences State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication http://www. cas.ac.cn
China Hefei University of Technology Institute of Tribology http://www.hfut.edu.cn
Tsinghua University State Key Laboratory of Tribology http://www.tsinghua.edu.cn
Ecole Centrale de Lyon Laboratory of Tribology and Dynamics of Systems http://www.ec-lyon.fr/en
Institut Supérieur de Mécanique de Paris Laboratoire d’Ingénierie des Systèmes Mécaniques et des Matériaux http://www.supmeca.fr
France
INSA Lyon/University of Lyon Contact and Structural Mechanics Laboratory http://www.insa-lyon.fr
University of Poitiers Laboratory of Solids Mechanics http://www.univ-poitiers.fr
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Microtribology Centre http://www.kit.edu
RWTH Aachen University Institute for Machine Elements and Machine Design http://www.rwth-aachen.de
Germany
Technical University of Berlin Fachgebiet Systemdynamik und Reibungsphysik http://www.tu-berlin.de
University of Technology Munich Forschungsstelle für Zahnräder und Getriebebau http://www.tum.de

Table 1.2 contd. ...

Introduction to Tribology 9
...Table 1.2 contd.

Country University/Institute Facility Website

Kanazawa University Tribology Laboratory http://www.kanazawa-u.ac.jp/
Japan Nagoya University Tribology Laboratory http://www.nagoya-u.ac.jp
Niigata University Tribology Laboratory http://www.niigata-u.ac.jp
KAIST Precision Machine Elements and Tribology Laboratory http://www.kaist.edu
S. Korea Korea University Functional Materials Research Laboratory http://www.korea.edu
Yonsei University Center for Nano-Wear http://www.yonsei.ac.kr/en_sc/
The University of Pretoria Tribology Laboratory http://www.up.ac.za
South Africa
South African Institute of Tribology http://www.sait.org.za
International Islamic University Malaysia Dr. Maleque http://www.iium.edu.my
Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology Tribology and Precision Machining i-Kohza http://www.mjiit.utm.my/
Universiti Malaya Tribology Researcher http://www.um.edu.my
10 Extreme Tribology: Fundamentals and Challenges

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Advanced Materials Processing & Integrity Group http://www.ukm.my
Malaysia
Universiti Teknologi MARA Tribology Researcher http://www.uitm.edu.my
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka Green Tribology & Engine Performance Research Group http://www.utem.edu.my
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Tribology Researcher http://www.utm.my
Universiti Sains Malaysia Nanofabrication & Functional Materials Research Group http://www.usm.my
Delft University of Technology Tribology Research Group http://www.tudelft.nl/en
Netherlands
University of Twente Laboratory for Surface Technology and Tribology http://www.utwente.nl/en
Portugal Aveiro University Machining & Tribology Research Group http://www.ua.pt
Luleå University of Technology Machine Elements Research Group http://www.ltu.se
Sweden
Uppsala University Tribomaterials Research Group http://www.uu.se
 Bournemouth University
Cardiff University
Imperial College London
University of Cambridge
United University of Central Lancashire
Kingdom University of Leeds
University of Loughborough
University of Sheffield
University of Southampton
University of Strathclyde
Auburn University
Georgia Institute of Technology
Lehigh University
Louisiana State University
Northwestern University
Purdue University
United States of
Texas A&M University
America
University of Akron
University of Dayton
University of Delaware
University of Illinois
University of Texas at Arlington
University of Utah
Sustainable Design Research Centre http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk
Tribology and Contact Mechanics Research Group http://www.cardiff.ac.uk
Tribology Group http://www.imperial.ac.uk
Tribology Research Group http://www.cam.ac.uk
Jost Institute for Tribotechnology http://www.uclan.ac.uk/
Institute of Functional Surfaces http://www.leeds.ac.uk
Dynamics Research Group http://www.lboro.ac.uk
The Leonardo Tribology Centre http://www.sheffield.ac.uk
National Centre for Advanced Tribology http://www.southampton.ac.uk
Tribology Group https://www.strath.ac.uk/
Multiscale Tribology Laboratory http://www.auburn.edu
Tribology Research Group http://www.gatech.edu
Surface Interfaces and Materials Tribology Laboratory http://www.lehigh.edu
Center for Rotating Machinery http://www.lsu.edu
Center for Surface Engineering and Tribology http://www.northwestern.edu
Materials Processing and Tribology Research Group http://www.purdue.edu
Rotor Dynamics Laboratory Tribology Group http://www.tamu.edu
Timken Engineered Surfaces Laboratories http://www.uakron.edu
Tribology Group http://www.udayton.edu
Materials Tribology Laboratory http://www.udel.edu
Tribology and Microtribodynamics Laboratory http://www.illinois.edu
Turbomachinery and Energy Systems Laboratory http://www.uta.edu
Nanotribology and Precision Engineering Laboratory http://www.utah.edu
Introduction to Tribology 11
 Table 1.3: Advocacy and professional societies.

Title Region served Website

American Bearing Manufacturers Association (ABMA) USA http://www.americanbearings.org
American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) Worldwide http://www.agma.org
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) - Tribology Group USA https://www.asme.org
Asociación Argentina de Tribología Argentina http://www.aatribologia.org.ar
Austrian Tribology Society Australia http://www.oetg.at/startseite
Egyptian Society of Tribology Egypt http://www.egtrib.org
Finnish Society for Tribology Worldwide http://www.tribologysociety.fi
French Association for Mechanics - Tribology Group France http://www.afm.asso.fr
Gesellschaft für Tribologie e.V. Germany https://www.gft-ev.de/en/the-gft
International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science (IFToMM) Worldwide http://www.iftomm.net
Institution of Engineering and Technology - Tribology Network (UK) UK-Worldwide http://www.heiet.org
Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) - Tribology Group (UK) Worldwide http://www.imeche.org
12 Extreme Tribology: Fundamentals and Challenges

Institute of Physics - Tribology Group (UK) UK http://www.iop.org

International Tribology Council (ITC) Worldwide http://www.itctribology.net
Italian Tribology Association (ATI) Italy http://www.aitrib.it
Japanese Society of Tribologists (JAST) Japan http://www.tribology.jp
Korean Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (KSTLE) S. Korea http://www.kstle.or.kr
Malaysian Tribology Society (MYTRIBOS) Malaysia http://www.mytribos.org
Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE) (USA) USA http://www.stle.org
Serbian Tribology Society (STS) Serbia http://www.sts.fink.rs
Society of Bulgarian Tribologists Bulgaria http://www.bultrib.com
South African Institute of Tribology South Africa http://www.sait.org.za
Tribology Institute of Chinese Mechanical Engineering Society China http://www.cntribo.org/en.asp
Tribology Society of India India http://www.tribologyindia.org
UK Tribology Network UK http://www.uktribology.net
 Table 1.4: Data of the most famous tribology conferences.

Title Location Organizer Website

Leeds-Lyon Symposium in Tribology UK-France University of Leeds-INSA de Lyon
World Tribology Congress WTC Worldwide Worldwide
International Conference on Wear of Materials WOM USA Elsevier http://www.wearofmaterialsconference.com
International Conference on Industrial Tribology India Tribology Society of Tribology http://www.tribologyindia.org
International Colloquium Tribology Germany Technische Akademie Esslingen https://www.tae.de
International Conference on Tribology Turkey   J. of the Balkan Trib. Ass. http://www.scibulcom.net
International Conference on Tribology Serbia Faculty of Eng. Univ. of Kragujevac & Serbian http://www.serbiatrib.mfkg.rs
Tribology Society
Young Tribological Researcher Symposium Germany Gesellschaft für Schmiertechnik GFT https://www.gft-ev.de
National Tribology Conference India Tribology Society of India (TSI) http://www.tribologyindia.org
STLE/ASME International Joint Tribology Conference USA American Society of Mechanical Engineers http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org
STLE Annual meeting USA Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers http://www.stle.org
International Conference on Tribology ROTRIB Romania Romanian Tribology Association
International Conference on Biotribology Worldwide Elsevier https://www.elsevier.com
Tribology Conference of Győr Hungary Széchenyi István Egyetem http://www.gytt.hu
Malaysian International Tribology Conference Malaysia Malaysian Tribology Society (MYTRIBOS) https://www.mytribos.org
European Space Mechanisms and Tribology Symposium EU Airbus Defence and Space http://www.esmats.eu
International Tribology Conference Japan Japansese Society of Tribologists http://www.tribology.jp
TriboUK UK Students from a different UK university each year http://www.uktribology.net
International conference on polymer tribology, PolyTrib Slovenia Slovenian Society for Tribology https://www.tint-polytrib.com
Int. Conference on Tribology in Manufacturing Worldwide Technical University of Denmark http://www.conferencemanager.dk
Processes & Joining by Plastic Deformation (ICTMP)

Table 1.4 contd. ...

Introduction to Tribology 13
...Table 1.4 contd.

Title Location Organizer Website

Tribocorrosion Symposium UK University of Strathclyde, UK https://www.strath.ac.uk
Annual Cambridge Tribology Course UK University of Cambridge, Dept. of Engineering https://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk
International Conference on Advanced Tribology Singapore Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, National University http://www.nus.edu.sg
of Singapore
China International Symposium on Tribology China Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), http://english.licp.cas.cn
Lanzhou Inst. of Chemical Physics (LICP)
International Conference on Tribochemistry Poland University of Lodz, Dept. of Chemical Tech. http://chemia.p.lodz.pl
and Environmental Protection
International Conference on Advances in Tribology and UK Int. Aerospace and Mech. Eng. Committee http://www. waset.org
Engineering Systems
14 Extreme Tribology: Fundamentals and Challenges
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