BONGA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE

COFFEE PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING

Compiled:

By: Ambachew Z. (MSc.)

Part 1: coffee production and processing
Chapter 1: Introduction

Coffee belongs to a family of Rubiaceae, genus of Coffea. Scientifically coffee are grouped
as the Angiosperm. Angiosperms are plants that reproduced by seed enclosed in box like
structure, the ovary at the base of flower.

The genus of coffea was first described in the 18th century by the Swedish botanist, Carolus
Linneaus. He also described Coffea Arabica in his Species Plantarum in 1753. Under genus
of caffea, have over 500 genera and 6,000 species of tropical trees and shrubs. Commercial
important in coffee industry species are only three specious (C. Arabica and C. canophora
and lower degree, Coffea liberica).

A coffee plant is growing to more than 30 feet (9 meters) high under natural habitat. Each
tree is covered with green, waxy leaves growing opposite each other in pairs. Coffee cherries
grow along the branches. Coffee is an everyday beverage and consumed strongly throughout
the world

1.1. The Birth and History of Coffee

Widely accepted legend history for birth of coffee is that of an Abyssinian Goat Herd Kaldi,
first discovered the potential of these beloved beans. The story goes that Kaldi noticed that
after eating the berries of coffee, his goats became so energetic that they did not want to sleep
at night. Kaldi reported his findings to the abbot of the local monastery, who made a drink
with the berries and found that it kept him alert through the long hours of evening prayer. The
abbot shared his discovery with the other monks at the monastery, and knowledge of the
energizing berries began to spread. As word moved and coffee reached the Arabian
Peninsula, it began a journey which would bring these beans across the globe.

1.2. Origin and History of Coffee

Species of Coffea subgenus are originated in humid and evergreen forests of Africa (kaffa,
wolega, up to sudan).The largest number of endemic species in Africa is present between 200
and 1000 m above sea level, including three economical important species.

C. arabica originated in the highlands of tropical forests located in south-western Ethiopia,

especially in the kaffa area, considering the possibility states Boma plateau in Sudan and
Mount Marsabit of Kenya. Its origin has been subject to both molecular and archaeological
studies, confirming that the Ethiopian is the origin of C. Arabica.

Ethiopia is the motherland of Coffee Arabica. The word coffee drives from Kaffa, (‘kafee’
means from kaffa) name of a place in the South Western Ethiopian highlands where first
discovered. Africa (Ethiopia) is first Coffee Arabica exporter and is currently the fifth largest
coffee producer in the world.

Based on historical and scientific data, C. arabica divided in to two; C. arabica var. arabica
(or var. Typica Cramer): it originated from a single plant that was taken from Yemen to
India. C. arabica var. Bourbon (B. Rodr.): originated with the re-introduction of coffee
trees to Bourbon from yemen. But var. Bourbon are more compact and upright growth habit,
higher yield and better cup quality

C. liberica: originates in lowland habitats of West Africa, often coastal. Liberica coffee was
originally found near Monrovia in Liberia (There exist also two additional minor coffee
species). The original identification of this species was made in Liberia; hence it was named
Coffea liberica. Liberica coffee was originally found near Monrovia in Liberia. It was spread by
cultivation in West Africa from early times. Specimens of this species have been collected as early as
1792 in Sierra Leone. It was first grown at Kew Botanic Gardens (England) in 1872.

C. canephora (robusta): originated in central and western sub-Saharan Africa. Native to the
tropical forests around Lake Victoria in Uganda. It occurs wild in the equatorial forest from West
Africa to Lake Victoria, mainly between 10° north and south of the equator from sea level to 1500 m

Dispersion of coffee species

The history of coffee cultivation C. arabica cultivation was started after wild coffee was
introduced from Ethiopia to Yemen as early as 575 AD. After its introduction to Yemen, the
coffee arabica was distributed worldwide and became the most popular beverage crop.
Historical data indicate that the Typica variety originated from a single plant that was taken
from Yemen to India

The spreading of coffee drinking to many countries created a lucrative trade for the Arabians,
which they guarded jealously for many years. The raw beans were not allowed out of the
country of cultivation without first being steeped in boiling water or heated to destroy their
germinating power. Moreover, strangers were not allowed to visit the plantations. This firm control
of the crop ensured them to be the only providers of coffee. However, the channels through which
coffee was traded from Arabia and the Middle East to Europe were not easy in those early days and
the product was costly to import. In the course of time, its monetary value increased tremendously.
Because of its increasing importance both as a beverage and a prodigious source of income. Several
expeditions were sent by the Dutch, the French and the British to obtain seed or planting material
from Arabia. The first person who was successful in his attempt to steal coffee from Arabia, Mecca,
was an Indian pilgrim called Baba Budan. He smuggled out the first seeds capable of germination
from the highly protected plantations. He is said to have smuggled out seven coffee seeds, strapped to
his belly, from Mecca and planted them at Chikmagalur in the mountains of Mysore (India) at about
1600 A. D.
Robust coffee occurs wild in the equatorial forest from West Africa to Lake Victoria, mainly between
10° north and south of the equator from sea level to 1500 m. Specimens of this species have been
collected as early as 1792 in Sierra Leone. It was first grown at Kew Botanic Gardens
(England) in 1872. But, it was not named until 1874. From its origins, C. canephora is widely
dispersed in tropical Africa at altitudes below 1000 m. because it can, grow at lower altitudes
and fit well in the equatorial, warm and wet tropics. They occur naturally in the western
Congo basin. Robusta coffee is resistant to coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix) and,
therefore, with the expansion of coffee production in the world it replaced Arabica in the
areas where coffee leave rust was devastating the production. As for Arabica, some early
Brazilian coffee was labeled after its major port of export, Santos. Currently, it represents
36% of world production and is grown in tropical countries in Indonesia and Vietnam,
through Sub-Saharan Africa to Brazil.

Robusta coffee was introduced into Uganda early in the twentieth century, in the belief that it
was a different species. It was introduced into Ivory Coast in 1927 or 1929. Today, Ivory
Coast is the second largest producer of robusta coffee. Planting material of robusta coffee
was first introduced into Cameroon from Java and Zaire although it has been introduced from
many countries later.

Liberica coffee was widely distributed throughout the tropics from Kew and other gardens.
Planting material reached Sri Lanka and Java in 1873, and Trinidad and Malaya in 1875. In
Java, originally it was used to replace Arabica coffee which was being destroyed by Coffee
Leaf Rust. However, it soon became susceptible and was replaced first by a hybrid of Arabica
coffee and Liberica coffee which was first discovered in 1885, and later by robusta coffee
which was introduced in 1900.

Liberica coffee did not become important and it contributes less than 1 percent to the coffee
market in the world. It was introduced to Southeast Asia in 1900 after leaf rust (Hemileia
vastatrix Berk. and Br.) destroyed all of the arabica coffee crops in 1869 and most of the low-
lying plantations of Java in 1876.

It spread from Central Africa throughout the world and is more recent taken to Indonesia in
the 20th century as a solution to the coffee leaf rust, which thrives in warmer regions and the
need for breeding programs. There are many varieties of C. canephora in Africa. However,
only two have been commercially disseminated throughout the world: C. canephora from
Guinea, and C. canephora from Congo.

1.3. Use and Utilization of coffee

1.3.1. Economical uses
 It earns foreign currency for country:
Coffee is by far Ethiopia’s most important export crop in the national economy, contributing
decisively to the country foreign currency income. It accounts for 35% of the total
agricultural export earnings and 10-20% of the total government revenue
 It create Job opportunity to peoples:
Worldwide, an estimated 125 million people are dependent on coffee for their livelihoods. The
livelihood of 25% of the total population directly or indirectly depends on its production,
processing and marketing.
1.3.2. Health uses
Not only have your daily cup of Joe help you feel more energized,

 Drinking coffee burn fat and improve physical performance,

 It may also lower your risk of several conditions, such as type 2 diabetes, cancer and
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease.
1.3.3. Social uses
In Ethiopia, coffee is traditionally prepared and drunk two to three times a day. It has various
special cultural ceremonies related to coffee
 It helps to serving a respected guest
 is means of gathering neighbours to discuss economic, social and other matters
 Religiously, it is a means of "Communicating" with God
 The two beans are considered as love for pledging parties especially in some African
countries
These cultures represent a strong heritage for the country’s sustainable coffee production,
currently consumed in a variety of ways:
 "Buna Kella" - ripe-red fruits boiled with fresh butter;
 "Buna Besso" - fruits or beans roasted or boiled with butter forming part of other food
items which are roasted and ground to be used by travellers, warriors, etc.;
 "Buna Keshir" or "Hoja" - roasted pulps or mixture of pulps and beans drunk alone or
with milk, butter, honey or salt;
 "Kuti" - dried and pounded coffee leaves boiled with milk;
 "Buna Areki" - liquor made from roasted coffee beans; and
 "Cheme" - fresh leaves with pepper and other spices boiled with water and served with or
without food
1.3.4. Environmental uses
 It contribute to high biodiversity levels in the growing area
 Its canopies provides a valuable habitat for indigenous animals
 preventing topsoil erosion and
 removing the need for chemical fertilizers
1.3.5. Biological
 Coffee contains the stimulating substance called caffeine (C8 H10 N4 O2)
 It also contains other aromatic substance such as furfurol, Aldehydes, Phenole s,
Hydrogen and Mercaptans.
 The only medically and socially stimulant in coffee is the alkaloid caffeine.
 It is contained in the different parts of the plant but it is rich in the seed.
 The caffeine content of coffee plant parts (Arabica coffee)
Plant part Caffeine (%) on dry matter basis
o Pulp 0.37 - 0.60%
o Parchment skin 0.14%
o Cherry husk 0.12 - 0.52%
o Apical leaf 0.32%
o Middle leaf 0.35%
o Twigs 0.35%
o Wood 0.12%
The chemical composition of the coffee bean
Bean composition Percentage
o Water 12%
o Protein 13%
o Fat 12%
o Sugar 9%
o Caffeine 1 - 15%
o Cafietonic acid 9%
o Other water soluble substances 5%
o Cellulose and allied substances 35%
o Ash 4%
Reference: www.wickipedia .org, Banks (1999), Calvert (1994)

1.4. World Coffee Production

Coffee crop, in current times, spread in over 10 million hectares grown in more than 80
tropical and sub-tropical nations. Coffee is the world’s second most traded commodity. In
 fact, only oil is more traded than coffee. The world coffee demand and supply have
traditionally followed a cyclical pattern driven by prices on the world market. The world
coffee production in 2020/2021 is estimated at approximately 9 million bags (60 kilograms)
superior to the past year record of 176.1 million

Table 1: Total World Coffee Production, Export, and Consumption from 2010 to 2015
Cropping year quantity (1000 60kg bag)
Production Export Consumption
2010 134,246 97,067 76,552
2011 140617 104437 76,447
2012 144960 110,914 76,949
2013 146,506 110,501 79,467
2014 142278 114,766 80,627
2015 143,306 112,722 81,188
Source: Sarada, 2017
Table 2: World’s Top six Coffee Producers Production, Export and Proportions of World
Production and Export During 2015

Country Production (1000 % of world Export (1000 % of world

60kg bags ) production 60kg bags ) export
Brazil 43235 30.17 28,478 30.53
Vietnam 27500 19.19 19,125 20.5
Colombia 13500 9.42 10,031 10.75
Indonesia 12,317 8.6 4,874 5.2
Ethiopia 6,700 4.68 2,514 2.7
India 5,833 4.07 5,006 5.37
Source: Sarada, 2017

1.5. Coffee Production in Ethiopia

Coffee is grown by over 4 million small holder farmers. Farmers engaged in growing and
producing stimulant crops such as coffee are greater in number than those growing fruits
(CSA, 2018). It employs 15 million people, or roughly 15% of the country’s population at
different points along the value chain. Nearly 95% is cultivated on small plots, generally less
than half a hectare. Ethiopia is the world’s sixth largest coffee producer, accounting for 4% of
production. It is also the largest producer in Africa, accounting for about 40% of continental
production (Degaga, 2020)

The Uniqueness characters of Ethiopian Coffee

 It is known as highland coffee by consumers
 It is specialty and organic coffees
  It rich an acidity and body
 It possesses an aromatic and sweet flavor
 it characterized by winey, spicy notes and the world famous
 it can also be blended with coffees from other origins to upgrade them

1.5.1. Coffee producing regions in Ethiopia

The main coffee producing areas in Ethiopia are west and south west, southern, eastern, and
central regions. The potential for coffee production in Ethiopia is high, due to suitable
altitude, ample rainfall, optimum temperatures, and appropriate planting materials and fertile
soil. Arabica coffee can be grown in various parts of the country.

 Coffee is grown by over 4 million small holder farmers.

 Farmers engaged in growing and producing stimulant crops such as coffee are greater in
number than those growing fruits
 It employs 15 million people, or roughly 15% of the country’s population at different
points along the value chain
 Ethiopia is the world’s sixth largest coffee producer, accounting for 4% of production.
 It is also the largest producer in Africa, accounting for about 40% of continental
production

According to report indicates the following particular area elaborated with its own unique
characters and presented as follows;
1. Harar coffee: Sun-dried processed only and produced in the Eastern Highlands (Harar
coffee has a trademark).
2. Yirgacheffe coffee: Washed only and this is the most famous washed Ethiopian coffee,
especially in the United States (as a trademark).
3. Limmu coffee: Washed only and it is renowned for its excellent cup, sweet, spicy/winey
flavor and balanced body and is therefore sought by many roasters, especially in Europe
and United States.
4. Sidamo coffee: Washed and sun-dried processed producer in the Southern part of the
country (as a trademark).
5. Gimbi/Lekempti coffee: Washed and sun-dried processed has a significant part of many
roasters’ blends.
6. Bebeka/Tepi coffee: Washed only and these coffees with less acidity, body and soft
flavor.
7. Jimma coffee: Sun-dried processed only and the best known Ethiopian coffee. Industry,
and represents the bulk of Ethiopian coffee exports.
1.5.2. Coffee production systems in Ethiopia
 Settled agriculture began in Ethiopia some 2000 years ago.
 The time of immemorial, Arabica coffee has been growing in the wild forests of the
South-western highlands of Kaffa and Buno districts of Ethiopia and other parts of the
country.
 Ethiopian coffee is rightly known as highland coffee by consumers.
 Generally four production systems are distinguished in Ethiopia; forest coffee, semi-
forest coffee, garden coffee and plantation coffee.
A. Forest coffee:
This system is found in South and South-Western Ethiopia (Bale, West-wolega, Bench- Maji,
Keffa, Sheka, Metu and Jimma). These areas are the centres of origin of Arabica coffee
(Coffea arabica L.). Forest coffee is self-sown and grown under the canopy of natural forest
trees. Forest coffee has a wide genetic diversity and accounts for about 10% of the total
coffee production in the country.

B. Semi-Forest coffee:
This system is also found in the South and South-West parts of the Country. Farmers acquires
forest land for coffee farms, and then thin and select the forest trees to ensure both adequate
sunlight and proper shade for the coffee trees. Farmers slash the weeds once a year to
facilitate harvesting. This system accounts for about 35% of the total coffee production of the
country.

C. Garden coffee:
Garden coffee is grown in the vicinity of farmer`s residences, mainly in the Southern, Eastern
parts of the country (Kaffa, Sidamo, Gedeo, South and North Omo Hararghe, Wolega and
Gurage Zones, East and West). The coffee is planted at low densities (1000 -1800 trees/ha),
mostly fertilized with organic material and inter- cropped. It accounts about 35% of the total
production in the country.

D. Plantation coffee :
Is grown on plantations owned by the state and on some well managed smallholders coffee
farms. In this system, recommended agronomic practices like improved seedlings, spacing,
proper mulching, maturing, weeding, shade regulation and pruning are practiced. Only state
owned plantations (5%) are use chemical fertilizers and herbicides. In the remaining 15% of
the plantation coffee owned by smallholder farmers such chemicals are not applied

1.5.3. Problems of coffee production in Ethiopia

Coffee production in Ethiopia is constrained by:
 Lack of competitiveness,
 lack of infrastructure,
 in adequate access to services,
 low value addition,
 In adequate technology transfer and research.
 khat, plant, is competing for farm land with coffee.
 Is the variability of weather pattern such as rainfall variability on the onset of the wet
season, extension of dry season and more extreme (drier and hotter).
 Deforestation and change in land use are threatening coffee forest gene pools in Ethiopia.
 Coffee price crisis on the world market as a result of market liberalization.
 land degradation, diseases, predominant traditional production,
 failure of using appropriate coffee technologies,
 inadequate services (credit, inputs, equipment’s), and
 lack of sustainability and competitiveness
 Biennial bearing characterises of coffee: the cause for biennial bearing of are
 Nutrient deficiency
 Over bearing in previous year
 Disease and pest problems
To mechanism to overcome biennial bearing of coffee plants
 Shade managements of coffee plants
 Appling organic and inorganic nutrients
 Flowering thinning to avoid over bearing
1.5.4. Opportunity of coffee production in Ethiopia
 Genetic diversity and favourable Environments,
 Agro-forestry based production system,
 Known brands in the world market, trademarked and licensed benefit to all,
 Modern Marketing System (ECX),
 Encouraging policy
 Suitable altitude, optimum temperature, low labour costs and fertile soil.
 high national and international demand for the product,
 increasing interest of private sector with high investment potential,
 High support by both regional and federal governments
Chapter Two
BOTANY AND CLASSIFICATION OF COFFEE
This section covers the anatomy of the coffee plant, including the root system and aerial parts
of the plant, and provides an overview of the flowering process and coffee fruit development.
 2.1 Taxonomy of Coffee
 Coffee Arabic (Coffea arabica L). belongs to family Rubiaceae, grown in tropical and
subtropical regions
 It is a perennial woody shrub with a dimorphic growth characteristic which consists of
vertical (orthotropic) and horizontal (plagiotropic) branches.
 This species is predominantly self-pollinating (autogamous) and the only natural
allotetraploid (2n=4x=44) in the genus Coffea.
 About 100 species of the genus Coffea have been identified so far but commercial
production relies only on two species, Coffea Arabica L and Coffea canephora and in
small degree Coffee libireca.
 It is a perennial woody shrub with a dimorphic growth characteristic which consists of
vertical (orthotropic) and horizontal (plagiotropic) branches.
 This is a large family of some 400 genera and 5000 species
Largely trees and shrubs
Mostly tropically crops
 There are three commercially important coffee species in the world.
o Coffea arabica (Arabica Coffee)
o Coffea Canephora (Robusta Coffee)
o Coffea liberica (Liberica Coffee)
It can grow up to a height of 10 to 15 m at maturity, but is kept at 3 m in plantations for
harvesting purposes. The shrubs remain productive for 15 to 20 years.

Table 4: Comparisons of the three economically important coffee varieties

Basis of comparison C. Arabica C. canephora (Robusta) C. Liberica
Origin Ethiopia Congo Liberia
Chromosome number Allotetraploid(2n=44) Diploid(2n=22) Diploid(2n=22)
Yield/ha 327.5 Kg 810Kg 466Kg
Cheery size Medium Small Large
Caffeine content of beans (%) 1 – 1.5mg/mL 2 – 2.5mg/mL 1.4 – 1.6mg/mL
Pollination habit Self-fertile Self-sterile Self-sterile
Bearing age 2-3 years 3-4 years 4-5 years
Cup quality Good Fair Bad (Bitter)
Leaf size Small Large Medium
Tree height (cultivated) 1.5 – 1.82m 2 – 2.5m 2 – 2.5m
Relative care Most Medium Least
Heat tolerance Poorest Intermediate Best
Altitude 1000 –2000m 600 –1600m 0 – 540m
Drought hardness Fair Good Best
Coffee leaf rust Susceptible Tolerant Resistant
Commercial growing coffee Arabica are divided in to two

a) Coffee Arabica Variety Typica

 It is considered to be the primitive form and It has the dominant typical alleles TT
 It is vigorous and grows quickly into a sturdy tree if not topped
 Young leaves are reddish brown and bronze tipped and is relatively narrow
 Growth is fast and vigorous with slender and horizontal branching system
 Still provides the bulk of the world’s coffee.
b) Coffee Arabica Variety Bourbon
 It is a double recessive mutant from Coffee Arabica L. Variety Arabica
 young leaves are always green tipped and relatively broader than Arabica
 Primarily fruiting branches are born stiffly at an acute angle but may be pulled down by
the weight of the fruits.
 Trees are slender if not topped gives higher yield under favorable conditions than Arabica
2.2 Morphology Coffee Tree

A. Root System

Coffee plants are perennial, and the establishment of an adequate root system is fundamental
to the health of the tree and its subsequent production throughout its lifetime. The basic
function of coffee root is: 1. fixing the plant in the soil or substrate, 2. providing water to the
plant (water acts as a solvent that serves to transport gases, minerals and other solutes from
cell to cell and organ to organ; is a reactant in important processes such as photosynthesis;
and maintains turgor, which is essential for cell enlargement and growth). 3. It also serves as
a reserve for carbohydrates, and produces and accumulates key phytohormones such as
auxins, abscisic acid and cytokines.

Coffee plats contain tap roots, axial roots, lateral roots, feeder roots and root hairs.
1. The tap root
 It is central, short and dominate figure and often branched due to transplanting
 Can grow as deep as 1m and rarely recognizable beyond 45cm
 Functions - Stability and anchorage and ensure supply of water
2. Axial root
 Arise from tap root and grow Verticals to a depth of 3m
 Usually 4 to 8 in number and fairy thick and branched
  Functions - Water absorption in dry periods and achorage for stability.
3. Lateral roots
 A like axial roots arise from the tap root which grow horizontally as far as 1.2 to 1.8m
 They are the feeding roots in the superficial and richest soil layer
 Function: for mineral absorption
 Laterals near the surface are affected by deep cultivation
 In most and cool soil the surface laterals are better developed.
4. Feeder bearers
 are born on the tap, axial and lateral roots and evenly distributed at an interval of 25mm
 They are shorter and numerous near the surface of the soil.
 They give rise to the feeder roots
5. Feeder roots
 Are first roots developed on feeder bearers and are highly branched and numerous
 Function: water absorbing roots for coffee
 Their numbers slightly increase near the surface of the soil.
Factors affect the pattern of the root system and the size of the roots: the aerial and root
systems of the plant are directly related
 species and cultivar of coffee
 physiological factors such as fruit load, vigour of the aerial part of the plant;
 plant reserves;
 pest and disease attacks;
 plant spacing and prunings;
 the chemical, physical and biological conditions of the soil;
 the soil water content of the soil

B. Stem
Coffee plants exhibit a dimorphic branching behaviour, in which orthotropic (vertical) stems
produce plagiotropic (horizontal) branches, which in turn produce more plagiotropic branches
and coffee fruit. The principal plant stem, or trunk, is orthotropic. There can be one or several
main orthotropic stems per plant, depending on the desired plant stand. Orthotropic stems
always grow vertically, or perpendicular to the soil. The apical meristem gives rise to two
types of vegetative buds: serial buds and head of series buds.
 A serial bud on orthotropic stems forms other orthotropic stems, called suckers.
 Head of serial buds on orthotropic stems produce primary plagiotropic shoots, or
branches. Each head of series bud is capable of producing only a single branch.
Therefore, should the branches die (from frost, hail, over-shading, drought or other factors), it
is necessary to stump the tree back, inciting the growth of new orthotropic stems, which will
have new head of series buds capable of forming more primary Plagiotropic branches.

Plagiotropic branches are the lateral branches, which originating from the orthotropic stems,
and secondary and tertiary originating from other plagiotropic branches. Plagiotropic
branches have serial buds and head of series buds.
 Serial buds in plagiotropic stem: contained in the leaf axils, may form either fruit or
more Plagiotropic branches.
 Head of serial buds Plagiotropic stem only form other plagiotropic branches. Since
plagiotropic branches cannot generate orthotropic stems, cuttings that will be used for
plantings must originate from orthotropic stems in order to generate a normal, vertically
growing tree.

C. The Leaves

The foliar surface of adult coffee trees varies according to species, state of health, irradiance
levels and many other factors. In the principal commercial varieties, C. arabica and C.
canephora, leaves are generally thin, shiny and waxed, elliptical in form and conspicuously
veined. It grows in pairs that are opposite to each other on the branch. The difference between
two species leaves, were Coffee Arabica leaves is smaller, glossy dark upper surface and
coffee canephora have large and slightly undulating, less waxy and lighter in colour leaves.

D. Flowering

Coffee plant flowering consists of two processes: Flower bud initiation and flower
opening, or anthes. Flower bud initiation occurs when the serial buds of plagiotropic
branches are induced to differentiate into flower buds. Buds grow to 4–6 mm and then enter a
dormancy period, which in most growing regions coincides with a dry season.

The dry period is necessary to break the dormancy of the floral buds. An extended dry season
affects phytohormone levels in the plant.
During the first 3–4 days after a water stimulus, meiosis occurs and there is an increase in the
levels of endogenous, active, gibberellic acid in the flower buds. The flowers are ephemeral,
generally lasting for two days. The floral formula of coffee is Calyx K(5) Corolla C(5) A5
G(2)
 E. The Fruit

Have a drupe, fleshy, indehiscent fruit with a pericarp that is clearly differentiated into an
exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp. These layers surround the coffee seed, which comprises an
embryo, endosperm and perisperm.
 Stages of Fruit Growth
In general, the maturation times for several species are around 80–90 days for C. racemosa,
220 days for C. arabica, 300 days for C. canephora and 360 days for C. dewevrei and C.
liberica. The fruit developments in coffee can be divided into five stages.

First stage (pinhead’ stage): occurs for the first six to ten weeks after flowering in C. arabica.
This stage is one of limited fruit growth and ‘pinhead’ stage. The growth that occurs in this
stage is mainly through cell division, not cell expansion.
Second stage: generally lasting from 6 to 16 weeks after flowering. The rapid swelling stage,
characterized by a rapid increase in volume and dry weight, mostly due to pericarp growth,
rapid cell expansion.
Third stage: is one of suspended and slow growth and lasts for only two weeks. The final fruit
size is obtained, the amount of dry matter is still low.
Fourth stage: the endosperm fills in the locules, consuming all but a small amount of the
perisperm that had previously occupied this space. This stage generally occurs between 17
and 28 weeks after flowering.
Final stage (ripe stage). Changes in the pericarp, in particular an increase in the dry weight,
the breakdown of the mesocarp, softening of the fruit and the change in colour of the exocarp.
Fruit Anatomy
The mature coffee fruit consists of a pericarp, comprising the outer layers of the coffee fruit
(exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp) and the seed, comprising the embryo, endosperm and
silverskin

 Exocarp: is skin or peel, is the outermost tissue of the coffee fruit.

 Mesocarp: is the mucilage or ‘pulp’, is the fleshy part of the fruit between the parchment
and the skin. Is divided into an inner mesocarp, called mucilage, and an outer mesocarp,
which is pulp per
 Endocarp: is called the parchment, is composed of sclerenchyma cells and completely
envelops the seed.
 Seed: is elliptical and plane-convex in shape, with a longitudinal furrow on the plane
surface.
Normally coffee fruits have two seeds per fruit. But unfortunately it develops. It includes
 Pea berry is a single seed develop due to failure of fertilization of one of the ovules or
subsequent abortion
 Triage is occurrence of 3 -seeds in a fruit – due to genetics abrasion and such seeds are
triangular
 Big seeds called Elephant seeds it happens when one of the seeds develops at the expense
of the others seed
2.3 Coffee Genetics

In nature, an organism (be it plant, animal, or fungi) and its reaction to its external
environment is only possible due to its particular genetics. Genes coding for specific
characteristics are located on specific locations (loci) on our chromosomes, and are made up
of inherited alleles (bits of DNA on a loci that eventually may code for a trait). Each
organism inherits alleles that make up a particular code from whatever method its species
uses to reproduce, making each individual organism’s unique genotype. This code dictates
the formation of amino acids, the building blocks of life, and exists within each cell in that
organism.
The importance of genetic diversity
 to preserving a species
 to adapt the species under challenges in the environment
 to increase resistance to pest and diseases
For Arabica, the improvement of genotype is achieved by proper choice of variety (cultivar).
The variety of choice should ideally have the following characteristics:
 Dwarfish or compact growth;
 High yield;
 Leaf rust resistance;
 Outstanding cup quality.
Varieties to plant Coffee is a long-term crop with a lifespan of more than 10 years, and very
much longer under good management, thus the choice of variety (cultivar) is very important.
As quality of the coffee bean is important, choose only varieties that are recommended for
your area. These will be the best yielding, best quality varieties that will grow productively in
the local soils and climate.
 The variability in natural populations of C. Arabica has been apparent to most botanists
and geneticists, who visited and explored the south-western highlands of Ethiopia.
 Morphological variability exists within locations and between regions.
 For instance, the ratio of trees with different leaf tip color (green or bronze) varies
between locations.
 C. Arabica is characterized by low genetic diversity attributed to its narrow genetic base,
allopolyploidy, evolution and the predominantly self-pollinating nature of the species
 However, a higher level of genetic variability with molecular markers was observed
among spontaneous and sub spontaneous accessions of this species collected from
Ethiopia
 The existence of two subgroups of partial genetic differentiation within Germplasm of C.
Arabica into accessions collected from east (Kaffa, Ilubabor, and Welega) and west
(Sidamo, Harrarge) of Great Rift Valley was established by an analysis with molecular
markers and also by a multivariate analysis of phenotypic characters
Chapter three
ECOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION OF COFFEE
3.1.Environmental and Edaphic Factors Affecting Coffee Production
The natural habitats of all Coffea species are the understorey of African tropical forests.
Many forms of C. canephora can be found in the equatorial lowland forests from Guinea to
Uganda, whereas natural populations of C. arabica are restricted to the highland forests of
south-western Ethiopia

3.1.1. Climatic requirements

Climate is the atmospheric condition of the area for long period of time. Annual rainfall in
the coffee-growing varies from 1,500-2,500mm.
 climate conditions that affect the production of coffee are:
1. Temperature
The optimum mean annual temperature range for arabica coffee is 18-21 ºC. Extreme fluctuations
during day and night have adverse effects on coffee. Optimum day T0 =15 - 240c = for growth
& reproductive (24- 300c , Canephora)
Low temperature
• affects coffee growth
• discoloration of leaves due to damage on the chlorophyll
• death of outer tissue of stem
To high temperature
High temperature causes
  abortion of flowers,
 fruit development and ripening process are accelerated,
 loss of quality
 Excess vegetative growth like large leaves, Wide internodes
 Too early bearing and over bearing
 Early exhaustion and die back and affects the colour of the leaf
2. Rain fall

Rainfall requirements depend on the retention properties of the soil, atmospheric humidity,
cloud cover, and cultivation practices. The optimum annual rainfall range is 1200-1800 mm.
For coffea species a short dry spell, lasting two to four months, corresponding to the quiescent
growth phase, is important to stimulate flowering. Sporadic shower induces anthesis -low yield
During Flowering period heavy rain fall affect pollination. Moisture stress during early fruit
expansion cause heavy fruit shading and during bean development reduce size of the beans.
Low Rainfall areas need conservation techniques such as terraces, and ridges, mulch and
irrigation. Abundant rainfall is often responsible for scattered harvest and low yields.
3. Light: Light has 3 perspectives for coffee production
 Intensity: Coffee requires 50% light intensity. To satisfy these light requirements
plating shade trees and close planting is important special in developing country.
 Quality (Wave length): The red and Blue to violet colour components are effective
 Day length (photoperiod) coffee is a short day plant
4. Humidity: medium to high Relative Humidity
Air humidity has a significant impact on the vegetative growth of the coffee tree. Robusta
successfully grows under high air humidity approaching saturation, or in less humid sites,
provided that the dry season is short. By contrast, arabica coffee requires a less humid
atmosphere, comparable to that of the Ethiopian highlands

Tropical rainforest (80-90%RH) best for Robusta than Arabica coffee (cool and dry season is
best). 50 - 70% RH is best = this controlled by proper pruning and shade regulation
5. Wind:
In coffee plantations subjected to large wind shears and advection, crop yield is usually
depressed. Wind stress may lead to a reduction of leaf area and internode length of the
orthotropic and plagiotropic branches. In addition to severely damaging leaves and buds and
exacerbating shedding of developing flowers and fruits. Hot winds increase crop
evapotranspiration and therefore the rainfall (or irrigation) requirements of the trees increase.
Where strong wind is frequent, windbreaks or shelter trees are to be recommended as both
may improve crop performance
There is disadvantage of winds in coffee industry
 Cause both mechanical and physiological damage
 Wind dries the leaves out too quickly (increase Water requirement)
 Tree damage and shade tree damage
 Dispersal of weeds & pests
6. Slope: is the inclination of a land. Optimum slope is 0 -15% for coffee production, it
facilitate drainage of water
7. Aspect : is the orientation of land
• The desirable aspect for coffee depends on the altitudes
• For cool, high and medium elevations
• A warm south to south east aspect
• For hot lower altitudes
• The cooler north to north west aspect
3.1.2. Soil requirements

Arabica coffee requires fertile, friable, loamy soils, with a depth of at least 1.5m and
relatively high water holding capacity. The fertility of coffee soils is naturally maintained
through organic recycling of litters fall from coffee, and shade trees. Relatively acidic soil is
suitable for Arabica coffee (5-6.8). The soil of most coffee growing regions in Ethiopia
satisfies these characteristics of coffee soil.

The soils that are not suitable for coffee plantation are:
 a strongly alkaline
 a very high percent of sand
 heavy clays
 Soil with no humus,
The characteristics of ideal or suitable for coffee production are
 Slightly acid (between 4.5 -5.5pH)
 Good friable sandy loams or Certain not too sticky clays
 Good humus Content
 Naturally rich content of N2 P,K, and available minor elements
 Recent volcanic deposit
 Covered with broad- leaved vegetation
  Well drained
 Soil depth: not less than 1.5 m deep allow for prolific root development
3.1.1. Altitude and latitude requirements

In Ethiopia, coffee grows at various altitudes, ranging from 550-2,750m above sea level.
However, the bulk of Arabica coffee is produced in the altitudes ranging from 1,300 - 1,800
m.a.s.l.

Elevation increased (in higher elevation): have low temperature:

 The slowed-down ripening process of coffee berries at higher elevations temperatures,
 Allows more time for complete bean filling,
 yielding beans that are denser and far more intense in flavor
 High cup quality, possibly by guaranteeing the full manifestation of all biochemical steps
required for the development of the beverage quality.
 chromogenic acids and fat content have been found to increase
 the slower the coffee grows the more labour is required and the lower the yield
Lower elevation: where the temperature is high
 Over bearing due to effects of high temperature
 Coffee ripens more quickly leading to a fall in inherent quality.
 favour for spread of certain pests and diseases
 Low flyover and quality
 Expose to high temperature
3.2.Photosynthesis and Assimilation

The coffee tree has low rates of net CO2 assimilation. The photosynthetic capacity for both
species, determined under saturating light and CO2. Many leaves are partly to deeply shaded
within the coffee canopy, with leaves in the interior of the crown of adult coffee trees
receiving as little as 1.5% of full solar radiation

3.3.Growth and Reproduction

Root growth: The main part of the root system is generally concentrated in the first 0.30 m
layer from the soil surface and distributed in a circle of about 1.50 m in diameter around the
trunk. In any case, the root system of coffee species is highly plastic and its distribution and
length are also age-dependent, planting density, genotypes, soil characteristics, cultural
practices and , and weed competition.
Shoot growth: The dimorphism of branches in the genus Coffea is highly fixed; the apical
meristem of the main stem gives rise to the head-of-the-series bud which appears in the axil
of the leaf primordium at the stem apex; the buds-of-the-series appear only after the
formation of the generative zone of the internode. Head-of-the series buds on the orthotropic
branch grow out as plagiotropic, first order branch
Flowering: Although flowering is one of the most important physiological processes of the
coffee tree. Coffee flowering embraces a complex sequence of biochemical, physiological
and morphological events which are affected by several factors such as temperature, light,
soil and air water availability, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, crop load and genotype
Chapter four
PROPAGATION AND NURSERY MANAGEMENT
4.1.Coffee Propagation Methods

Propagation by seed is the cheapest and easiest method for coffee propagation. Coffee can be
also vegetative propagated by grafting, stem-cutting or in-vitro propagation.
The choice of a propagation technique is influenced by:
 Coffee species to be propagated
 Ultimate goals of the project, (for research and experimentation or commercial purposes
4.1.1. Propagation by seed

The sources of seeds for propagation should be restricted to disease-free areas like coffee
Berry Disease, Coffee Leaf Rust and, especially, seed- borne diseases like tracheomycosis.
Cherries harvested at full maturity to provide optimal germination conditions. Cherry
harvested at the beginning or the end of the harvesting season should not be used for
germination purposes.
Advantage of seed propagation
 It may be quicker and more economical than asexual propagation.
 It may result in new cultivars and vigorous hybrids.
 It avoids transmission of particular diseases, such as viruses.
 It maintains genetic variation, which increases the potential for plants to adapt to
environmental pressures
Disadvantage of seed propagation
 takes longer than asexual reproduction
 it is not possible for an isolated individual to reproduce
 Heterogeneity of offspring
Seed sources and Seed Preparation
Seed are collected from mother trees of the following quality
• High yielding
• Consistent yielding ability
• Large bean size (more endosperms,food reserve for germination)
• Good cup quality
• Vigorous vegetative growth
• Wider adaptability
• Resistant to disease and insect pests
• Tolerant to adverse environmental condition
Seed preparation procedures
• Cherry is picked and Preferably hand pulped it instead of machine
• Immerse the seed in container containing water
• Floaters are skimmed off
• The heavy beans are taken by draining the water
• Abnormal seeds are removed and seeds are stored in cool and dry condition
• The seeds in the store should be protected from impairing condition such as
• Excessive drying out
• Fluctuating To
• There is no dormancy in coffee seeds therefore best results are obtained when seed are
sown as soon as they are dry
4.1.2. Vegetative propagation
Vegetative (asexual) propagation methods produce new plants from vegetative parts of the
original plant, such as the leaves, stems and roots. These methods are generally referred to as
vegetative propagation. Many plants can reproduce this way naturally, but vegetative
propagation can also be artificially induced.

Advantage
 New plants contain the genetic material of only one parent (no new plants)
 To reproduce the highest-quality plants
 Ensure consistency of a variety of plant or crop for sale.
 It takes short time to reach maturity
Disadvantage
 Impact on biodiversity of a species.
 plant clone is susceptible to certain diseases,
 Potential to lose entire crops
Vegetative propagation includes
1. Cutting
Coffee are propagated by cutting using Single node cutting and Half trimmed leaves (pair
leaves) cutting. Arabica coffee is difficult to rooting so it need hormone for rooting are IBA
1500-2500 ppm. But Robusta coffee 90% no needs hormone because easy to rooting.
Wounding the surface area or Split the end of the stem coffee cutting is possible methods for
easily development of rooting
2. Grafting
Grafting is the art of connecting two pieces of living plant tissue together. During grafting of
coffee coffea Liberica more preferable as a root stock due to its adaptably to alkaline soil area
and resistant soil born disease and nematode. C. Robusta and arabica used as scions
Grafting process take place at soldier or butter fly stage of seedling. Growing stage - 1st
appears is hook stage, 2nd soldier stage 1-2 week and 3rd butter fly stage
3. Budding:
Budding is similar to grafting except that the scion is reduced in size to usually contain only
one bud. This may be due to the weaker union formed by budding than by grafting and
budding being a more delicate than by grafting. Using bud from young upright growth
(orthotropic shoots or suckers) inserted in a T or inverted T cut just below anode.

4. Micro-Propagation (Biotechnology)
Another possible way of propagating coffee is through Micro-propagation. This technique is
used specifically to refer the application of tissue culture techniques to propagation of plants
starting with very small plant parts grown aseptically in arrest tube or other container

4.2.Coffee Nursery Establishment and Raising Coffee Seedlings

Nursery is places were seedlings are raised with maximum care until they are planted to
permanent fields.

4.2.1. Coffee nursery site selection and seedbed preparation

The criteria for coffee nursery site selection are:-
 Close to a source of good quality water
 Accessibility (should be easy for transport)
 Gentle slope (>8%), the land should be protected against erosion.
 Free from frost risks area
 Good drainage of cold air
 Valley bottoms and hollows that can become frost pockets should be avoided
 Soil should deep, light textured, friable, fertile, and free-draining, free of nematodes.
 Close as possible to the plantation area
 Never be located on old plantation site nor should it be used several years, because of
the threat of soil-borne parasites (nematodes in particular
3.1.2. Sowing coffee seed
Coffee seedling is sown in two ways. These are:
1. directly sowing in the field: is not common in our area
2. Raised seedling: are divided in towo
 Sowing in bare root ( bed)
  Sowing in container
A. Sowing in bare root (bed)
Producing seedlings without containers seems like the easiest option for the nursery.
Advantage
 One person can carry several hundred seedlings to the field
 Smaller holes are dug than for plant
 lower production costs because
 less soil is needed
Disadvantage

 Competition for light, nutrients and water is high

 Depletion of soil nutrients in the nursery beds
 Slow initial growth in the field
 High mortality in the field
 Difficult to long distance transportation
B. Sowing in the continuers
There are different kinds of containers: Polythene bags, Pot, Plastic sleeves
The polythene bags should be open ended for drainage. Recommended sized of polythene
bags is Length= 22cm, Diameter= 16cm, Thickness =6μ a black color
Advantage of raising seedlings in polythene bags
 No root disturbance therefore there is better take rate
 Easy for long distance transportation
 Should rains fail, Seedlings can be collected and watered easily
 Ensure nematode free planting materials
Disadvantage
 Cost of polythene bag
 Environmental pollution from discarded poly bags
 Requires more labor for pot filling and arranging.
 Consume more time

4.2.2. Raising coffee seedlings

Coffee seedling are raised from seeds or from clonal plants in the form of cutting, grafting,
micro-propagations. There is a number of steps for raising of coffee seedling:

 Selecting good seed sources

 Keeping records
 Selecting nursery area
 Calculating the amount of seeds needed and area needed
 Build nursery shelters and seed bed
1. Select the seed

Arabica coffee should be grown from fresh seed of the recommended varieties. Seed loses
viability within three months and should not be used after that period unless properly stored
at low temperature and high humidity.

2. Keep records
It is very important to keep good records of nursery operations. It help to avoid confusion and
problems. The sample record on the next page can be photocopied for practical uses Nursery
record book. Record the information for each new plot of coffee or shade tree planted. This
page may be photocopied include.

 Crop name
 Cultivars
 Scientific name
 Origin of the materials
 Date of sown
 Treatments( if any)
 Date of seed emergency
 Growth stage at transplanting
3. When to start the nursery
New seed should be planted as soon as possible after harvest. The longer it is stored, the
lower the percentage of germination and the smaller the plants will be at the time of
transplanting. If possible, coffee nurseries should be started in December. Calculate the
amount of seed and the area required: as coffee seed rapidly loses viability, store the seed in
cool moist conditions (such as the bottom of a refrigerator). There are 3000 to 4000 coffee
seeds per kilo. The recommended planting density is 3333 plants/ ha at a spacing of 2
x 1.5 m for Lao. To calculate the area for a nursery you need to know:

 The area to be planted;

 Plant spacing;
 The number of plants per hectare;
 How many seeds per kg;
 The germination percentage of the seed.
Calculate area needed for seedbed – for example:
 To plant 1 hectare of coffee at a spacing of 2 x 1.5 m
Number of plants: 3333 plants/h (10,000 m2 ÷ 2 x 1.5 m)
 Germination: Assume 3000 seeds/kg with 75% germination Therefore, you need:
(100 x 3000) - 75 = 4,444 seeds
 Sow seeds in beds 1 m wide with 2 cm between seeds and 10 cm between rows.
Plant 50 seeds per 1 m of row. Therefore, you need:
4,444 seeds ÷ 50 seeds/row of 1 m = 90 rows, Rows are 100 mm apart. Therefore,
you need 90 rows x 100 mm apart or 9 m of nursery bed.
4. Plant the seed
Water the seedbed before planting. Using a pointed stick, make furrows 12 mm deep across
the bed and 100 mm apart. Plant seed flat side down, with seeds 25 mm apart within the row
Cover seed with soil mixture - seed should be about 12 mm deep after planting. Cover beds
with rice straw mulch to give extra heat and to retain soil moisture. Water gently. Make sure
the seed is not exposed when watering. As germination time is highly dependent on soil
temperature, it may take from 30 to 50 days before shoots appear. Use of plastic/polythene
tunnels to retain heat will speed up germination.
4.3. Coffee Nursery Management
1. Constructing nursery shade

Traditional shade consists of a roof placed on wooden posts. It should be about 2- 2.5 m high
in order to allow people to enter without stooping. It ties for the posts and the grills for the
roof are made with plain galvanized wire.
2. Care of coffee seedlings

The most destructive infection disease in coffee nursery is damping-off caused by

Rhizoctonia and Fusarium fungus. Another serious seed infection is often caused by
nematodes which is revealed by flaccidity and yellowing of the leaves. The most harmful pest
in seed beds are crickets that cut the tender stems of the coffee plantlets

3. Hardening of coffee seedlings

 Hardening - off - training seedlings to adverse environmental condition such as.
 Low moisture
 High T0
 High to strong sunshine
 Reducing the shade level step by step
Remove shade before two months to transplanting
 Chapter Five
FIELD PLANTIG AND MANAGEMENT
5.1.Field Planting
 The establishment of a coffee plantation requires a high level of intervention. Coffee
plantation is long lasts to 20 to 30 years. There are numerous factors, taken into account in
choosing a site for a coffee field plantation and these factors may be divided into two broad
categories:

 Environmental and physical factors: it influence the potential productivity of a plantation

 Socioeconomic factors: it affect the costs of establishment and operation and, the economic
feasibility of the enterprise
5.1.1. Site selection for coffee plantation
To grow and produce good quality coffee, several important environmental factors should be
taken into account. These include:
1. Elevation
Elevation influences a number of factors and must be considered along with temperature,
rainfall and water supply, soil, slope and aspect when determining where to plant coffee. An
elevation greater than 1000 m above sea level, is required for Arabica coffee. In low
elevation arabica coffee does not possess the quality required by the world markets.

High elevation improves the quality of the bean and potential cupping quality. Due to a delay
in ripening brought about by cooler weather associated with higher altitudes, the inherent
characteristics of acidity, aroma and bold bean can develop fully. Coffee grown in high
elevation, the bean is classified as a size between large and medium sized, with its width/
length ratio bigger than that of a large bean.

2. Temperature
Arabica coffee prefers a cool temperature with an optimum daily temperature of between 20°
to 24°C. Temperatures greater than 30°C cause plant stress leading to a cessation of
photosynthesis. Mean temperatures of less than 15°C limit plant growth and are considered
sub-optimal. Arabica coffee is frost susceptible. Use of shade trees will reduce the incidence
of frost

3. Rainfall and water supply;

Ideal rainfall for Arabica coffee is greater than 1200 to 1500 mm per year. Both the total
amount and the distribution pattern are important. Rain should to be uniformly distributed
over seven to nine months of the year, important. At lower elevations, the dry season is often
too pronounced lack of rainfall in either amount or timing can be compensated for by using
irrigation.
 4. Soil;
For successful production, a free draining soil with a minimum depth of one metre is
required. Coffee will not tolerate waterlogging. Coffee can be grown on many different soil
types, but the ideal is a fertile, volcanic red earth or a deep, sandy loam. Yellow-brown, high
silt soils are less preferred. Avoid heavy clay or poor-draining soils. A soil with pH of 5 to 6
is suitable. Many cultivated soils are acid (less than pH 5) and need lime or dolomite. Low
pH will limit crop performance by upsetting the availability of key nutrients to coffee plants.
Good management and applications of dolomite or lime can alter and improve soil pH and
fertility.

5. Aspect and slope

An easterly or southern facing aspect with a slope less than 15% is preferable. Steeper slopes
present a major erosion risk and require terracing or special management such as contour
furrows or preferably grass strips. A slight slope will improve air drainage and reduce
damage from frost. Do not plant coffee at the bottom of a slope or in shallow dips where cold
air can pool, as frost damage is more likely here. Usually it is best not to plant the bottom
third of a slope as it will be colder and sometimes waterlogged. Exposed aspects subject to
strong winds, should either be avoided or windbreaks such as Silver Oak (Grevillea
robusta) established before planting the coffee trees.

5.1.2. Land preparation

 Planning the Plantation Infrastructure
Before land preparation planting for planting infrastructure is critical. Thus includes
 Overall Layout of the Plantation
 Housing and Social Infrastructure
 Office Accommodation
 Processing and Storage Facilities
 Workshops and Machinery Sheds
 Other Special Purpose Land Areas
 Preparation of Plantation Area Map

The land must be cleared and all old trees and their roots removed - do not leave old timber
lying around it attracts pests. With land up to 15% slope, run the rows across the slope
making sure there is a fall of 1 to 2% for drainage. Ground covers should be planted to avoid
erosion. When land is greater than 15% slope, contour planting must be undertaken. The area
to be planted with coffee must be prepared at least one year before the small coffee trees are
planted out. After site is selection and before coffee planting, it is important to plant
windbreaks, marking out the rows, and establish shade trees and install Irrigation

Remove unwanted trees by:

– Ring barking the tree selectively one or more years before felling (to prevent
Armillaria root rot)
– Poisoning the tree with the chemicals arboricides
– Remove all roots and stumps completely at a time.

During land preparation for coffee, indenting plant population and planting systems is
important. Plant density and planting system for coffee in the field is depends on:
 Soil fertility contents
 Growth habit of coffee plantsz
 Managements practices of coffee field
 Topography of field
 Availability of planting materials and lands
 Climate and soil conditioned of planting area
 Purpose of coffee planting and varieties
Different planting systems for coffee plants

1. Square planting system

Plating field is divided into squares and trees are planted at the four corners of the square, in
straight rows running at right angles. Under this system, intercultural operations, spraying,
harvesting etc., can be done conveniently and easily
2. Rectangular system
The plot is divided into rectangles instead of squares and trees are planted at the four corners
of the rectangle in straight rows running at right angles. The only difference is that in this
system more plants can be accommodated in the row keeping more space between the rows
3. Triangular system
Coffee trees are planted as in the square system but the plants in the 2nd, 4th, 6th and next raw
are plated alternate rows at midway between the 1st, 3rd, 5th and such other alternate rows. It
providing more open space for the trees and for intercrops. Layout and cultivation in the plots
under this system becomes difficult.
4. Hexagonal system
Coffee trees are planted at the corners of an equilateral triangle and thus, six trees from a
hexagon with the seventh tree at the centre which is called filter. This system is suitable
where the land is costly and very fertile, have ample irrigation water. It holds 15% of more
compared to other plating systems.
5. Quincunx system
Is similar to square system, except fifth tree is planted at the centre of each square. Tree in the
centre is known as “filler
6. Contour system: Coffee plants are planted across contour

Staking, Holing, Refilling, Planting

 Staking out Planting Sites:

Regular staking is to begin the line up from the axis of the road- ways to obtain straight
coffee rows, surveyor's markers should be used for staking out. The site for each hole for
planting the coffee trees should then be staked out with pegs of 50 cm long.

 Holing and Refilling

Ideally, the holes should be opened a few weeks prior to planting. The young plants need to
be installed as soon as possible after the first rains have well started. On the other hand, if the
soil is too wet, the holes should be neither dug nor filled to avoid the formation of puddles
and muddy depressions. Where the earth is compact, the soil should be loosened and aired by
sub-soiling to a depth of 70 cm along the future planting rows before digging the holes.
During hole preparation, top and sub soil are placed separately.

The size of the hole depends on the root development and the growth of the young plant. In
very favourable farming conditions, holes of 30 cm diameter and 30 cm in depth are
sufficient, but where the earth is heavy or contains coarse elements, larger holes should be
dug, i.e. 40 or 60 cm diameter and up to 1m.

Good Hole size is promotes:

• Good root development
• Maximum field establishment
• Prolonged survival rate
• Increase Stress tolerance
• Increase the coffee yields
 Fertilization at Planting
In soils with low fertility, planting without prior fertilization can jeopardize the initial
development of the plant.

5.1.3. Soil and water conservation

Most coffee-growing areas are located in undulating and often mountainous landscape with
high seasonal rainfall. High seasonal rainfall invariably includes some high- intensity storms.
Coffee plantation is to be installed on land with a slope of more than 5% the coffee trees
should be planted along the contour, i.e. the rows of coffee should run at right angles to the
direction of the slope. Anti-erosion measures such as contour ridges, contour bunds, contour
ditches and vegetative measures of erosion control also run along the contour between the
coffee rows, and are designed to disrupt the downward flow of rainfall run-off and to collect
and convey the run-off to major waterways that carry the water to a drainage channel. The
selected contour interval at which the rows of coffee are to be planted will be determined by
an examination of the contour map and the preparation of outline plans for the erosion control
measures required
5.1.4. Coffee planting
During transplanting of coffee, avoid the seedlings which are:
 Immature, Over grown, Crooked
 With abnormal shoot or root
 Diseased and damaged
During transplanting and planting of coffee
 Use only graded seedlings
 Plant seedlings few weeks after the 1st rain
 Planting depth should be similar with the nursery
 During planting press the soil down to settle
 Never transplant seedlings into holes too small for coffee seedlings.
  Transplant at cloddy day or afternoon
Procedures for coffee seedling planting:
1. Before planting, thoroughly water the trees in the bags.
2. Remove plants from plastic bags by either cutting or gently sliding the plant
3. Discard plants with J-roots or bent roots
4. Carefully straighten large roots and prune off badly twisted roots.
5. Be sure to remove the plastic bag! Do not plant coffee plants still in the plastic bag.
6. Place the seedling upright in the hole - do not plant at an angle.
7. Half-fill the hole with soil, gently pressing the soil into contact with the root ball.
8. Fill hole with water. This helps to bring the soil into close contact with the roots.
9. Water the plants well, with 1 to 2 L of water per plant.
10. Provide temporary shade cover for young plants.
11. Blady grass (Imperata cylindrica) covers can be used for frost protection.
5.2.Management of Coffee Tree
5.2.1. Mulching as a Post-planting
Ground cover in the form of an organic mulching material is used widely to protect the soil
against erosion, to reduce soil moisture losses by evaporation from the soil surface and to
inhibit weed growth.

 Function of mulching
 It Controls soil erosion
 It conserves soil moisture contents
 Surplus weed growth in coffee plantation
5.2.2. Coffee pruning
Coffee pruning is maintenance operation in coffee plantations for achieving economic and
potential yields. This is a labor intensive and skilled process which differs from place to
place, for systematic management in coffee, a proper scientific understanding of the growth
pattern and architecture/morphology of the coffee plant is essential. Coffee is very sensitive
plants and needs timely care maintenance to make it sustainable productive for long time. It
is the art of encouraging new growth on coffee plants.
Pruning of coffee trees helps to encourage:
 New growth occurs on coffee plants,
 The production off coffee is stable form,
 Production life of a coffee plant is extended
 Resistance to diseases such as Coffee Rust is increased.
 Maintaining the balance between production and vegetative use
 Eliminate all dead wood, unproductive branches and suckers.
 Ensure correct ventilation and allow sun- light to penetrate throughout the coffee tree
in order to diminish the impact of pests and disease and encourage floral induction

Principles of coffee pruning:

 The elimination of a primary branch is irreparable as it can never be replaced
 The elimination of the apex bud leads to the growth of suckers or orthotropic shoots.
 The elimination of the top of a primary branch leads to the development of secondary
branches.

When determining the most suitable pruning system, there are four basic factors which need
to be taken into consideration during selection of appropriate pruning methods:

 The choice between single-stem and multiple stem systems

 The choice of natural, non-restricted growth or growth controlled by capping
 Methods for formative and maintenance pruning
 Methods for rejuvenation

There are three types of pruning.

 Formative (preliminary)pruning(training stage)
 Maintenance /cropping period/ routine/ pruning.
 Rehabilitation/Regenerative /pruning
1. Formative (preliminary) pruning (training stage)

Formative pruning is conducted to give it a proper shape and restricting the plants growth at
desirable height for adoption of effective cultural practices. It leads to a strong framework
and promotes the production of bearing wood.
The objective of preliminary pruning is:
 to create robust (health) coffee plants
 to develop Well balanced framework through the use of two very different technique
Generally two types of training, viz., single stem and multiple stem system are adopted for
coffee throughout the world.
A. Single stem pruning system
Single stem system of training is more suitable under coffee is grown under shade. When trained on single
stem, the height of the bush is restricted at a convenient height by a process called topping/capping.
Topping helps in diversion of food material to thicken the main stem and primary branches and facilitates
lateral spreading of plants. Single stem trained plants provide a good ground cover which protects the soil
from erosion and minimize the soil fertility loss.
Objective: to encourage the primary branch to fruit first, followed by the secondary and
tertiary branch. It includes
1. Free growth
 Allow the coffee tree to grow free and then prune it at a height of 1.8m to 2.0m
2. Capping
This method, which is normally recommend for areas where growth is faster, consist
removing apical bud at three different stages.
o Knee-height- at 70cm cut back to 50 cm (9 - 12 months after planting)
o Waist-height - as one of the suckers reach 130 cm, it is cut back to 110cm.
o Shoulder - height - When one of the suckers is allowed to grow for 2 years it
reaches 180cm and is cut base to 1.7m(170cm)
Advantage of single stem pruning:
 Manageable height of tree for spraying and harvesting
 It is fairly easy to establish
 The growth of the trees is fairly uniform
 Facilitates spray penetration, thus enhance disease and pest control
 Plants are vigorous, especially those established by capping
 Plants are not liable for damage by wind and rain
Disadvantage of single stem pruning:
 Establishment of the system requires skilled work
 In the early years, yields are lower than trees trained by multiple stem system.
 It is too costly, as it is labourers and skill demanding
 In wet areas, the tree may damage by stem diseases
B. Multiple stem pruning
The multiple stem system is generally practiced for coffee plants grown in open conditions.
In this type of bush training, multiple or more than one stem is allowed.
Objective: to have a number of upright stems of equal size, which are allowed to grow
without being capped as in the single stem system
1. Capping
 This is simplest and conventional method.
 Consists of pruning back the young coffee tree at a height of 70cm to 55cm from the
ground above a pair of primaries while retaining some of the basal shoots.
 The new suckers are selected (2 or 3) and allowed to grow as the main stems
 The branches bellow the cut are retained to provide an early crop
2. Agobiado /bending system
The system consists of bending over the stems of the young coffee trees in an arc (40 to 45 0)
by pegging them down to the ground for approximately 12 to 18 months. It is usually carried
out on the plantation at the beginning of the rainy season when the plants are growing
vigorously. It is useful where it is very difficult to get suckers to develop.it delays cropping
 by at least one season compare with capped multiple stem. It is a system used where poor
quality seedlings that are tall, old, thin and whippy are planted out, such as the self-sown
seedlings produced under the coffee trees.

3. Candelabra
This system coffee stem is capped and recapped and after each capping two suckers allowed
developing in to upright stems until about eight are formed. Training the main leader in the
form of a lyre or double lyre is easily achieved by single or double pollarding. The training
for the candelabra system is comparable to that for the double lyre
Advantage multiple stem pruning:
 is simple and quicker than on the single stem system
 Yields are higher in the early years (10% higher for the 1st ten years )
 Less expensive
Disadvantage multiple stem pruning
 Liability of trees for damages by wind, rain and careless picking of the fruits
 Not recommended for shade grown coffee.
 As the trees grow they become difficult for picking and spraying

2. Maintenance /cropping period/ routine/ pruning.

Maintenance pruning is essential for both single and multiple stem pruned coffee trees.
Importance
 It opens the plant for more light penetration
 Reducing incidence of disease and pests like Antestia bug, which prefers a bushy plant.
 Facilitates better photosynthesis for formation of big berries of high quality is achieved.
 Enhance selective picking of only the red ripe cherries,
 effective use of chemicals in disease control resulting in to high quality coffee

During maintenance pruning

 All dead wood and broken branches are cut-out
 All young suckers on the main stem are removed
 All crossed and badly placed branches are removed
 All weaker and smaller laterals are thinned out.
 All dropping and thin, whippy growths are cut back
 All primary branches that are less 0.20m to 0.25m from the ground are removed.
o Every year after harvesting and before the beginning of the rain, routine /maintenance pruning
was conducted. It is be practice by:
 Space the primary branch at least 0.12 to 0.15 m
 
Provide a tree about the height of a slightly wider at the base than at the top, open in the
center to let light and air.
The right time for maintenance pruning is after the harvest and before the beginning of rain
3. Rehabilitation (Regeneration) Pruning
In the wild state the coffee plant is stay for more than 100 years, however, its productive life
is 40 years. This is not the case in commercial coffee farms, For example, under our
condition rejuvenation is done after 10- 12 years.
The coffee bushes which are badly damaged by falling branches during shade regulation or
have gone out of shape due to irregular pruning can be rejuvenated by collar
pruning/stumping. They are collar pruned/stumped at about 30 cm from the ground at a 45
angle facing east or North-East.
The time of rehabilitation is dependent on
o The growth environment
o The cultural practices followed (eg. Fertilization, Pruning method etc.)
o Diseases and pests
1. Stumping
coffee trees have developed an "Umbrella" habit the main stems are sown off at 30 - 40cm
from the ground at an angle of 450 with a clean cut sloping out wards so that the rain water
will run off easily, otherwise the main stem may rot. Stumping must be carried out
immediately following harvesting. 2-3 new shoots which are well spaced must be selected
when they have reached a height of 0.25 - 0.30m.The yield of regenerated plantations will
depend on the ages of the coffee trees. The best results are obtained with 8 - 15 year old
shrubs. As the rain starts manure and fertilizer need to be applied 25cm away from the tree in
15cm band about 40cm radius of the stump.
2. Topping
Topping is a method of rehabilitation which is mostly applied on single or multiple stemmed
method coffee trees damaged by die-back, frost, drought etc. Where only the above branches
are dead or unproductive while the lower branches are living productive. Trees are cut/ sawn
off at the point of the damage. Unlike stamping, this method provides some yield from the
lower productive branches. Below the cut, suckers will develop and the grower should
remove the excess leaving only one or two to grow.
The criteria to choose best rehabilitation methods are
 One cannot generalize pruning recommendation to all coffee producing locations for
pruning is affected by a number of factors
 Therefore, the best methods of pruning is one , which is selected taking in to account
o The climate and soil condition
o Prevalence of disease and pest
o The skill of the workers
o Cropping systems
o The presence of shade
5.2.3. Shade management

Under intensive crop management coffee trees produce much higher yields under unshaded
condition.

 Increased shading decrease coffee yield due to

 lower whole-tree carbon assimilation;
 Greater stimulus to vegetative growth than flower buds
 Formation of fewer nodes per branch and flower buds at existing
Positive Effects shade on coffee production

 Reducing the extremes in high and low air and soil temperatures.
 Breaking the force of wind and heavy rainfall.
 Controlling erosion on steep slopes.
 Suppressing weeds.
 Producing annually 5-15t (dry weight) organic matter per ha from litter and pruning's.
 Recycling of nutrients otherwise not available to the coffee and reducing nutrient
leaching Conservation of natural resources,
 Increased biodiversity,
 Stability of coffee production, as well as financial benefits

Negative effect of shade on coffee production

 Progressively lower yields with increasing shade intensity, due to a reduction in flowering
nodes, inflorescences per node and flowers per inflorescence.
 Competition for water between shade and coffee trees in seasonally dry regions.
 Damage of the coffee trees by falling branches from the shade trees and occasional tree
felling.
 Additional labour costs for regularly pruning of over-head trees to avoid excessive
shading.
 Potential increase of some diseases and pests
5.2.4. Tillage and mulching

Mulch is defined as any material applied to the soil surface as cover. Mulching is a low-cost
practice that consists in covering the soil with locally available degradable plant materials to
help the soil-crop system to reduce water runoff and evapotranspiration, as well as for the
mineralization of organic matter, while counteracting the nutrient loss.

Importance of mulching
  Conserve soil moisture, and therefore reduce effects of rainfall variability’s and droughts
 Improve soil fertility and health.
 Reduce direct raindrop impact and soil erosion, for instance in case of intense rainfall.
 Slow water evaporation.
 Prevents weeds from emerging.
 Improve organic matter content and soil nutrient status
 Provide a beneficial environment for soil organisms, such as worms and millipedes that are
important for biological tillage.
 Regulate the temperature during warmer and colder seasons.
5.2.5. Fertilization of coffee plant

In soils with low fertility, planting without prior fertilization can endanger to the initial
development of the plan. For sandy soils or soils with poor CEC, organic fertilization
composed of manure, compost or well-decayed coffee pulp, enriched with 200 g of superpho-
sphate at a rate of 10kg per hole is recommended.

Coffee trees need a lot of potash, nitrogen, and a little phosphoric acid. Spread the
fertilizer in a ring around each Coffee plant and be careful not to put anything on its stems,
branches, or leaves. Manure can also be added depending on the organic matter of the soil.
Compost is decomposed organic matter, such as crop residues and/or animal manure.

5.2.6. Irrigation of coffee plantation

If rainfall during fruit development to ripening is less than 6 inches a month irrigation will
benefit yields. Drip irrigation is best for our trade wind conditions. Fertigation is
recommended to reduce cost

5.2.7. Replanting of coffee trees

Replanting in coffee plantation may occur due to death of the planted seedlings.
 Replant the seeding due to
o Weak and immature seedlings
o Planting carelessness or lack of maintenance operations after transplanting
such as lack of shade ,Watering or Attack by insects
 Therefore the manager in charge must examine the field frequently and deep
himself informed of the reason for the failures.
 So that he may take steps to staggered the remainder of his plants and refill to the
place of the killed seedlings by the reserved seedlings in order to deep the density
and production fair.
Chapter Six
COFFEE WEEDS, DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS
 6.1.Coffee Weeds and their Management

A weed is a plant, which grows where it is not wanted. it causes more than 50% and 70% of
the maintenance cost mature and young coffee plantations in Ethiopia respectively is incurred
from weed control. Yield loss due to competition weed can be as high as 65% if weeding is
not practiced at all.
The causes of weeds on coffee production
 High cost of production
 Competition for nutrients and moisture
 Shelter for disease and insects
 Create problems in some cultural practices(pruning, harvesting)
 Create some damage to coffee during weeding so that wilting of coffee occurs
The common weed pest under farmers holding systems include
Perennial Weeds: persist over seasons and so are difficult to control e.g, couch grass and
Commelina spp. major weeds of coffee
 Digitaria schlarum-couch grass
 Contain underground rhizomes
 Produce seed for multiplication
 Rhizomes grow deep up to 2 m
 Common in most coffee growing area
 Cyperus spp
 Common in highland area
 Has underground tuber
 Cynodon ductylon- Bermuda grass
 Sida spp.
 broad leaves
 Common in Bebeka
Annual Weeds:
 Agelantum connytoides
 Bidens pilosa
 Galinsoga partiflora
Control methods
1. Cultural weed management include:
2. Mechanical weed management practises
3. Chemical
6.2.Coffee Diseases and their Management

1. Coffee Leaf Rust—Hemileia vastatrix Berkeley and Broome

Caused by the obligate parasitic fungus Hemileia vastatrix causes considerable economic
losses to coffee producers and is currently found in all coffee-growing regions of the world.
Symptoms occur on the upper surface of the leaves as small, pale yellow spots. The spots
gradually increase in diameter, and masses of orange uredospore’s are seen on the under
surfaces of the leaves. The centres of the spots eventually turn brown and dry, while the
margins continue to produce uredospores and to expand.

Cultural management is key to control the disease, such as varieties grown, soil
characteristics, and amount and distribution of rainfall, etc. Chemical control using copper-
based products is effective if applied at regular intervals as. A disadvantage of copper-based
fungicide, in addition to cost, is that it accumulates in the soil and can reach levels toxic to
plants and other organisms
1. Coffee Berry Disease—Colletotrichum kahawae Bridge and Waller
Caused by the fungus Colletotrichum kahawae was first detected in Kenya. It infects all
stages of the crop, from flowers to ripe fruits and occasionally leaves, and may cause up to
70% or 80% crop losses if no control measures are adopted, with maximum crop losses
occurring following infection of green berries, leading to formation of dark, sunken lesions
and premature dropping and mummification of the fruits.

Control of the disease can be achieved through an integrated cultivation approach, with
chemical control linked to improved cultivation practices and genetic control
2. American Leaf Spot—Mycena citricolor (Berkeley & Curtis) Saccardo

Caused by the fungus Mycena citricolor, is predominantly prevalent in Latin America, The
disease also attacks a number of other plants in addition to coffee. In coffee, it affects all
plant parts: stems, branches, leaves, and fruits. On coffee, subcircular brown spots are
formed on leaves, which turn pale brown to straw-colored. The spots have a distinct margin,
but with no halo. Mature spots become lighter and develop minute, yellow, hairlike
gemmifers, mostly on the upper surface of the spots. The centers of older leaf spots may
disintegrate, giving a shothole appearance. Similar spots may be produced on stalks and
berries. The main effect is to cause leaf fall, with a consequent reduction in growth and yield
of the coffee tree

Control measures: uses of copper-based fungicides alternating with use of modern triazoles
with systemic effect. Practicing good cultural methods, such as weed control, pruning, and
shade control, is necessary to prevent the disease and to reduce disease intensity. The
economic impact of the disease has been relatively low, and hence very limited research has
been done on developing resistance varieties
2. Coffee Wilt Disease—Gibberella xylarioides R. Heim & Saccas

Coffee wilt disease is a vascular fungal disease caused by fungi; It blocks water and sap
circulation, causing leaves to fall, branches to die, and cherries to appear ripe prematurely

Symptoms is yellowing of leaves, which dry and fall, then branches die, finally leads to
withering and death of the entire tree within a few months. Plant death is caused by blockage
of water and sap circulation due to colonization of the sap vessels by the fungal mycelium.
Infection can set in any time from the cotyledon stage to maturity.
Control of the disease through chemical is not efficiently possible. Spread and contamination
can be limited by applying a suitable antiseptic paste to cuts or wounds resulting from
pruning, use of cultivation tools, and insect infestation, preventing entry of disease pathogen
into sap vessels beneath the bark
3. Branch die- Back
 Die-back or descending branch death is a phenomenon of a complex nature; it refers to
the death of twigs starting from the apex and progressing downwards.
 The syndrome has been observed in all coffee growing countries, resulting in severe loss
of both yield and quality of coffee.

Causes of branch die-back

 Environmental stresses such as:

 Nutrient deficiency (particularly Potassium, Nitrogen)
 Weed infestation
 Heavy fruit load: when trees enter the reproductive phase with heavy fruit loads they
become more prone to die-back

6.3.Coffee Insect Pests and their Management

4. Coffee Berry Borer—Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari)
Is the most serious pest of coffee in many of the major coffee-producing countries in the
world? The adult female borers cut a characteristic hole at the blossom end of large green
berries about eight weeks after flowering, and then they deposit their eggs in internal
galleries. The larvae, upon hatching, feed on the seed. A single berry may be infested with up
to 20 larvae. Many infested immature berries fall off the trees. Yield and quality of
marketable product are significantly reduced; in heavy infestations, borers have been known
to attack 100% of berries. The insect remains inside the berry most of its life, making it
difficult to control.

Controlling methods: reducing heavy shade, keeping the coffee bush open by pruning,
picking coffee at least once a week during the main harvest season, stripping the trees of any
remnant berries once harvesting is done, ensuring that no berries are left on the ground, and
destroying all infested berries by burning
5. Coffee Leaf Miner—Leucoptera coffeella Guérin-Meneville
Is a moth whose larvae feed inside the leaf tissue and consume the palisade parenchyma.
Infested coffee has large, irregular, brown spots on the upper surface of the leaf, which
reduces the leaf’s photosynthetic area. Rubbing or exposing the spots reveals fresh mines and
small whitish caterpillars. Mined leaves shed prematurely. Loss in productivity is mainly due
to leaf loss
Chemical control is effective, but it increases cost of production and has associated
environmental risks. Using resistance verities and continue to be developed through classic
breeding and molecular selection techniques.
3. Root-knot Nematodes—Meloidogyne spp
The females settle into the rootlets of the coffee trees, causing distorted knots known as
galls. Infected coffee trees do not necessarily die, but they are debilitated under normal
growing conditions. Methods of control include disinfecting soil as a preventative measure,
control of weedy hosts, pruning to strengthen root system, removal of dead plants, organic
fertilization to stimulate root growth and improve nutrition, genetic resistance through
breeding, grafting on resistant root stocks, chemical control, biological control, and use of
antagonistic plants.

Chapter 7: HARVESTING AND PROCESSING OF COFFEE

7.1.Maturity of Coffee Fruits

Coffee cherry matures over seven to nine months from flowering to ripeness. Maturation is
typically uneven especially where rains resume with a stop/go pattern or where there is no
dry season. Often a regional harvesting period extends over 2.5 to 3.5 months. Referred to as
cherries, the fruit is initially green and turns red when it is ready for harvesting.

7.2.Harvesting of Coffee

Harvesting is the process of gathering or collecting of economical part of products. Coffee

harvesting and processing are very crucial towards the final quality of the coffee beans which
in the end determines the price paid for the coffee. Good quality can be made in the field and
the same can be destroyed during processing. Harvesting of coffee cherry is called picking.

The berries are harvested upon reaching maturity, the colour of coffee changed from green to
fully red. (Although there is coffee varieties that are yellow when mature).

There are two types of coffee harvesting

1. Strip picking

This strategy is usually done by machinery or by hand. The whole coffee cherries are
harvested at one time from coffee plants. The harvested coffee may not achieve the desired
quality due to the mixture of underripen or overripen coffee cherries. In order to use
machinery for harvesting the coffee cherry, the following factors are critically important such
as the topography, inclination, spacing, alignment, and the height of Selective picking
2. Selective picking (hand picking)

Uniform maturity of coffee cherry is the main problem in coffee production area. In this
harvesting system, only the ripened coffee cherries are harvested selectively by hand from the
whole tree or branches. The harvested coffee meets the quality standards due to the
uniformity of the cherries. This strategy needs several picking rounds and is labour-intensive.

Practices to be observed during harvesting:

Pick when the coffee is just all round red-ripe cherry. Green berries should not be picked as
they contribute to poor quality grades and they are also low in weight so it’s a loss to the farmer.

 Use clean harvesting equipment during harvest.

 Avoid harvesting of diseased, insect infested, green, over ripe and under ripe berries.
 Keep the harvested cherry under shade to protect from intense heat from the sun.
 Avoid cherry from falling on the ground during picking.
 Fallen berries should not be collected and mixed with the harvest.
 Plastic or clothing material should be spread on the ground during stripping to prevent any
fungal contamination of cherry from the soil or old fallen berries.
 Transport the cherry in clean containers/bags to avoid any contaminants.
 Picking intervals should be 10 to 14 days for best quality and do not leave ripe cherries
unpicked as they will be over ripe by the next picking.

Cherry Sorting

 Use clean canvas material to sort coffee in order to avoid cherry contact with the soil
 Remove green, under ripe, over ripe, dry cherries, insect infested, diseased berries, twigs,
and leaves and any foreign particles such as stones.
 Coffee should be processed on the day of picking.
 The over ripe, green, diseased cherries are dried and processed as “buni”
7.3.Coffee Processing
Coffee processing transforms fresh coffee cherries into clean, green bean of 12% moisture
ready for export or for roasting. After harvesting of the fruits, green coffee beans are obtained
by one of three different methods known as dry, wet, and semi-dry processing

7.3.1. Dry Processing Method

Dry processing is the oldest, cheapest, and simple processing method. It is usually called
unwashed (natural) coffee. In this method, the harvested cherry is dried in the sun or other
mechanical drier and followed by separating the dried outer parts. Sun drying is a lengthy
process, and 95% of coffee is processed by these methods. Once the cherries are properly dry,
the skin and dried fruit flesh are removed mechanically and the green coffee is stored and
“rested” before exporting it.

7.3.2. Semi-dry (semi-wet) processing

Semi-wet processing is an intermediate process between wet and dry processing. Like wet
processing, the coffee exocarp and mesocarp are separated by de-pulping. But the sticky part
(mucilage) remains and is allowed to dry on the parchment instead of complete removal of it
with further fermentation until 11–12% moisture content is achieved

7.3.3. Wet Processing Method

Wet processing also called washed coffee. This processing method requires some particular
facilities and ample amounts of water. When this method maintained the inherent quality of
coffee beans and produced uniform coffee beans with minimum defectives. In the washed
process all of the fruit flesh is removed mechanically from the coffee bean before the beans
are dried. A machine used to wet coffee processing (fruit flesh) remover is called depulper.

7.7.1. Digestive bioprocessing

Digestive bioprocessing is world most expensive coffees. The coffee cherry through the
animal intestine or digestive tract, which is the coffee beans exposed for acids, enzymes, and
fermentation treatments.

 Civet coffee in Indonesia: coffee cherries are eaten by the civet cat to produce civet
coffee
 Black ivory coffee in Thailand: Elephant dung coffee, produced after the coffee cherries
passed through the elephant’s digestive
The black ivory coffee has a price tag of 1000 USD per kilogramme bean. This price makes it
one of the world’s expensive coffees. 500poud was produced in these methods and 600 dollar
in 1 pound.

7.4.Operations Common to Dry and Wet Processing Methods

7.5.Quality Control System of Coffee in Ethiopia

Operational techniques and activities that are used to fulfil coffee quality requirements in the
country vary at different levels i.e.

1. Farm gates and district level: appearance and foreign matter level are attributes for
quality and carried out by regional Agricultural Offices.
2. Regional level: internationally accepted attributes for analysis of both green coffee and
liquor assessment are taken by ECX classification protocol for high quality arrivals.
3. Central level: Except SCAA protocol the technique is the same with ECX. Ministry of
Agriculture is mandated Institution to accomplish the quality of coffee.