BONGA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
FLORICULTURE PLANT PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Compiled:
By: Ambachew Z. (MSc.)

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction
Definition of Ornamental Horticulture
Ornamental horticulture is a branch of horticulture which deals with the science & practice of
growing plants for aesthetic uses & improvement of quality of life & our environment.

Branches of Ornamental Horticulture

Depending on the areas of specialization, ornamental horticulture may be subdivided into
various sub-specializations, among which floriculture, floristry, nursery production and
landscape horticulture are the most popular (Figure1).
Floriculture is a branch of ornamental horticulture, which deals with the sciences and
practice of growing, harvesting, processing & marketing of cut flowers, flowering & foliage
potted plants and bedding plants.
Floristry is a branch of ornamental horticulture, which deals with floral design and retail
floristry operation
Nursery production deals with trees, shrubs and vines (climbers) culture and production
mainly for landscape beautification.
Landscape horticulture is an aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals with artistic
arrangement of plants in order to create picturesque and naturalistic effect in a limited space
of land. It is an imitation of nature in the garden and this is intended to improve total living
environments of people. Some views landscape as an art other see it as a craft. It may
correctly be regarded as both an art and a craft.

What are ornamental products?

The esthetic use of plants is a unique feature of horticulture, distinguishing it from other
agricultural activities. All plant types regardless of their uses have esthetic value. Plants
through their color, texture, forms (shapes) bring joy and happiness to our life.

There is no precise distinction that can be made between plants used for their ornamental
value and plants used for other purpose. In other words plants grown for food, fiber,
medicine, etc can be used as ornamental crops. Many of our food plants, especially fruit trees,
vegetables are also greatly prized for their decorative value. Like wise, many plants often
classed as ornamentals are also well known for their pharmacological and industrial uses. In
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addition plants which usually known as noxious weeds are respected for their ornamental
values. Thus, the list or number of plants treated under ornamental horticulture is endless.
However, the commercial ornamental industry is based on relatively few species. Nowadays,
the total number of ornamental plant species in the trade is increasing at very fast pace. More
impressive are the countless cultivars & variants of each species. For examples, there are
currently more than 20 thousands rose cultivars in all colors and shades grown worldwide.

Floriculture Industry

1. Industry Overview
Floriculture industry comprises the cultivation of and trade in cut flowers, potted flowering
and foliage plants and bedding plants.
Cut flowers are the flowers of plants which are grown to be cut and taken into the house for
varieties of use. Characteristically, cut flowers include the blooms or “inflorescences’ and
some attached plant materials (stem and, more often, leaves), but not including roots and soil.
They are mainly used for decorative purposes, or as gifts, as arrangement, or bouquets for
formal events or special occasions and as corsages or boutonnieres.
Cut flowers can be fresh, dried, or preserved, and are commonly purchased to celebrate
holidays, in times of illness, for weddings or funerals, on occasions such as Mother’ Day or
Valentine’s Day, or for every day display in homes, business and public places. Demand
patterns are therefore particularly seasonal and dependent on fashions. They are commonly
offered to customers as standard or spray types. Standard type of cut flower is produced by
allowing the terminal flower bud to develop on a single stem. Whereas, the spray type is
usually with 3 to 5 lateral flower buds.

Cut flowers are highly perishable products and only maintain very limited life-supporting
processes. There are a large number of plants which can and are grown specifically for this
purpose. The main representatives of cut flowers are: rose (Rosa hybrida), chrysanthemum
(Dendranthema x grandiflorum), carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus), lily (Lilium spp.),
Gerbera, Gladiolus, Tulipa, Iris, Freesia, Strelitzia, Zantedeschia, Anthurium, Limonium,
Gypsophila, Hypericum and orchids.

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Potted plants are group of plants which are cultivated and offered to consumers in pots and
can last for several years. In general three operations are required in the production of potted
plants.
 The growing of seedling in flats or beds
 The transferring of the seedlings to a small size pot, and
 The shifting of the well grown seedlings to the final “finishing” pot (the size of the
final pots depends largely on the growth habit of the plant).
Potted plants are commonly categorized as potted flowering plants and potted foliage plants.
The former group is primarily grown for their attractive flowers and can be hardened to be
used for interior decoration. The main representatives are: Siantpaulia, Hydrangea, Azalea,
Pelargonium, Spathiphyllum, Clivia, Cyclamen, and poinsettia.
The later type includes plants grown for their beautiful leaves rather than for flowers or
fruits. They are usually produced in shaded greenhouses or shad houses and are used as living
specimens for interior decoration or whose foliage are harvested and used in floral
arrangements. Foliage plants grown in containers are commonly referred to as houseplant.
Foliages used in decorative arrangements are called florists’ green or cut foliages. The main
representative genera are: Begonia, Caladium, Coleus, Sansevieria, Monstera, Maranta,
Calathea, Philodendron, Scindapsus, Schefflera, Nephrolepis, Colocasia,
Guzmania’Luna‘(Bromeliads), Asparagus, Dieffenbachia, Hosta, and Peperomia.
Bedding plants could be any plant that provides temporary color, form or texture to the
landscape. The category of bedding plants includes primarily annual, biennial and tender
perennials. These are: Tagetes, Celosia, Petunia, Ageratum, Salvia, Digitalis, Cosmos,
Antirrhinum, Impatiens, Phlox, Lobularia, Dianthus barbatus, Zinnia.

2. Trends, Prospects & Challenges of Floriculture Industry Worldwide

Potted plants and cut flowers have an almost 80% share of the world trade in ornamental
plant products.
All over the world, the floricultural sector can nowadays be characterized as a sector
experiencing rapid changes. Due to globalization and its effect on income development in the
different regions of the world, we see a growing per capita consumption in most countries. At
the same time, competition is increasing worldwide. Besides the traditional centers of
production (USA, Japan, Italy, The Netherlands, Columbia), new production centers are
developing. In Latin America and Africa, production is increasing very quickly. Also Asia
countries like India, China, Vietnam, etc., seem to be moving in the direction of more
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intensive horticulture. A number of traditional markets are displaying signs of saturation
while, on the other hand, new countries are trying to get their place on the market. These,
many changes, make it difficult to obtain clear insight into the trends and prospects of the
floriculture industry. In the traditional centers, the total area under production will remain
stable or increase slightly, but productivity will go up.

Cultivation of cut flowers and potted plants is widely spread throughout the world. It is
included in the statistics of 145 countries. In addition, cut flowers are extensively grown in
many countries on small outdoor plots. In terms of area under cultivation, China and India
dominate but their yield per hectare is low. In 1994, China had close to an estimated 60.000
ha under cultivation for flowers and foliage, while India had 34,000 ha compared to United
States at 15,000 ha, and Japan and the Netherlands 8,000 ha. Producers in the first group of
countries (the United States, Japan, India and China) have in common that they mainly, if not
exclusively, produce for their own market. In Japan, 95 per cent of demand is met by local
produce. In India and China, purchasing power is too low for sizeable imports to take place
and quality is too low for sizeable exports to develop. A second group of countries are those
which have sizeable markets where imports satisfy most demand. Germany is the typical
example, with imports making up 70 per cent of total demand. A third group, which includes
Colombia Kenya, and Ethiopia, is opposite of the second; they have a small home market but
a large volume of exports. Colombia is typical of this group-with exports amounting to 95 per
cent of production in recent years. Finally, there is a group with a large home market
combined with a large export share. The Netherlands is the best example here.

2.1. World Demand for Cut Flowers

In many countries, flowers are grown for commercial purposes for international and/or
domestic markets, although the size of individual markets or its development are difficult to
assess given the lack of consumption and production data. Consequently, world consumption
of cut flowers and plants can only be given in approximate figure.
World cut-flower markets are growing at a current rate of 6-9% per year. The total
consumption in 1985 was about 12.5 billion dollars. In 1990 the consumption rose to about
25 billion dollars. In the nineties the growth continues and in 1995, the total world market
was about 31 billion dollars. In 2001 this value increased to about 40 billion dollars. Taking
development in production, import and economic variables into account, consumption of cut
flowers is to be expected to climb more. In international terms, the consumption of cut
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flowers is concentrated in three regions: Western Europe, North America and Japan (Figure
1). The west European market is becoming saturated; as a result its cut flower consumption
share is declining. New markets are emerging in the Eastern European countries. The highest
growth is expected in Japan and the USA. In these countries cut flowers are becoming part of
the consumption patterns of people even with low incomes. In Japan, domestic consumption
of cut flowers becomes more regular than in the past. In the past consumption was mainly
based on special occasions but these days the pattern is changing to a more Western style.
Consumption is rising not only in the USA and Japan but also in other Asian countries with
rising expendable incomes and a flower-minded culture, consumption has shown an
increasing trend. If economic development keeps accelerating in Latin America and Africa, a
strong demand is also expected to be created there. Growth in cut flower consumption is
greatly dependent on the economic development of the different parts of world and of course
on flower-minded culture.

2.2. World Demand for Potted Plants

Worldwide consumption of potted plants is increasing rapidly. The total consumption in 1990
was about 14.2 billion dollars, some 21% higher than in 1985. In 1995, this market already
increased to about 19 billion dollars. In 2001 this value increased to about 23 billion dollars.
Further growth is expected due to the growing expendable income in a lot of regions in the
world. The USA, with about one third of the consumption, has the largest share of the total
world consumption, followed by Germany (about 20%), Italy and France.

2.3. International Trade

The international trade is very limited in relation to total worldwide consumption. From the
total production of cut flowers and potted plants, only a small part is exported to the
international market. About 75% of the international trade comes from within Europe.
Roses are the main traded product, Germany is the main market for imports, and the
Netherlands the world’s leading exporter. Exports from the Netherlands to Germany are a
principal component of the world cut flower trade; they made up 43 per cent of total EU
exports in 1994. Switzerland, France, and the United Kingdom are the other main markets of
Dutch flowers. In the Americas, Colombia stands out as a supplier to the United States
(Ecuador is a good second), while in Asia, Japan (Asia’s main market) receives its supplies
from a more diversified base, with Taiwan (China), New Zealand and Europe being the most
important ones.
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The value of world import is increasing every year. In 1982, the total value was about 2.5
billion dollars. In 1998, the value rose to 6.85 billion dollars. The biggest import markets are
Germany, United Kingdom, France and the USA. The Netherlands is also a big importer but
it re-exports most of its imports, primarily to Europe.

The total value of the world export of cut flowers increased from 1.25 billion dollars in 1982
to 4.8 billion dollars in 2001. The Netherlands remains the world’s leading exporter but gain
on a declining trend, from 64% share of the world’s export in1991 to 57% in 1995. Colombia
is second at 14% share. Developing countries as a group show spectacular increases in
market share, in less than four years making up around one quarter of world exports by 2001.

The total export of potted plants is smaller, amounting to about 1.75 billion dollars in 1995.
Because of the high transport costs per unit, the export of this type of product is usually to
neighboring countries. The main exporters are the Netherlands, Denmark and Belgium.

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Figure 1. World consumption, wholesale and export value of cut flowers

total
global

8,000 15,000 7,000 consumption

€ 30 bln
Europe
5,500 Japan wholesale
China value
2,700 € 10 bln
USA 150 Netherlands
3
Netherlands 50 2,300
1
2,000
Mediterr. 400
Mediterr. 20 2
70 export
€ 4.8 bln
- Israel
180
Asia
Asia
700 200 300
S- Kenya
S-America
America Africa
Africa - 150

Source::BBH2001 2001

2.4. Floriculture in Africa

Cut-flower production in Africa is highly competitive to any professional grower in the
world. Especially with regard to the European growers the competition is becoming fierce.
Developing countries in general, and several least developed countries in particular, have
comparative advantages for developing their exports of cut flowers and other floriculture
products, based on land, labor and climate. Their shares in the world import markets can be
increased substantially, if supported by appropriate export development policies and
strategies.

The first cut-flower nurseries were established in Kenya in 1969, which originally is a tea and
coffee producing country. Nowadays Kenya is the largest African cut-flower grower,
followed by Ethiopia, South Africa, and Uganda. Other promising countries on the market are
Zambia, and Tanzania.

Traditionally, family farms, growing cut flowers are a minority in Africa. The professional
companies consist of large-scale nurseries owned by local and foreign investors, banks,
wealthy individuals, cut-flower growers from Western Europe and local governments. At the

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major nurseries, the number of employees varies from a hundred to even thousands of people.
The managers of most farms are often expatriates in most parts of African countries.

Developing countries benefit from the transferred technology, developing infrastructures, and
knowledge and transport facilities. Bulk flower production is intended primarily for export to
the European market, although there is increasing export to the Asian market as well. The
quality of the flowers is very good at the time of harvesting but the products lose quality due
to poor transport conditions. Africa used to produce primarily roses, carnations and other
summer flowers such as Limonium, Gypsophila, and Hypericum. Nowadays the growing of
roses is increasing, because higher prices can be obtained on the export markets. Due to the
political environment in certain countries, ongoing investment in floriculture is under
pressure. In this regard, Zimbabwe is a good example. The future of floriculture in Africa
greatly depends on the political circumstances and produce quality. Accurate figures about
the area cultivated are not available but the following table concerning the development of
roses gives a good idea about the dynamics in this sector.

Export from West Africa is very limited at the moment. More significant is the growth in
exports from East, Central, and Southern Africa. About 90% of the total export comes from
these regions. The growth in export mainly comes from roses and summer flowers. Most of
the flowers from Africa find their way to the Netherlands, and few to USA and Russia. In
Europe, export goes directly through the Dutch auction system.

2.5. Floriculture in Ethiopia

2.5.1. Current status

It is now more than twenty years since Ethiopia’s horticultural potential, for export of fresh
produce and cut flowers to European off-season market, and more than forty years for exports
of fresh fruits and vegetables to Djibouti market, was first realized. The original export
potential first identified in the country still exists, but remains largely dormant and untested.
Rather partially squandered under the previous regime. Recently, however, the country has
made ornamental horticulture an important activity as a means of diversifying export, and
very recently few commercial floriculture units have been established mainly with foreign
collaboration and direct local and foreign investment. In no more than 7 years Ethiopia
became the second largest flower exporter to the EU market from Africa next to Kenya. The
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number of exporting farms reached about 88 at least until January 2011. Among these 68
farms are producing cut roses.
The remaining are summer flower companies (13), cutting farms (5), and vegetable farms.
The main types of cuttings are geranium, and poinsettia each with large number of varieties.
There are also 8 farms specializing on filler flowers production. The main varieties are
Hypericum, and Eryngium. The stems price for summer flower is relatively higher
particularly for the variety of Eryngium.

Most of the flower farms are located in a radius of 50 kms from Addis Ababa and clustered in
local areas like Holeta, Slulta, Sebeta, Ziway, Debre Zeit, and Koka.
Unlike to other sectors, foreign development investment has heavy presence in the flower
sector. As per the available publication (Mulu, 2008), 26 flower farms (40.6%) are fully
foreign owned and 23 (35.5%) fully domestic owned farms. The number of foreign owned or
joint venture with 50% and above reaches 51 (i.e. 64%). Holland, India and Israel takes the
lead with about 34%, 22% and 12% of the total number of foreign owned farms respectively

2.5.2. Type of products

Roses are the major flower in terms of production and export volumes in Ethiopia. It accounts
for 77% of flower covered land, 62% of total exported stems, and 85% of total export
revenue in 2007. Within roses there are three main groups based on their length of stems and
size of the buds.
 sweetheart (30-40 cm stems and small buds),
 intermediates (40-60 cm in stem length)
 T-hybrids (60-80 cm).
The majority of farms (about two-third) are producing and exporting the intermediates type
of rose. T-hybrid rose is the second largest export. Apart from roses, cut flowers such as,
carnation, Freesia, statice, Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Gypsophilia, Lilium, and Allium are
grown for export and local markets at substantial volume.

2.5.3. Opportunities and Prospects

There are enormous opportunities for the expansion and diversification of floriculture sector
in Ethiopia.
1. The country has a favorable climate, abundant land and labor, reasonable proximity to
the main markets (Europe). Ethiopia is endowed with 14 major rivers and 7 major lakes
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 with the potential of 16.5 million hectares of arable land out of which only 5.6 million
hectares is cultivated. Similarly, out of the potential of 3.5 million irrigable land, which
is suitable for horticulture production only 3% is cultivated.
2. In recent years, the country has made a significant economic policy change towards
improving the overall export sector and a number of bottlenecks were removed. In line
with this the government has introduced the following important investment incentives.
 Duty-free importation of capital goods and raw materials
 No price control on export items
 Tax holiday, one to five years
 Loss carry forward system
 Retaining of any foreign exchange earning to purchase equipments, raw
materials and to use for payment like loyalty commission
 Investment protection; the country is a member of Multilateral Investment
Guarantee Agency (MIGA).

3. Ethiopian Horticulture producers and Exporters Association (EHPEA), formed in 2002,

brings together all stakeholders in the flower industry. Apart from this, very recently,
Ethio-Horti Share Company has been formed by EHPEA members to primarily engage
in horticulture export handling, forwarding, cold storage services and chartering, but
will eventually involve in other business support services to the industry as deemed
necessary. There are 30 share holders including the EHPEA. The rest of the companies
paid money to buy shares for EHPEA, which is a clear sign of the commitment of
members to make the association a self-financing organization.

4. Suitable land at elevation of 2100-2400 m.a.s.l. with favorable climate and easy
proximity to an international airport is secured. Until August 2004 more than 1500
hectares of land, located in the vicinity of Addis Ababa, was distributed to 60
companies, engaged on cut flowers production (EHPEA, personal communication).

Commercial floriculture is still relatively a new industry in Ethiopia. Presently, about 30

companies are under project implementation work including the 7 exporting companies
which have expanded by more than 100% this year. Currently, the government is preparing
additional 2000 hectares of suitable land for flower and ornamental plants production. Land
covered under greenhouse has shown an increasing trend over the past few years. In 2003 the
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total area was about 25 hectares. In 2005, the area increased to about 100 hectares. This
number is expected to rise to 450 hectares in 2006 (EHPEA, personal communication).

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CHAPTER TWO

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWER PLANTS

1. Scientific and Botanical Systems of Classification

Scientific systems of classification go beyond the superficial or natural system by employing

a number of criteria that include morphological, anatomical, ultra-structural, physiological,
phytochemical, cytological, and evolutionary (phylogenetical) criteria. Pyrame de Candole is
credited with the introduction of the term taxonomy as the science of classifying and naming
plants. Taxonomy is sometimes used synonymously with systematics. The latter, however, is
a field of biology involved with the study of diversity among organisms to establish their
natural (evolutionary) relationships, making taxonomy a discipline of systematics.

In plant identification, individuals are assigned to a descending series of related plants, based
on their known common characteristics. For example, a marigold plant is first placed in a
more distant group with plants that have seed, then among seed plants with flowers, and
eventually in the most closely associated groups of varieties of marigold. In terms of
botanical nomenclature (naming plants), Carolus Linnaeus is credited with developing the
current Latin-based system called the binomial nomenclature (because an individual is
given two names, as opposed to the polynomial system, which was more descriptive). The
international body that sets the rules for naming plants by this system publishes the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) to provide guidelines for
standardizing the naming of plants. These rules are revised as new scientific evidence
becomes available.
Seven general classification categories have been defined in plants. These classifications can
be arranged in order from the most inclusive group (kingdom) to the least inclusive group
(species). Accordingly, the major classification categories of living organisms are kingdom,
division, class, order, family, genus and species. Each of these groups constitutes a taxon. In
addition to these basic groups, subcategories are used in certain cases. These include levels
such as subdivision, subclass, suborder, subspecies, and variety (cultivar).
According to the binomial nomenclature, each individual has a two-part name; the first part is
called the genus and the second part is called species.

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2. Operational Classification
A number of operational classification systems are employed simultaneously in the field of
floriculture. The following are some of the major systems.

2.1. Classification Based on Growth Cycle.

Growth cycle refers to the period from first establishment (e.g. by seed) to when the
plant dies. The three categories are as follows:
i. Annuals.An annual plant lives through only one growing season, completing its life
cycle (seed, seedling, flowering, fruiting, and death) in that period. This group includes
many weeds, garden flowers, vegetables, and wild flowers. The duration of a life cycle
is variable and may be a few weeks to several months, depending on the species.
Annual ornamentals are planted each season. Flowering annuals are prominent in the
landscape in favorable seasons, providing most of the color. Versatile landscape plants
can be used to fill in gaps, provide color in bulb beds after the bulbs have bloomed, and
create colorful flower beds, hanging baskets (flowers grown in containers and hung),
and cut flowers (flowers grown and cut for use). Popular annual flowers are zinnia
(Zinnia elegans), African marigold (Tagetes erecta), Mexican Aster (Cosmos
bipinnatus), balsam (Impatiens balsamina), bachelor’s button (Gompherena globosa),
pot marigold (Calendula officinalis), Lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum) (Syn.
Lisianthus russellianus), sweet alyssum (Lobularia maritime (syn. Alyssum maritimum),
cock’s comb (Celosia argetea), giant larkspur (Consolida ambigua), poppy (Papaver
rhoeas), and phlox (Phlox drummondii).

In cultivation, certain ornamental plants such as petunia (Petunia X hybrida), sage

(Salvia splendens), evening primrose (Oenothera tetragon), pansy (Viola tricolor),
snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus,) spider flower (Cleome hassleriana) and verbena
(Verbena hybrida) are produced on an annual cycle.

ii. Biennials. A biennial is a plant that completes its life cycle in two growing seasons. In
the first season, it produces only basal leaves; it grows a stem, produces flowers and
fruits, and dies in the second season. Some plants in this group may require certain
special environmental condition or treatment such as exposure to a cold temperature
(vernalization) to be induced to enter the reproductive phase. Biennial ornamentals are
vegetative in their first year of growth and bloom in the next season. Examples of
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 biennials are onion (Allium cepa), double daisy (Bellis perennis), fox glove (Digitalis
purpurea), holly hook (Alcea rosea) (syn. Althaea rosea), sweet William (Dianthus
barbatus), and stock (Matthiola incana).

iii. Perennials. Perennials may be herbaceous or woody. They persist year-round through
the adverse weather of the non-growing seasons (winter or drought) and then flower and
fruit after a variable number of years of vegetative growth beyond the second year.
Since perennials live for a long time in the landscape, locating them requires a great
deal of thought and planning.

2.2. Classification Based on Growth Habit

i. Herbaceous Ornamental Plants

Herbaceous plants are non woody. They survive the unfavorable season as dormant
underground structures (e.g. roots, rhizomes, bulbs, corms and tubers.) Most of
commercially important ornamental plants belong to this group. They have a wide variety
of uses in landscapes as well. They may be classified in various ways. Herbaceous
perennials may be flowering or non-flowering.

a. Flowering herbaceous perennials may be planted in flower beds to provide early

blooms, after which annuals may be planted. Examples of flowering herbaceous
perennials include daylilies (Lilium spp.), irises (Iris spp.), bird of paradise (Strelitzia
reginae), baby’s breath (Gypsophila paniculata), geranium (Pelargonium spp.), lily-
of-the Nile (Agapanthus orientalis), carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus), gerbera
(Gerbera jamesonii), flamingo flower (Anthurium spp.), mum (Chrysanthemum spp.),
arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), sword lily (Gladiolus X hortulanus), Indian short
(Cana indica), Dahlia (Dahlia spp.), tulip (Tulipa hybrida), amaryllis (Hippeastrum
hybrida), freesia (Freesia refracta), daylily (Hemerocallis lilio-asphodelus), peace
lily (Spatiphyllum wallisii), African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha), alstroemeria
(Alstroemeria aurea), daffodil (Narcissus spp.), hyacinth(Hyacinthus orientals),
statice (Limonium spp.), crocus (Crocus spp.) and orchids(Cattelya, Phalaenopsis,
Cymbidium, Vanda, Laelia, etc.).

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 b. Foliage or non-flowering herbaceous perennials are popular for indoor use in house
and offices as potted plants. These plants can also be displayed in the front side, steps
or terrace of the house. Examples are coleus (coleus blumei), freckle face (Hypestes
phyllostachya), snake plant (Sansevieria trifasciata), dumb cane (Dieffenbachia
seguine), angel’s wings (Caladium hortulanum), ribbon plant (Chloropytum
comosum), spiderworts (Tradescantia spp.), painted leaf (Begonia rex), zebra plant
(Calathea zebrine), plantain lily (Hosta spp.), blood leaf (Iresine spp.), taros
(Colocasia escuenta), prayer plant (Maranta leuconeura), wild ginger (Asarum
europaeum), wax privet (Peperomia spp.), silver net-leaf (Fittonia verschaffeltii),
Ctenanthe oppenheimiana, and ferns (Nephrolepis, Asplenium, etc.).

Herbaceous plants may also be categorized as:

a. Bedding plants. Bedding plants are mainly annual plants raised for planting out doors
in flower beds. They are usually started from seed indoors in the off season and
transplanted later in the growing season. Examples include petunia (Petunia spp.),
zinnia (Zinnia elegans), pansy (Viola tricolor), and marigold (Tagetes spp.).

b. Hanging plants. Hanging basket plants are annual or perennial, flowering or foliage
that are grown in decorative containers and hung by equally elegant ropes from the
ceiling in the patio, in the doorway area, or from decorative plant poles. Examples are
geranium (Pelargonium spp.), spider plant (Chloropytum comosum), and spiderworts
(Tradescantia spp.).
c. Houseplants. Indoor plants or houseplants are plants adapted to indoor conditions.
They are grown in containers to enhance the appearances of rooms, and are usually
slow growing. House plants may be flowering or foliage plants. Examples are snake
plant (Sansevieria spp.), wild ginger (Asarum europaeum), dumb cane (Dieffenbachia
seguine), zebra plant (Calathea zebrine), African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha), Swiss
cheese plant (Monstera delciosa), and philodendron (Philodendron selloum).

ii. Woody Ornamental Plants

Woody perennials may be vines, shrubs, or trees. These plants do not die back in adverse
seasons but usually suspend active growth. Although some perennials may flower in the
first year of planting, woody perennials flower only when they become adult plants. This
stage may be attained within a few years or even after 100 years.
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 Woody ornamentals differ in size and growth pattern. Some shed their leaves and are called
deciduous, whereas others maintain fresh leaves year-round and are called evergreen.
Some are shrubs, and others are trees. Woody ornamentals may be grown in a perennial
garden along with herbaceous perennials. When choosing these plants, attention should be
paid to growth habit, color, texture, shape, and adaptation.

A. Shrubs.
A shrub is a perennial woody plant of relatively low stature and usually produces multiple
stems that arise from the ground or very close to it. It is smaller than a tree in height.
Handsome with its dense foliage and bright colored flowers, it is considered as an
attraction for any garden. Shrubs give triple pleasure in a garden, namely, color, fragrance
and privacy. Shrubs are also used as hedges. Shrubs, which may be used as hedge plants
or groundcover, can be classified as deciduous or evergreen.

i. Deciduous shrubs. Deciduous shrubs shed their leaves at some point in the year.
Examples are smoke bush (Cotinus coggygria), show-ball plant (Hydrangea
macrophylla), lilac (Sylinga vulgaris), honey suckle (Lonicera japonica), and
barberry (Berberis spp.).

ii. Evergreen shrubs. Evergreen shrubs may be further divided into two groups
according to leaf size.
a. Narrowleaf. Narrowleaf shrubs have needlelike leaves as in pine (Pinus spp.) and
juniper (Juniperus spp.).
b. Broadleaf. Broadleaf shrubs have large leaf lamina as in oleander (Nerium
oleander), glory bush (Tibouchina urvilleana), Christmas plant (Euphorbia
pulcherrima), croton (Codiaeum variegatum), Abutilon pictum, camellia japonica,
Gardenia spp., bottle brush (Callistemon rigidus), and rhododendron
(Rhododendron fulvum).

B. Trees
A tree is a woody perennial with a distinct trunk, grown mostly for its colorful blossoms,
shade, shelter and edible fruits. Trees are the largest plant materials in the landscape and
thus should be located with care. They can overwhelm a house in the adult stage if

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 inappropriate trees species are planted. Trees can also modify the local climate (e.g., as
shade trees or wind breaks).
i. Deciduous trees. Examples of deciduous trees are birch (Betula papyrifera), floss-silk
tree (Chorisia speciosa), Jacaranda mimosifolia, Plumeria rubra, Bauhinia varigata,
Erythrina abyssinica, Ulmus spp., and willow (Salix spp.).
ii. Evergreen trees.
a. Narrow-leaf. Examples of narrowleaf evergreen trees are spruce (Picea spp.), red
cedar (Juniperus virginiana) and Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria heterophylla).
Broad-leaf. Examples of broadleaf evergreen trees are holly (llex opaca), flame of the forest
(Spathodea campunulata), rubber plant (Ficus elastica), dragon tree (Dracaena drago),
yellow bells (Tecoma stans), and silky oak (Graviellia robusta).

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 CHAPTER THREE
IDENTIFICATION OF MAJOR FLORICULTURE CROPS
1. Cut flowers
Cut flowers are flowers or flower buds (often with some stem and leaf) that have been cut
from the plant bearing it. It is usually removed from the plant for decorative use. Typical uses
are in vase displays, wreaths, and garlands. Many home gardeners harvest flowers from their
own gardens, but there is a significant international floral industry for cut flowers. The plants
cropped vary by climate, culture and the level of wealth locally. Often the plants are raised
specifically for the purpose, in field or glasshouse growing conditions. Cut flowers can also
be harvested from the wild.
2. Potted plants
These plants are adapted to indoor conditions and for home and small gardens. They are
grown in containers, usually slow growing, and mostly foliage plants, some flowering plants
also used as potted plants. Examples are Sansevieria (Sansevieria spp.), Indian Rubber plant
(Ficus elastica), Philodendron (Philodendron spp.).
3. Bedding plants
These are annual plants raised for planting outdoors in flower beds. It starts from sowing
seeds indoors in the off-season and transplanted later in the growing season. Examples;
includes Petunia (Petunia spp.), Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), Pansy (Viola tricolor).

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 CHAPTER FOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT GROWTH
Environmental Factors Light, water, temperature, humidity, ventilation, fertilization, and soil
are chief factors affecting plant growth, and any one of these factors in incorrect proportions
will prevent proper plant growth indoors.
Light: Light is probably the most essential factor for house plant growth. The growth of
plants and the length of time they remain active depend on the amount of light they receive.
Light is necessary for all plants because they use this energy source to photosynthesize.
When examining light levels for tropicals, consider three aspects of light:
(1) Intensity,
(2) Duration, and
(3) Quality.
Light intensity influences the manufacture of plant food, stem length, leaf color, and
flowering. A geranium grown in low light tends to be spindly and the leaves light green in
color. A similar plant grown in very bright light would tend to be shorter, better branched,
and have larger, dark green leaves. House plants can be classified according to their light
needs, such as high, medium and low light requirements. The intensity of light a plant
receives indoors depends upon the nearness of the light source to the plant (light intensity
decreases rapidly as you move away from the source of light). The direction the windows in
your home face will affect the intensity of natural sunlight that plants receive. Southern
exposures have the most intense light, eastern and western exposures receive about 60
percent of the intensity of southern exposures, and northern exposures receive 20 percent of a
southern exposure. A southern exposure is the warmest, eastern and western are less warm
and a northern exposure is the coolest. Other factors which can influence the intensity of light
penetrating a window are the presence of curtains, trees outside the window, weather, seasons
of the year, shade from other buildings and the cleanliness of the window. Reflective (light
colored) surfaces inside the home/office will increase the intensity of light available to plants.
Dark surfaces will decrease light intensity. Day-length or duration of light received by plants
is also of some importance, but generally only to those house plants which are photosensitive.
Poinsettia, kalanchoe, and Christmas cactus bud and flower only when day-length is short (11
hours of daylight or less). Most flowering house plants are indifferent to day-length. Low
light intensity can be compensated by increasing the time (duration) the plant is exposed to
light, as long as the plant is not sensitive to day-length in its flowering response. Increased
hours of lighting allow the plant to make sufficient food to survive and/or grow. However,
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plants require some period of darkness to develop properly and thus should be illuminated for
no more than 16 hours. Excessive light is as harmful as too little light. When a plant gets too
much direct light, the leaves become pale, sometimes sunburn, turn brown, and die.
Therefore, during the summer months, protect plants from too much direct sunlight.
Additional lighting may be supplied by either incandescent or fluorescent lights. Incandescent
lights produce a great deal of heat and are not very efficient users of electricity. If artificial
lights are to be used as the only source of light for growing plants, the quality of light
(wavelength) must be considered. For photosynthesis, plants require mostly blues and reds
but for flowering, infrared light is also needed. Incandescent lights produce mostly red, and
some infrared light, but are very low in blues. Fluorescent lights vary according to the
phosphorus used by the manufacturer. Cool white lights produce mostly blue light and are
low in red light. Foliage plants grow well under cool white fluorescent lights and these lights
are cool enough to position quite close to plants. Blooming plants require extra infrared
which can be supplied by incandescent lights, or special horticultural type fluorescent lights.
Water
Over- and under-watering account for a large percentage of tropical plant losses. The most
common question home gardeners ask is, "How often should I water my plants?" There is not
a good answer to this question. Some plants like drier conditions than others. Differences in
soil or potting medium and environment influence water needs. Watering as soon as the soil
crust dries, results in overwatering. House plant roots are usually in the bottom two-thirds of
the pot, so do not water until the bottom two-thirds starts to dry out slightly. You can't tell
this by looking. You have to feel the soil. For a 6-inch pot, stick your index finger about 2
inches into the soil (approximately to the second joint of your finger). If the soil feels damp,
don't water. Keep repeating the test until the soil is barely moist at the 2-inch depth. For
smaller pots, 1 inch into the soil is the proper depth to measure. Water the pot until water runs
out of the bottom. This serves two purposes. First, it washes out all the excess salts (fertilizer
residue). Second, it guarantees that the bottom two-thirds of the pot, which contains most of
the roots, receives sufficient water. However, don't let the pot sit in the water that runs out.
After a thorough watering, wait until the soil dries at the 2-inch depth before watering again.
When you test for watering, pay attention to the soil. If your finger can't penetrate 2 inches
deep, you either need a more porous soil mix, or the plant is becoming root-bound.

Temperature
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Most house plants tolerate normal temperature fluctuations. In general, foliage house plants
grow best between 70 and 80 degrees Fahrenheit during the day and from 60 to 68 degrees
Fahrenheit at night. Most flowering house plants prefer the same daytime range but grow best
at nighttime temperatures from 55 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit. The lower night temperature
induces physiological recovery from moisture loss, intensifies flower color, and prolongs
flower life. Excessively low or high temperatures may cause plant failures, stop growth, or
cause spindly appearance and foliage damage or drop. A cooler temperature at night is
actually more desirable for plant growth than higher temperatures. A good rule of thumb is to
keep the night temperature 10 to 15 degrees lower than the day temperature.
Humidity
Atmospheric humidity is expressed as a percentage of the moisture saturation of air. Two
ways to provide increased humidity are by attaching a humidifier to the heating or ventilating
system in the home or placing gravel trays (in which an even moisture level is maintained)
under the flower pots or containers. This will increase the relative humidity in the vicinity of
the containers. As the moisture around the pebbles evaporates, the relative humidity is raised.
Another way to raise humidity is to group plants close together. You can also spray a fine
mist on the foliage although this is of doubtful effectiveness for total humidity modification.
Do this early in the day so that the plants will be dry by night. This lessens the chance of
disease since cool dampness at night provides an ideal environment for disease infection.
Ventilation
House plants, especially flowering varieties, are very sensitive to drafts or heat from registers.
Forced air dries the plants rapidly, overtaxes their limited root systems, and may cause
damage or plant loss. House plants are sensitive to natural or blended gas. Some plants refuse
to flower, while others drop flower buds and foliage when exposed to gases. Blended gases
are more toxic to house plants than natural gases. Tomato plants are extremely sensitive to
gas. They will turn yellow before the escaping gas is detected by household members and are
sometimes used in greenhouses as indicator plants for excessive ethylene gas resulting from
incomplete combustion in gas furnaces.
Fertilization
House plants, like most other plants, need fertilizers containing three major plant food
elements: nitrogen (N), phosphoric acid (P), and potassium (K). They are available in many
different combinations and under a multitude of brand names. Each brand should be analyzed
on the label, indicating specifically how much water-soluble elemental nitrogen, phosphate,
or potash is available in every pound of the product. The majority of these fertilizers are
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about 20- 20-20. The first figure indicates available nitrogen; the second, available
phosphate; and the third, water-soluble potassium. Commercial fertilizers used for house
plants are sold in granular, crystalline, liquid, or tablet forms. Each should be used according
to instructions on the package label or even more diluted. Frequency of fertilizer application
varies somewhat with the vigor of growth and age of each plant. Some need it every 2 weeks,
while others will flower well for several months without needing any supplement. As a
general rule, use a fertilizer recommended every 2 weeks from March to September. During
the winter months no fertilizer need be added at all because reduced light and temperature
result in reduced growth. Fertilizing at this time could be detrimental to some house plants.
When applying fertilizer in a solution, make sure that some runs out of the bottom of the pot.
This prevents root burn and the buildup of soluble salts or excess fertilizer and reduces the
chance of burning the plant.
Soluble Salts
Reduced growth, brown leaf tips, dropping of lower leaves, small new growth, dead root tips,
and wilting are all signs of high soluble salts. These salts will accumulate on top of the soil
forming a yellow to white crust. A ring of salt deposits may be formed around the pot at the
soil line or around the drainage hole. Salts will also build up on the outside of clay pots.
Soluble salts are minerals dissolved in water. Fertilizer dissolved in water becomes a soluble
salt. When water evaporates from the soil the minerals or salts stay behind. As the salts in the
soil become more and more concentrated, plants find it harder and harder to take up water. If
salts build up to an extremely high level, water can be taken out of the root tips causing them
to die. High soluble salts damage the roots directly, and because the plant is weakened, it is
more susceptible to attack from insects and diseases. One of the most common problems
associated with high salt levels is root rot. The best way to prevent soluble salt injury is to
stop the salts from building up. Water correctly. When you water, allow some water to drain
through and then empty the drip plate. Water equal to one-tenth the volume of the pot should
drain through each time you water. Do not allow the pot to sit in water. If you allow the
drained water to be absorbed by the soil, the salts that were washed out are taken back into
the soil. Salts can be reabsorbed through the drainage hole or directly through a clay pot.
Plants should be leached every four to six months. You should leach a plant before you
fertilize so that you don't wash away all the fertilizer you just added. Leaching is done by
pouring a lot of water on the soil and letting it drain completely. The amount of water used
for leaching should equal twice the volume of the pot. A 6-inch pot will hold 10 cups of
water so 20 cups of water are used to leach a plant in a 6-inch pot. Keep the water running
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through the soil to wash the salts out. If a layer of salts has formed a crust on top of the soil,
you should remove the salt crust before you begin to leach. Do not remove more than 1/4
inch of soil. It is best not to add more soil to the top of the pot. If the soluble salt level is
extremely high or the pot has no drainage, repot the plant. The level of salts that will cause
injury varies with the type of plant and how it is being grown. A plant grown in the home
may be injured by salts at concentrations of 200 ppm. The same plant growing in a
greenhouse where the light and drainage are good will grow with salts at 10 times that level,
or 2,000 ppm. Some nurseries and plant shops leach plants to remove excess salts before the
plant is sold. If you are not sure that has been done, leach a newly purchased plant the first
time you water it.

Soil Structure and Composition of Soil Air:

Soil structure has a profound influence on plant growth especially on root and top growth of
plants. The structure of soil also determines the bulk density of a soil. As a rule, the higher
the bulk density, the more compact the soil, the more poorly defined soil structure and the
smaller the amount of pore space and therefore, the plant growth is restricted.

High bulk densities inhibit the emergence of seedlings and also offer increased mechanical
resistance to root penetration. Bulk density also influences the rate of diffusion of oxygen
into the soil pore spaces and root respiration which in turn affect the plant growth to a great
extent. The oxygen supply at the root absorbing surface is critical.

Hence not only is the gross oxygen level of the soil air important, but also the rate at which
oxygen diffuses through the soil to maintain an adequate partial pressure at the root surface.
So it may be concluded that good soil structure and aeration are imperative for maximum
yields of most agricultural crops (excepting rice) and the limiting effect is an inadequate root
oxygen supply which can influence the plant growth.

Soil Reaction:
Soil reaction (acidity or alkalinity) affect plant growth and nutrition through the influence of
various physico-chemical, chemical and biological properties of soil. The availability of
phosphorus is low in acid soils high in Fe and Al. On the other hand the availability of Mn is
also low in soils having high pH values and high organic matter content.

A decline in the availability of Mo results from a decrease in soil pH. Very frequently it is
observed that the concentration of Mn and Al is so high in acid soils that cause toxicity to
plants. High soil pH (pH > 8.0) will favour the conversion of water soluble phosphorus into
less soluble forms resulting lower availability to plants.

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Besides nutritional aspects, some soil borne diseases are influenced by soil reaction. Potato
scab, root of tobacco etc. are favoured by neutral to alkaline soil conditions and these
diseases can be controlled by lowering the soil pH (acidic soil reaction).

Absence of Growth Inhibiting Substances:

The growth and development of plants can be restricted or inhibited by toxic
substances like higher concentrations of nutrient elements (Fe, Al and Mn) and
certain organic acids (lactic acid, butyric acid, propionic acid etc.).

Besides these, waste materials from mines and metallurgical operations, sewage
systems, pesticides, animal and poultry enterprises, garbage collections, paper mills
etc. also produce toxic substances in soils which finally affect plant growth and
nutrition.

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CHAPTER FIVE
MANIPULATION OF GROWTH ENVIRONMENT

Manipulation of Light in Greenhouses

Light modification can improve plant traits such as growth habit, foliage quality, flower
production and can also assist with insect pest and disease managements. In the greenhouse
light quality manipulation can be achieved with supplementary lighting with specific
wavelength or spectrum filtering greenhouses covers that can filter out of specific through
absorption or reflection. For example, reducing the far red light and increasing the blue light
experienced by the plant results in shorter, darker-colored and stronger plant.

A. Controlling Light Intensity (Quantity)

The Light level might need to be increased or decreased to maintain optimal levels. Different
plant species have different optimal light levels. However, for a given species, plant spacing,
nutritional level and plant age can affect the optimal light level. For example, the optimal
light level for a tomato seedling is lower than that for a well established and actively growing
tomato.

Two methods are commonly used to reduce light levels in greenhouses.

i. The first is the application of a shading compound to the glazing. There are several
commercially available shading compounds. However, a mixture of 1 part white latex
paint to 20 parts water works well. The shading compound is applied to the glazing
(on the outside of the greenhouse).
ii. The second method is to block out a portion of the light with some type of shading
screen made of cloth, polypropylene, polyester, or aluminum-coated polyester. These
systems may be placed on the exterior of the greenhouse or on the interior.

Often, particularly in northern climates in the fall and winter months, increasing light levels is
required. Light levels that are too low can cause flower bud abortion, reduced growth rates,
longer internodes, lower quality, and increased disease incidence. Selection of a glazing that
allows maximum light transmittance, minimizing obstructions, keeping the glazing clean, and
increasing plant spacing are all ways of increasing the amount of light reaching the plants.

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However, these measures may not be enough and supplemental lighting may be required to
increase light levels.

Supplemental Lighting in Greenhouses

In greenhouses artificial light is used in several ways. The most important application is the
use for supplementing day light in greenhouses to increase the irradiance level for
photosynthesis. Another application is to increase the day length (photoperiodism). Before
selecting a light source for greenhouse or growth chamber lighting, numerous factors should
be considered. Among these are the total energy emitted by the lamp, efficiency (% of
electrical energy converted to light energy), wavelengths emitted (especially in the 400 to 700
nm wavelengths), cost and life expectancy.

Types of Lamps Used in Controlled Environments

1. Incandescent lamps (tungsten-filament)
These lamps are generally not used for supplemental lighting in greenhouses for
photosynthetic purposes. A large portion of the radiation given off by these lamps is in the
form of infrared (heat). Because of this, their efficiency rating is only 7%. Incandescent
lamps range from 40 to 500 watts. Life span ranges from 750 to 1000 hours. In order to
produce enough light for effective photosynthetic lighting, a large number of these lights
would be required. Further, most of the visible radiation that these lamps produce is far-red
wavelengths that cause plants to become tall and to have weak stems. However, because
relatively low light levels are required for photoperiodic lighting, incandescent plants are
suitable and commonly used for this purpose.

2. Fluorescent Lamps
These lamps are most commonly used in growth chambers and seed germination rooms. They
are rarely used to produce crops in greenhouses. As with incandescent lamps, a large number
of lamps would be required to produce enough light to benefit the crop. Fluorescent lamps are
more efficient than incandescent lamps (20% efficiency) and provide their light over a
broader spectrum (more in the blue region) than incandescent lamps.

3. A High-Pressure Sodium Lamp

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A high-pressure sodium lamp (e.g. SON-T) combines a very good spectral energy
distribution with a very high radiant efficiency, small size, long technical life, low
depreciation and a constant radiant flux with a spectral energy distribution that is suited to
several crops. For these reasons the SON-T lamp is commonly used for supplementary
lighting in greenhouses.

B. Controlling Photoperiod in Greenhouses

Photoperiod, or the number of hours of light in a 24-hour period, changes dramatically during
the year in temperate regions of the world. For many floriculture crops, photoperiod controls
growth and flowering, and a small change in photoperiod can mean the difference between
vegetative growth and rapid flowering. For example, poinsettias and chrysanthemums
develop vegetative growth when the photoperiod is long and flowers when the photoperiod is
shorter. Other plants, including many herbaceous perennials, flower when the photoperiod, or
day length, exceeds a set duration. By knowing how day length affects plant development in
photoperiodic species, we can manipulate the natural photoperiod to promote vegetative
growth (such as to bulk up plant size or for cutting production) or flowering, whichever is
desired. Therefore, successful production of many crops requires an understanding of how
plants respond to photoperiod, how photoperiod changes during the year and how to modify
the photoperiod to control growth and development.

In floriculture, day length is most commonly manipulated by providing night interruption

lighting or by decreasing day length (Night Extension) using black cloth both. The techniques
can be automated with only periodic maintenance required.

1. Decreasing Day Length (Night Extension)

Short days can be created by blocking out all light with black plastic or cloth. Many growers
use black cloth to provide short days to induce flowering of poinsettias, chrysanthemums and
other short-day plants. Temperatures may rise on covered crop and usually reduced by
delaying closing of the black cloth or using white or reflective cloth and running cooling
system under cloth. Time of covering will be from 5pm-7am. This night time is preferred to
avoid heat build up under the cover. When natural day lengths are short and black cloth is not
used, and growers should be aware of "light pollution." Light pollution is light coming in
from nearby greenhouses, street lights or other areas bright enough for plants to perceive,
which can cause undesired growth and flowering. The opening and closing of black cloths for

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 photoperiod control is often automated. Such cloths require consistent monitoring and
maintenance to ensure smooth operation.

Duration and Frequency of Covering

Short-day treatment is continued only as long as it is needed. Generally, black cloth should be
continued until flower buds are visible. However, in the case of chrysanthemums, black cloth
should be continued until the flowers are showing color. Poinsettias (Poinsettia pulcherima)
require that black cloths be used until the first flower buds completely opened. Generally the
black clothes are pulled every day since each day skipped means flowering will be delayed
by the same number of days. In addition if too many days are skipped the plants will not
flower or flowers will be malformed.

2. Extending Day Length (Night Interruption Lighting)

During short-day photoperiods, we may use supplemental lighting to increase photoperiod.
This is usually accomplished using incandescent lamps. These lamps may be turned on for 4 -
8 hours at sunset or before sunrise. More commonly, the lights are turned on during the
middle of the night (night interruption). Night interruption has been shown to be the most
effective method of creating a long-day photoperiod. For this method, lights are usually
turned on at 10:00PM and turned off at 2:00AM. For day-extension lighting, lamps should be
turned on around sunset and remain on until the desired photoperiod is completed. For
example, to create a 16-hour photoperiod, if sunrise is at 6:45 am, lamps should be turned on
within 15 minutes of sunset and turned off at 10:30 pm.
Night interruption is used to prevent flowering of short day stock plants or to delay flower
initiation on short day plants. Night interruption lighting is also known as night breaks (NB),
can also be used to induce flowering of long day plants. To break the night or to extend the
day length growers usually use artificial light- Incandescent or Fluorescent light. Usually,
incandescent lights are used because they are inexpensive and produce sufficient levels of red
light to induce the photoperiodic response.
Some Examples of Photoperiod Control
The best example is Chrysanthemum. When this plant is exposed for 12 hour they will
flower, however, at longer day condition (≥14 hour light) only vegetative growth will occur.
Hence chrysanthemums can be scheduled to flower for any day of the year by providing
artificial light to keep plants vegetative or by placing plants under SD black cloth to induce
flowering. If they are proposed for stock plant they kept under long day. If they are for cut

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flower production they should be kept under short day, for the second case the following
points should be known:
a. The Response group of the cultivars:-
i. early flowering cultivars (shortest response group) - 4-6 weeks but can
flower at any time
ii. late flowering cultivars (Obligate SD) are cut flowers -11weeks
b. For how long the SD treatment should stay:- 8 weeks for pot plant and 11 weeks
for cut flowers
c. When to start SD treatment after planting:- for all cut flowers 3-4 weeks of long day
should be given before starting short day, to lengthen the stem
d. When to end SD treatment:- after terminal flower buds begin to show petal color

C. Controlling Light Quality in Greenhouses

Controlling the ration of the red (R) and far-red (FR) light, play an important role in defining
the architecture of the plant and consequently its value in the market. Some research work
revealed that the manipulation of light quality as an alternative to the use of plant growth
regulators (PGRs).
Growers are commonly used incandescent and fluorescent lamps to manipulate light quality.
Incandescent lamps yield high in far-red wavelengths and usually applied to increase
internode elongation. Fluorescent lamp provides high in red wavelengths and is
recommended for height control. Light with a high red to far-red light ratio, such as that
produced when sunlight is filtered through a copper sulfate solution, will reduce elongation.

2. Temperature effects and its manipulation

Effects of Air Temperature on Plant Physiological Processes

Higher temperature is known to limit vegetative and reproductive processes of many crops
and ultimately reduces yield. In addition many physiological processes are disturbed as the
result of high temperature stress. Temperature above the optimum value influences rate of
photosynthesis, respiration rate, rate of metabolic synthesis and degradation, rate of

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transpiration, flower initiation and/or development in some species, and flower Color and
Lasting Life.
.
1. Rate Photosynthesis
Temperature has a direct effect on the formation of carbohydrates in the photosynthetic
process. If there are no other limiting factors, such as the amounts of water, carbon dioxide or
light the rate of photosynthesis increases as the temperature increases to certain limit. At 350
C the rate of photosynthesis drops very quickly and the process stops. (Certain desert plants
may withstand day temperatures as high as 50-550 C). The lowest temperature at which
photosynthesis can take place varies with the plant species. For example, photosynthesis in
some arctic plants continues down to the freezing point of water (00c). Whereas other plants,
such as Dieffenbachia and Saintpaulia are injured if the temperature drops below 100 C for
any extended period of time (Chlorophyll will be destroyed in Saintpaulia leaves if exposed
to subfreezing temperatures for as little as 2 or 3 minutes).
2. Rate of Respiration
Photosynthesis can take place only at certain levels of light intensity. In contrast, the process
of respiration occurs in all living cells 24 hrs a day. Food that is manufactured in day light is
used to carry on the various growth processes of the plants. Temperature has a direct effect
on respiration. The rate of respiration is greater at warm temperatures than at cool
temperatures. The respiration rate increases as the temperature increases. However, the
process can be slowed or interrupted if there is a lack of oxygen or if the carbon dioxide
resulting from the process builds up to the point where if interferes with respiration. If the
night temperature is lower than the day temperature, the food manufactured by the plant
during the day is conserved. In other words, respiration is reduced if the temperature is
maintained at a cooler level. The Conservation of food reserves in plant tissues is an
important factor in the lasting ability of cut flowers. Rose, carnations & chrysanthemums can
be stored after harvest with or without water for week or months at temperatures minus 0.50 C
to plus 0.50 C. At these temperatures respiration is very slow, and the food in the tissues is
conserved.

3. Rate Transpiration
Transpiration is affected by temperature primarily at the leaves. As the leaf temperature rises,
the rate of transpiration increases. This rate will continue to increase with the temperature as
long as the plant can absorb water from the soil and the water can be transported to the
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leaves. Wilting occurs when the rate of transpiration increases to the point that water is used
faster than it can be supplied to the leaves.

4. Rate of metabolic synthesis and degradation

Other growth processes that are affected by temperature variability include, enzyme
reactions, amino acid and protein synthesis, and carbohydrate & fat (lipid) conversions. In
general, it is believed that the temperature effect on these processes is much the same as for
photosynthesis and respiration. Consequently, as the temperature increases, the growth rate of
the plant also increases. A law formulated by the Dutch chemist, Jacobus Van’t Ltoff, states
that for 100 C rises in temperature the rate of reaction doubles (Mathew & S.K., 1990). As
described above, most plant processes stop at 350 C. At this temperature, protein becomes
disorganized and is unable to remain functional. If the internal temperature of the plant rises
above 350 C, the plant will soon die.

5. Flower initiation and/or development

Floral initiation (formation of floral parts) and floral development are separate and distinct
stages in the life of a plant. When a plant goes from vegetative growth to flowering growth,
the change in cell shape and structure is known as initiation. Generally, the pointed, terminal
apex of vegetative meristem changes in appearance to a rounded mushroom or flattened
shape. The process of floral bud initiation usually occurs within the short period of a few
days.
The next stage in plant growth is floral bud development. In this stage, the flowering tissues
differentiate into the various floral parts. Much of the development stage is concerned with
the increase in size and expansion of the newly initiated floral tissues. The development stage
may last for several weeks.
The most important environmental factor that causes flowering is the photoperiod, however,
temperature also play an important role in flower initiation for many plants. Regardless of
day length, Orchids, Mathiola, Pelargonium, Calceolarias initiate flower buds when the
temperature range is between 100 C and 15.50 C. Chrysanthemums initiate at temperature
15.5ºC.
Floral initiate in bulb crops such as Iris, Narcissus, hyacinths, take place rapidly at
temperatures between 210C – 26.50 C. However, flower bud development in these crops is
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more rapid at cooler temperatures. Temperatures above 26.50 C – 320 C are likely to delay the
development of flower buds.
6. Flower Color and Lasting Life
Both high and low temperature affects flower color and lasting life. Low temperatures tend to
make pigment colors more intense, particularly red, pink & bronze. If the nighttime
temperature is lowered a few degrees, Poinsettias mature, and the bracts become a darker
red. Pot mums and other crops respond in the same manner.
Lowering the temperature a few degrees slows growth, firms tissues and deepens color. If the
temperature is too low, the lower leaves of some plants, such as marigolds, Pelargonium
(Geranium), mums, turn red to bronze. This reaction to cold often occurs on crops grown
outdoors in cold season.
Very high temperatures cause flower colors to fade. The color pigments are destroyed after
formation or they do not develop at all. Red flowers fade to pink, and bronze and yellow
flowers fade to yellow – white.
Flower crops that are grown at high temperatures prior to harvesting generally have a shorter
lasting life than crops grown at cooler temperatures.
One possible reason for this condition is that the higher temperature increases the rate of
respiration. As a result, there is a reduction in the carbohydrates reserves within the plants.
Fewer carbohydrates in the tissues mean that the lasting life is shorter.

Difference between Day and Night Temperature (DIF)

The difference between day and night temperatures (DIF), which mainly affects stem
elongation, is the concept of controlling plant height by monitoring the difference between
day and night temperatures. The greater the difference between day and night temperatures
(day-night = DIF), the greater the stem elongation. According to stem measurements, a large
percentage of the daily stem elongation occurs early in the day just after sunrise, thus cool
temperatures (negative DIF) for at least 2 hours early in the morning, starting just before first
light, will also reduce stem elongation. This cool early morning pulse is known as the
temperature DROP or DIP. However, very warm temperatures during the rest of the day
(Positive DIF) may negate much of the effects of the temperature DROP.
Remember, average daily temperature determines rate of development, and crop timing must
be considered in choosing the proper combination of day and night temperatures that not only
will reduce excessive stem elongation but will allow the crop to finish on time.

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Advantages of DIF include the day-today control of plant height. Reducing or eliminating
growth retardants may save money, prevent environmental contamination, and eliminate the
variability problems associated with chemical applications. Thus, the principle of DIF can be
applied in the greenhouse to control plant height and reduce the need for chemical growth
retardants. Research results indicate that altered stem elongation plants in response to DIF
may be mediated by changes in endogenous levels of gibberellins. The gibberellins levels
may be controlled by an effect of DIF on both biosynthetic and inactivation steps. This means
a negative DIF may influence the biosynthesis of gibberellins since they play an important
role in mediating the effects of environmental stimuli on plant development.
As with any new procedure it is prudent to conduct cost accounting to determine if DIF is
economical, because extra heating or cooling may be required. In comparing the two
methods, remember to consider not only chemical cost, but also application labor costs. One
major problem associated with DIF is that it can be used only when temperatures can be
adequately controlled which means that it is often not practical in warm climates or during
the summer in many allocations. The use of DROP allows height control when temperatures
are warm because it is more practical to reduce temperatures for 2 hours after sunrise than to
maintain cool temperatures all day or warm temperatures all night. In addition, DIF does not
appear to be effective on most Dutch bulbs species such as tulips (Tulipa spp.), hyacinths
(Hyacinthus orientalis), and daffodils (Narcissus pseudonarrissus). The response may also
vary among species on which DIF is effective.

Controlling relative humidity in the Greenhouse

Controlling humidity in greenhouse is vital for good quality crop, since high humidity (above
80-85%) – should be avoided for number of reasons.
Extremely high humidity promotes botrytis and other fungal diseases, restricts plant
transpiration (which in turn limits evaporative leaf cooling and can lead to overheating of
plant foliage), and increases risk of condensation, if temperature is cold. If relative humidity
is measured around 95 %, there will be condensation on many cooler spots, most likely on
leaves.
Conversely, low humidity increases crop transpiration and favors some pest like red spider.

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Varies methods are used to control the greenhouse humidity levels. Among the known
methods, the following are used widely in many commercial production units.

i. Cultural Practices
Cultural practices include watering just enough to prevent excess water on the floor, and
watering early in the day to allow plant surfaces to dry before evening. The highest relative
humidity in a greenhouse is generally found inside plant canopies, where moisture is
generated from transpiration and trapped due to insufficient air movement. Adequate plant
spacing and mesh benches will help to improve air circulation at the plant level. Weeds also
contribute to high humidity by holding moisture in the leaf canopy and generating moisture
through transpiration. Maintain well-drained greenhouse floors that are free from weeds.

ii. Bottom Heat

Bottom heat will improve air circulation inside plant canopies and will help to prevent
condensation on leaf surfaces. The warm air that rises creates air movement around the
plants. Bottom heat also keeps the plant surfaces warm, preventing condensation on the
plants.

iii. Ventilation and Heating

A combination of ventilation and heating is also very important for reducing humidity.
Ventilation allows the exchange of moist greenhouse air with drier air from outdoors. Heating
is necessary to bring air up to optimum growing temperature, and also increases the capacity
of the air to carry moisture, thus avoiding condensation. The relative humidity in a
greenhouse is controlled by heating and ventilation. Their effects can be studied in the
psychometric chart. In doing this it is important to know exactly how the equipment
influences the greenhouse environment.
a. Heating system has two effects
1. Increasing greenhouse temperature- enforces the relative humidity to drop
2. Stimulating transpiration- causes the relative humidity to be increased

Example: Decreasing the relative humidity (RH) by means of heating

In a greenhouse the RH is 90 % and the temperature is 20 °C. The desired RH is 80 %. In the
psychometric chart, move upwards from the point 20 °C and 90 % and mark the intersection
point with the RH-line of 80 %. The temperature must rise to 22 °C to achieve a RH of 80 %.
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 b. Ventilation has two effects on the relative humidity (RH)
The temperature drops Water vapor disappears and the RH is reduced.
Example: Decreasing RH by means of ventilation
At a greenhouse temperature of 20 °C and a RH 90 %, the vent is opened to reduce the RH to
80 %. The temperature drops by 2 °C and 2.9 g/kg of water vapor disappears, giving a new
situation of 18 °C and a RH of 80 %. Check this in the psychometric chart.

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CHAPTER SIX
PROPAGATION OF FLOWER PLANTS
Introduction

Plant propagation is the perpetuation or increase in number of plants or Plant propagation is

the
process of multiplying the numbers of a species, perpetuating a species or maintaining
youthfulness of a plant is propagated by sexual (seeds) or asexual (vegetative) means. Some
kinds of plants are propagated by one method or while many others can be propagated
successfully by both methods. At the heart of commercial floriculture crop production is plant
propagation. The various propagation methods can be separate into sexual methods – seeds
and spores – and asexual methods – cuttings, layers, divisions, natural reproductive structures
such as bulbs, grafting, and in vitro micropropagation.

Most bedding plants and a significant number of cut flower, potted flowering plant, and
foliage plant species are propagated from seeds. In a number of species, sexual reproduction
produces plants that are too variable for commercial production and asexual methods are
therefore required. Asexual reproduction produces a clone consisting of all individual plants
propagated from one original plant. Some cultivars have specific combinations of traits which
are not reliably replicated through sexual reproduction and must be asexually reproduced.
Asexual propagation is also used in situations when seed propagation is either too lengthy or
too expensive.

1. Sexual Methods

1.1. Seed
Seed; is a ripened ovary produced by fusion of pollen-grain with egg nucleus in the embryo
sac of the ovary
Advantages
 maintain of genetic diversity
 formation of new off spring
 reduced seed born disease transmission ex. viral diseases
 cost of handling and transportation and
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  others
• Disadvantages
• dormancy problem
• time consuming to germinate
• loss of desirable characteristics ex. disease resistance
• other
Although seeds can be sown by hand into open flats, seed beds or trough flats, in commercial
production the majority are mechanically sown into individual cells of plug flats with
automatic seeders.

1.1.1. Seed Testing

Regardless of the storage method, stored seeds should be tested before the next growing
season. A simple method is to count out a specific number of seeds of each cultivar, such as
50, and place them between two pieces of paper towels. Roll the paper towels up, moisten,
place them in plastic bags, and seal. The bags should be kept moist and warm at 70 21 to
240C. When the seeds germinate, record the number of seeds that germinate promptly. Divide
the number germinated by the total number of seeds used. Multiplying the resulting number
by 100 will yield the germination percentage. If the germination percentage is below 60%,
sowing the seeds may be a waste of time and materials.

1.1.2. Seed Pretreatments

Several seed treatments can be performed by seed suppliers or growers to improve

germination and ease seed handling of many species. These treatments are known as seed
enhancements.

i. Warm Water Treatment

Warm water treatment is one of the simplest treatments and this method suggests the placing
of seeds in four to five times their volume of warm water at 77 to 980C and allows the seeds
to soak for 12 to 24 hours. This treatment works especially well on seeds with a hard seed
coat or with germination inhibitors in the coat. Soaking can also speed germination of seeds
that are normally slow to germinate. Plant seeds immediately after treatment to allow the
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germination process to continue. Seeds can be surface dried briefly to allow mechanical
sowing.

ii. Chemical Soaks

Chemical soaks can also enhance germination, using substances such as gibberellins,
cytokinins, and potassium nitrate. Gibberellins have been effective on several species and can
be applied as a 24-hr soak using concentrations ranging from 100 to 10,000 ppm. As with any
treatment, test on a small number of seeds first.

iii. Seed Hydration

Seed hydration is a technique used by seed suppliers to imbibe the seed and begin
germination, but then stop the process before the radicle (root) emerges. When hydrated
seeds are planted, the germination process continues. The advantages are faster seedling
emergence, improved uniformity of emergence, and greater adaptability to a wider range of
germination temperatures. Seed hydration can be as simple as soaking seeds in water prior to
planting (as previously discussed).

vi. Seed Pelleting

Pelleted seeds are produced by encasing them in a coating to allow them to be used in
automated seeders by increasing the size and weight of each seed or smoothing out its shape.
The coating can be made of clay, diatomaceous earth, graphite, powdered perlite, or wood
flour combined with a binding agent. A variety of other substances can be incorporated into
the coat to improve germination, such as micronutrients, growth regulators, fungicides, and
microbial inoculants.
1.1.3. Germination Media
Media for seed germination should be well drained, have a low soluble salt level [electrical
conductivity (EC) of less than 1.0 dS/m] and fine texture, and contain no pathogens. High
soluble salts can damage seedlings easily; EC levels readily tolerated by established plants
will damage seedlings. The texture should be fine enough to prevent small seeds from
moving too deep into the medium. A pathogen-free medium, of course, is an absolute
requirement as fungal damping-off disease can quickly destroy seedlings. Many growers use
commercial, premixed germination media, most of which have a low EC but contain a small
amount of fertilizer.

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 1.1.4. Temperature

Low temperature is often the primary reason for poor seed germination. For most species,
optimum media temperature is 21 to 240C, but varies among species. Several species
including foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), Phlox, and sweet pea (Lathyrus odorata) prefer a 16
to 180C germination temperature rather than a 21 to 240C media temperature.

1.1.5. Light

The seeds of many species germinate faster when exposed to light; others will not germinate
unless exposed to light. In particular, small seeds often germinate better with light and should
be sown on the top of the medium and not

1.1.6. Water

High-quality, low EC water and uniform application are also critical for proper seed
germination. High water EC may prevent seedlings from germinating, cause erratic
germination, and increase susceptibility to disease.
Equally important is maintaining uniform media moisture. If seeds begin the germination
process but the medium subsequently dries out, the seedlings will be injured or die. Media
moisture levels can be maintained through mist, fog, or high humidity enclosure.

1.1.7. Nutrition

Commercial germination media frequently contain low amounts of nutrients, which is

sufficient for seedlings if they are transplanted within 2 to 3 weeks. Plugs, seedlings growing
in media with no fertilizer, and shallow rooted seedlings that take a long time to reach
transplant stage will probably need to be fertilized. Be sure to experiment as some species
require low fertility and should not be fertilized; others are sensitive to high soluble salts and
may be damaged by too high fertilizer levels.

1.1.8. Plug Culture

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A significant proportion of the floriculture industry is using plug culture in the propagation of
plant materials. Plugs can either be purchased from a specialist or grown within the company.
Plug production has become a significant business within the field of floriculture.
There are several advantages in growing or purchasing plugs over open flat propagation.
Plugs allow mechanization, automated transplanting, generally shorter production times (little
or no transplant shock), longer holding periods until seedlings need to be transplanted,
reduced disease spread, and increased crop turnover. The disadvantage, however, is that plugs
may be more difficult to grow, especially for inexperienced growers. The very small volume
of medium in each plug restricts water drainage, yet holds little water which causes plugs to
dry out rapidly. The medium in plugs is also subject to rapid changes in pH and nutrient
content. In addition, plug flats require special, often expensive seed-sowing equipment and a
larger propagation area (approximately four times more space) than seed flats

1.1.9 Transplanting
To optimize production, seedlings should be transplanted as soon as possible. Generally,
seedlings grown in open flats are transplanted when they have one set of true leaves. Plugs
are transplanted at a later stage when the root balls can be removed intact from the plug cells.
Although seedlings can be held in plugs longer than open flats, in both situations a delay in
transplanting may stunt the seedlings, induce premature flowering, and lower final crop
quality.
Weather or marketing problems may necessitate a delay in transplanting. The growth of
seedlings in the greenhouse can be slowed temporarily by lowering the temperature, reducing
or eliminating fertilizer, and restricting water applications.

2. Asexual Methods
A wide range of floricultural crops is now propagated commercially by asexual or vegetative
means. Asexual propagation involves reproduction from vegetative parts of plants so that the
new individual is just like the mother plant and it possesses all the characteristics of the plant
from which it has been collected. These vegetative parts can be leaf, stem, root, bud,
specialized structures etc. The success of asexual propagation bases on totipotancy of plant
cell. Totipotancy refers to property of living plant cells to have all genetic information's
needed to regenerate in to a complete and independent plant. The major methods of asexual
propagation are; Cuttings, Layering, (dividing bulbs or corms), Division, Grafting and
Budding.
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2.1. Cuttings

Cutting propagation is the most common form of asexual propagation and is the dominant
method for many important floriculture species including poinsettias (Poinsettia
pulcherrima), chrysanthemums (Dendranthema x grandiflorum), carnations (Dianthus
caryophyllus), and numerous foliage species. Although cutting propagation often allows a
shorter production time than seed propagation, the potential for diseases spread is much
greater.

2.1.1. Principles and Techniques of Propagation by Cuttings

Cutting propagation is the most clonal propagation of floricultural crops. In cutting

propagation a section of stem, leaf or root cut from a source plant is taken and induced to
form roots and shoot by chemical, mechanical and/or environmental manipulation.

Importance and advantages of propagation of plants by cuttings

 A means of propagating ornamental shrubs, deciduous species, broad and narrow
leaved evergreens and many greenhouse flowering plants as well as some vegetable
crops.
 Many plants can be started in a limited place from a few stock plants
 It is inexpensive as compared to other asexual propagation meanness
 It is a rapid and simple technique as compared to other asexual methods
 Does not require a special techniques necessary in grafting, budding or layering
 Parent plants reproduced exactly with no genetic change
 Great uniformity is achieved by absence of variation which sometimes appears as a
result of the variable seedling rootstocks of grafted/budded plants

Limitations of propagation by cutting

 Plants from cuttings develop poor root system. Hence it is not always desirable to
produce plants on their own roots by cutting even if it is possible to do so. It is
advantageous and necessary to use a root stock resistant to adverse soil conditions or
to utilize available dwarfing and invigorating rootstocks.

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  Cutting propagation like other asexual propagation techniques may increase disease
and insect susceptibility.

2.1.2. Types of cuttings

Cuttings are made from the vegetative portion of the plant, such as stems, leaves and roots.
Cuttings can be classified according to the part of the plant from which they are obtained as:
1. Stem cutting
a. Hard wood cuttings
b. Semi-hard wood cuttings
c. Soft wood cuttings
d. Herbaceous cuttings
2. Leaf Cutting
3. Leaf bud Cuttings (Single-eye or single-node cuttings)
4. Root cutting

Propagation by stem and leaf bud cuttings (single eye cuttings) requires only that a new
adventitious root system be formed, because potential shoot system (a bud that will develop
to the shoot system) is already present. In these two cases axillary shoot and adventitious
roots will develop from cuttings. Root and leaf cuttings must initiate both a new shoot
system from an adventitious bud as well as new adventitious roots. In other word shoots and
roots from root and leaf cutting are both adventitious.
Many plants can be propagated by several different types of cuttings with satisfactory results.
The preferred type of cuttings depends on individual circumstances. The least expensive and
easiest method is usually selected

2.1.3. Sanitation

Most species, however, are not subject to serious systemic disease which requires the plants
to be disease indexed. Those species care must be taken to ensure disease-free stock and
cuttings. Sanitary conditions must be maintained at all times to prevent cuttings from
contracting pathogens. Cleaned and sterilized propagation benches, tools, containers, and
hands are essential. For many species, sanitation is the key to successful propagation.

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2.1.4. Stock Plants

Stock plants are those plants grown as sources of cuttings. Cuttings can be taken from stock
plants or from production plants as part of a pruning and shaping cultural step. If stock plants
are used, they should be considered a separate crop with the product being a high quality
cutting. The stock plants may also be sold later as large-size specimens. Poor-quality plants
will likely result from cuttings harvested from stock plants that are nutrient deficient, insect
or disease ridden, or old and woody. Scheduling cutting harvest from stock plants is
important, because rooting may be delayed on cuttings not harvested at the optimum number
of weeks after the pinch. Poinsettias (Euphorbia pulcherrima), for example, show significant
differences in rooting ability attributed to the age of the shoot from which the cutting was
taken. This trait varies with the cultivar being grown. For plant species sensitive to
photoperiod, care must be taken to ensure that the stock plants do not prematurely initiate
flowers which may negatively affect rooting, delay the crop being propagated, or render
cuttings useless. If cutting elongation during propagation is a concern, growth retardants can
be applied to the stock plants prior to cutting harvest.
Finally, care must be taken when selecting plants to be used as tock plants that they are true-
to-type, vigorous, and healthy. Regularly check stock plants and remove any showing
mutations or loss in vigor. Also, watch for changes in plant characteristics if each crop is
propagated from a previous crop. Undesirable changes in foliage variegation can often be
traced to improper stock plant selection.
2.1.5 Rooting Compounds
The need for rooting compounds depends on the species being propagated. Rooting hormones
are essential for economical rooting of some species and are not effective or needed with
other species. For many species, rooting compounds are not required for rooting, but will
accelerate root initiation, increase uniformity, and increase the number and quality of roots
produced. Rooting compounds are most economical on species that are difficult to root or
when uniformity is required.
Commercial rooting compounds contain auxins and occasionally fungicides and other
materials. The auxins indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) are the
most reliable. The hormone is best applied as a powder dusted on the base of cuttings.
Auxin can also be dissolved in 50% ethanol or isopropyl alcohol and 50% water. The liquid
treatments usually provide the most consistent results because application is more uniform

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than with dusts. However, dusting may be preferable to dipping to avoid spreading disease.
Be sure to keep the container tightly sealed to prevent evaporation of the alcohol.

2.1.6 Media

Cuttings can be inserted into foam or rockwool strips (which should be leached and moist
prior to use), expandable peat pellets, or medium-filled pots. Avoid packing the medium
around cuttings and avoid hose-watering. Both practices compact the medium and reduce the
supply of oxygen to the base of the cutting, which inhibits root development and favors
pathogen. Apply overhead mist to water-in and maintain cutting turgidity.

2.1.7 Temperature

The optimum rooting medium temperature varies among species but is generally 22 to 240C.
The correct medium temperature will speed rooting. Too high or too low of propagation
temperatures may delay or prevent rooting, decrease uniformity of rooting among cuttings,
and increase disease incidence. Bottom heating may be needed to help maintain proper
medium temperature.

2.1.8 Light

Shade the propagation area enough to prevent cuttings from drying and wilting rapidly.
However, too low of light levels can slow rooting or cause weak growth. If possible, slowly
increase the light intensity as roots form on the cuttings.

2.1.9 Misting and Fogging

Both misting and fogging apply water directly to cuttings to reduce transpiration and
maintain cutting turgidity and thus allow root development. Fog systems produce much
smaller water particle sizes than mist systems, which reduce the amount of water applied
through fog and reduce leaching of nutrients from leaves. The mist or fog system should
completely cover the bench to ensure that all cuttings are uniformly moistened and free from
moisture stress. Night time misting or fogging may be required if the air is warm and dry, but
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 can generally be discontinued after a few days. Misting is commonly controlled by time
clocks, but time intervals set for sunny, midday conditions will result in over-misting, which
can delay rooting and promote the growth of pathogens. Frequency and duration of the mist
or fog can also be controlled by devices that measure solar radiation or evaporation or by
vapor pressure deficit. Such control systems allow mist or fog application to be tied more
directly to the environmental conditions which will reduce the chance of over-or under-
misting the cuttings.
Regardless of the control system, reduce misting frequency as cuttings begin to form roots or
during low light conditions. Later, mist may be turned off completely if day temperatures can
be controlled or if ambient humidity is high.

A. Stem Cuttings

Stem cuttings can be divided in to four groups, according to the nature of the wood used for
propagation: hard wood, semi-hardwood, soft wood and herbaceous cuttings.
The type of wood, the stage of growth in making the cuttings, and the time of year cuttings
are taken are some of the factors important in satisfactory rooting of plants. The formation of
adventitious roots and buds is dependent up on plant cells to dedifferentiate and develop into
either root or shoot system. The process of dedifferentiation is the capacity of previously
developed, differentiated cells to initiate cell division and form a new meristematic growing
point.
When you select stem cuttings:
 Select health and vigorous pencil size cuttings from health mother plant.
 Select a stem having at least two vegetative lateral and terminal buds. Avoid
cuttings having flower buds. Vegetative buds are relatively small and pointed, but
flowering buds are relatively big and round in their shape.
In propagation by stem cuttings, Segments of shoots containing lateral or terminal buds are
obtained with the expectation that under proper conditions adventitious roots will develop &
thus produce independent plants.

i. Hardwood Cuttings
Hardwood cuttings are those made of matured, dormant, firm woods after leaves have
abscised (for deciduous spp) or with leaves (for evergreen woody plants). They are relatively

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 light brown or brown in their color. Furthermore they are inflexible when you try to bend
them and are stronger. The use of hardwood cuttings is one of the least expensive and easiest
methods of vegetative propagation particularly for easy to root woody perennial plants. They
are easy to prepare, are not readily perishable, may be shipped safely over long distances if
necessary, and require little or no special equipment during rooting.
Hardwood cuttings are prepared during dormant season, usually from wood of previous
season’s growth, although with few species fig, olive, and cretin plum cultivars- two- year-
old or older wood can be used.
These types of cuttings are most often used in propagation of deciduous woody plants,
although some broad-leaved evergreens can be propagated by leafless hardwood cuttings.
Many deciduous ornamental shrubs (Bougainvillea, Hibiscus, Lantana, etc) propagated
commercially by this method.
The Cutting should have an ample supply of stored carbohydrates to nourish the developing
roots and shoots until the new plant becomes self-sustaining. However the level of
meristematic cells is very low and delays rooting rate as compared to softwood, semi-hard
wood and herbaceous cuttings. Tip portion of cuttings are usually discarded because they are
usually low in stored Carbohydrates & often contain unwanted flower buds. Central and basal
parts are generally makes the best cuttings. Hardwood cuttings vary in length from 10 to 76
cm.

There are three different types of hard-wood cuttings.

I. Mallet cutting- this type of cutting includes a small portion of stem of the older wood.
II. Heel cutting- only contains a small piece of the older wood.
III. Straight cutting- not includes any of the older wood. This type of cutting is the mostly
used one and gives more satisfactory result as compared to other types of cutting.

ii. Semi-hardwood cuttings

Semi-hardwood (green wood) cuttings are those made from woody, broad-leaved evergreen
species and cuttings of deciduous plants with partially matured wood. Its color is green and
we can bend it to a curve without breaking the stem. Cuttings of evergreen species are taken
from new shoots just after a flush of growth has taken place and a wood is partially matured.

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 Many broad–leaved evergreen shrubs and trees such as Nerium, Camellia, Rhododendron,
Callistemon, Abutilon, Fuchsia, Hydrangea, Euonymus, Cuphea, Tibouchina, etc. can be
propagated in this manner.
Semi-hard wood cuttings are made 8 to 15 cm long with leaves retained at the upper end. If
leaves are very large, they can be trimmed 1/3 to 1/2 their size to reduce the leaf surface area,
which reduce transpirational water loss and allow close spacing in cutting bed.
The cutting wood should be obtained in the cool, early morning hours when leaves and stems
are turgid and should be placed in large containers, which are put in large polyethylene bags.
The level of carbohydrate and meristematic cells in case of semi hardwood cuttings are
intermediate i.e. between hard and softwood cuttings.
iii. Softwood cuttings
Cuttings prepared from the soft, succulent, new spring growth of deciduous or evergreen
species are softwood cuttings. The soft wood condition from most woody plants ranges from
two to eight weeks or these cuttings are taken from plants whose stems are not woody.
Softwoods are produced during growth flushes (active growth period of a stock plant) and
may occur just once per year or several times during the year. Many ornamental woody plants
can be started by softwood cuttings. Even though the level of stored carbohydrate in
softwood cuttings is small as compared to the above type of cuttings, due to high level of
meristematic cells such type of cuttings produce adventitious root faster than other types.
For some difficult-to-root species using hard or semi hardwood cuttings, softwood cuttings
may be the only commercial method to clonally regenerating cultivars. Softwood cuttings
generally root easier and quicker (two to five weeks) than other type of cuttings, but requires
more attention and sophisticated equipment. This type of cutting is always made with leaves
attached. They must, consequently, be handled carefully prevent desiccation, and be rooted
under conditions which will avoid excessive water loss from the leaves.
The best cutting materials has some degree of flexibility, but it mature enough to break when
bent sharply. Weak thin inferior shoots should be avoided as well as vigorous, abnormally
thick or heavy ones. Heading back the main shoots will usually force out numerous lateral
shoots from which cuttings can be made.
Softwood cuttings are 8 to 13cm long with two or more nodes. The basal cut is usually made
just below a node. The leaves on the lower portion of cutting are removed, with those in
upper part retained. Large leaves can be trimmed to minimize transpiration loss and to
occupy less space in propagating bed.

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Softwood cuttings stress easily, so it is important to collect cutting material early in the day.
Softwood cuttings should kept moist, cool, and turgid at all times. Laying the cutting
materials or prepared cuttings in the sun for even a few minutes will cause a serious damage.
Some plants drip sap after they are cut, so let their cut ends dry a few hours before planting
the cuttings. This practice enables us to avoid the occurrence of disease causing pathogens.
Because, the sap produced at the end of cuttings helps for disease causing microorganisms as
a source of food for their growth and development and to prevent the entrance of decay
organisms.

iv. Herbaceous cuttings

Herbaceous cuttings are made from succulent, non-woody plants like chrysanthemums,
coleus, carnations and many foliage crops. They are 8 to 13 cm long with leaves retained at
the upper end or without leaves.
Herbaceous cuttings are rooted under the same conditions as softwood cuttings. Herbaceous
cuttings of some plants that exude a sticky sap such as pineapple and cactus do better if the
basal ends are allowed to dry for a few hours before they are inserted in the rooting medium.

v. Leaf cuttings

In leaf cuttings, the leaf blade or leaf blade with petiole is utilized in starting a new plant
(figure 5). Adventitious shoots and roots form at the base of the leaf and develop into the new
plant. In this case the original leaf does not become a part of a new plant. This implies that
both adventitious root and shoot will develop from planted leaf cut and make the cutting to a
complete and independent plant. Only a limited number of plant species can be propagated by
leafy cuttings. Saintpaulia, Begonia, Sansevieria, Iresine, and Peperomia are routinely
propagated by leaf cuttings. In some cases, such as with Sansevieria, the leaves are cut into
segments and inserted basipetal end down into the medium. Each segment regenerates shoots
and roots.
Leafy cuttings should be rooted under the same conditions of high humidity as those used for
softwood or herbaceous cuttings. Root promoting chemicals are usually helpful. Cuttings are
commercially rooted under mist or high humidity tents.

vi. Leaf – bud cuttings (single-eye or single-node cuttings)

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A leaf-bud cutting (single-eye or single-node cuttings) consist of a leaf blade, petiole and a
short piece of the stem with the attached axillary's bud. They differ from leaf cuttings in that
only adventitious roots need to form. The axillary's bud (potential stem) at the nodal area of
stem provides the new shoot. A number of plant species such as blackberry, lemon, and
Rhododendron are started by leaf-bud cuttings, as well as many tropical shrubs and most
herbaceous green house plants usually started by this method. Leaf-bud cuttings are
particularly useful when propagating material is scarce, because they will produce at least
twice as many new plants from the same amount of stock material as can be started by stem
cuttings. Each node can be used as a cutting.

Leaf bud Leaf blade Leaf petiole Leaf section

Figure 1. Leaf Cuttings

vii. Root Cuttings

Some species of plants are propagated by harvesting roots and cutting them into sections
which are then planted in the medium. If root cuttings such as of butterfly weed (Asclepias
tuberosa) are inserted vertically. Be sure the correct orientation is used in planting the
cuttings. To avoid confusion, the proximal end (closest to the crown) of the cutting can be cut
straight across and the distal end (furthest from the crown) can be cut at an angle. Cuttings
are planted with the proximal end up. The root cutting of many species such as of Oriental
poppy (Papaver orientale) can also below the media surface which eliminates the problems
of orientation.

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Root cuttings are usually taken during dormant season when stock plant is not growing
actively, but before a new growth is started. During this time sufficient amount of
carbohydrates are stored in a root of a stock plant.
Securing enough cutting material for root cuttings can be quite laborious unless it can be
obtained by trimming roots from nursery plants.

Polarity in Cuttings

Correct polarity is very important in case of stem and root cuttings. For stem cuttings shoot
will develop from distal portion of cuttings and adventitious roots will emerge from the
proximal portion of cutting. However for root cuttings the reverse is true i.e. rooted cuttings
produce shoot on their proximal end and root on their distal end.
In case of leaf cuttings, unlike to stem and root cuttings, they are less sensitive for polarity.
For example, Sansevieria produces an adventitious root either on the proximal or distal end
of a cutting. The proximal end of either the shoot or root is the nearest the stem-root junction
(crown) of the plant. The distal end of either the shoot or root is the farthest from the stem-
root junction of the plant. Generally in terms of their sensitivity for polarity, stem cuttings are
more sensitive than root cuttings and root cuttings are more sensitive than leaf cuttings.
Therefore it is necessary to maintain the correct polarity of cuttings during planting.
Most of the time there is a difficulty in identifying the polarity of root cuttings. To avoid
planting upside down, the proximal end (nearest the crown of the plant) may be made with a
straight cut and the distal end (away from a crown) with a slanting cut. The proximal end of
root piece should always be up. Insert cuttings vertically so that the top is at about a soil
level. Cuttings may also planted horizontally 2.5 to 5 cm deep to avoid the possibility of
planting upside down.

Factors Affecting success of Cuttings

1. Internal factors affecting rooting of cuttings
There are several internal factors which affect the rooting of cuttings;
1. Age of the stock plant
In many woody plants it has been frequently found that cuttings made from older, mature
plants are difficult to root, where as cuttings made from young seedlings produce rots easily.
In fact, the rooting ability of certain plants decreased with increased age. The juvenile
condition of the young seedling is found to be conducive to rooting. In certain plants, lower
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level of phenols, which are postulated as acting as rooting cofactors or synergists in root
formation, are noted in mature forms rather than in the juvenile forms. Plants can be induced
to juvenility by cutting them back to base, which encourages development of new juvenile
shoots around the base of the plant. Cuttings made from such shoots rots comparatively
easily.
2. Nutritional and hormonal condition of the plant
It has been well established now that plants which are in good nutritional state & are growing
under good environmental conditions (temperature, light, moisture & mineral nutrition) will
have a relatively high carbohydrate-nitrogen ratio. Cuttings taken from these plants usually
produce roots in greater number & more quickly than those taken from plants growing under
unfavorable condition & having low carbohydrate-nitrogen ratio. Vigorously growing shoots
are high in nitrogen & low in carbohydrate do not root as quick as cuttings made from
moderately growing shoots which are high in carbohydrate & medium in nitrogen. As regard
the effect of other nutritious, it has been found that high phosphorous, zinc & boron stimulate
rooting on cuttings.
3. Relative position of the shoot on the parent plant
Many workers have shown that lateral shoots produce more roots than terminal shoots. The
increased rooting ability of lateral branches is most probably due to increased level of stored
foods (carbohydrate) in such shoots. Vigorously growing terminal shoots usually contain
comparatively less carbohydrate & consequently, root poorly.

4. Maturity of the tissue

Maturity of tissue at the base of the cutting is an important factor influencing rooting of
cuttings.
If the tissue is soft & immature, the cuttings are more susceptible to rot & desiccation. If the
tissue is very old & hard, it may take considerably long period of time to root. The most
satisfactory condition of tissue lies somewhere between these two extremes for most plants.
5. Effect of leaves and buds
The leaves and buds play an important role in the rooting of cuttings can easily be
demonstrated either by removing the leaves & buds in most species. Rooting decreases to a
great extent with the removal buds and leaves. The influences of buds on rooting may vary
with time of the year when the cuttings are made. In general, growing buds promotes rooting,
while dormant buds are usually inhibitory. The promoting effect of buds on rooting during
the non-dormant period is due to increased supply of auxin.
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 4.5 External factors affecting rooting of cuttings
External factors influencing rotting of cuttings include, light, temperature, water & rooting
medium.
1. Light
Light as a source of energy in all functions of plant life play a vital role in the rooting of
cuttings. In many species, the number of roots per cutting has been found to be proportional
to the amount of daily illumination. The quantitative increase in root initiation with
increasing light intensity is probably due to increase in carbohydrate reserves. Photoperiod
also affect the rooting of cuttings. In general, long photoperiod favors rooting more than short
photoperiod. The photoperiodic effect on rooting is due to accumulation of carbohydrate.
2. Temperature
Root formation on cuttings may occur over a wide range of temperature, but generally, 21-30
o
c daily temperature & 15-16 oc night temperature are considerable most satisfactory for
rooting of cuttings of most species. Though high temperature favors rooting in some species,
it is not desirable in many others, since it stimulates bud development before root formation
& causes increased water loss from the leaves.
3. Water
The drying out of the cutting as a result of excessive water loss before rooting is the main
reason for failure of cuttings of some species. Maintenance of high degree of humidity
surrounding the leaf usually prevents desiccation of cuttings & ultimately results in increased
rooting of cuttings.
To maintain high level of humidity around the cuttings, it is common practice to sprinkle
water at frequent interval. Mist keeps the leafy cuttings cool & turgid and promotes rooting
on cuttings. intermittent mist is desirable than continuous mist , because excess water may
cause rotting of cutting and also leaching out of essential substances from the cuttings, thus
reducing the rooting of cuttings.
4. Rooting medium
Rooting medium has three basic functions (1) it holds the cuttings in placed, (2) it supplies
moisture to the cutting, and (3) it supplies oxygen to the basal portion of the cutting. Several
media, such as sand, soil, vermiculite, perlite, peat moss, etc may be used either singly or I
mixture. An ideal medium should be well-drained yet able to retain sufficient moisture,
porous enough to permit free aeration and free from harm- full organisms. It should be loose
& easily worked up on to facilities the planting of cuttings as well as removal of cuttings after
root formation with minimum damage to the roots. It should be cheap & freely available.
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B. Layering

Layering induces adventitious roots to form on stems while they are still attached to the
parent plant. The process of layering can be thought of as rooting a terminal stem cutting
while the cutting is still attached to the parent plant. Layering can occur naturally through low
growing branches which root when in contact with the soil or can be induced artificially by
burying stems with soil or mounding soil around the base of a multi-stem plant (Figure 2).
With tip layering, shoot apices are bent into the ground, root, and finally grow up-ward.
Simple layering occurs when the stems are bent to the ground and part of the stem is covered
with medium but the shoot tip remains uncovered.
Mound layering involves mounding the medium around the base of a multi-stem plant to
induce root development at the base of the stems.
In trench layering, the entire branch is bent over and laid flat on the bottom of a trench 8 to
23 cm deep. The plant is then covered with medium and axillary shoots root and grow
upward through the medium.
With air layering, a moistened medium such as sphagnum moss peat is wrapped around a
wounded area on the stem and covered with plastic or some other type of water-retentive
wrap.
Due to the labor-intensive nature of layering and the large amount of space needed for both
the stock plant and layers, layering is rarely done on a commercial scale in floriculture.

Air layer Simple layer Tip layer Trench layer

Mound or stool layer

Figure 2. Types of layering

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C. Grafting and Budding

1. Grafting

Grafting is the process of uniting two plants or plant parts in such a way that they become one
plant after cell division and union occurs. Grafting is used to (1) propagate species or
cultivars which cannot be propagated by other methods, (2) enhance vigor, or (3) create a
unique plant with improved characteristics compared with the individual plants from which it
was created. For example, hybrid tea roses (Rosa hybrid) often grow poorly on their own
roots but grow better when grafted onto the roots of a vigorous rootstock, which may have
inferior flowers. In floriculture, the standard topiary or tree forms of plants such as roses
(Rosa spp.) and azaleas (Rhododendron) are created by grafting the top cultivar onto an
elongated stem and rootstock. Finally, grafting is used in research to study physiological
processes or plant diseases. Breeding may also involve grafting seedlings to a rootstock to
accelerate maturation and flowering and shorten the time between breeding cycles.
Unfortunately, grafting has limitations. The more closely the two plants are botanically
related, the more likely the graft will be successful. Grafting is most successful when both
plants are of the same species. Grafting between different spices of the same genus is also
likely to be successful but not guaranteed. Grafting between different genera of the same
family and between different families has been successful in some cases, but is rarely
commercially significant. Grafting requires that a part of the cambium of both plant parts be
in contact. The graft union is wrapped with grafting rubber, plastic, or paraffin to prevent
separation and drying. Cell division subsequently occurs which unites the pieces together.
Several different types of grafting have been developed including splice, side/stub, side-
veneer and cleft grafting.
Graft union: The place where the scion and stock grow together.
Cambium: A thin layer of living cells between the bark and the wood from w/c bark and
wood tissues are formed. As cambium cell divides, bark is produced to the outside and wood
towards the inside. During healing of wounds, the cambium produces callus cells which will
join the scion and the root stock. Callus eventually differentiates, forming the vascular
connections b/n the stock and scion
Inter-stock (intermediate stock, inter-stem) is a piece of stem inserted by means of two graft
unions between the scion and the rootstock to subsequently form what is called multiple
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component plant. The process of use of inter-stock is known as double working. This is
mainly to avoid compatibility problem.
Grafting incompatibility
Plant propagators and nursery men often notice that certain combination of grafts is not
successful. The abilities of the two plants to unite in a graft are certainly related to their
natural relationship. The causes of graft incompatibility are not fully.
Many theories have been forward the various explanations offered so far fall in to three
general categories; anatomical, physiological, and disease- related.
Anatomical difference might contribute to structural weakness in inter-specific graft. The
distortion of vascular tissues between the stock and the scion may disturb the movement of
minerals, water, and metabolites, resulting in characteristic overgrowth and poor union. The
deposition of woody parenchyma and a bark layer between the graft interfaces may
contribute to graft failures. Recent studies show that lack of lignifications of the adjoining
cell walls at the graft –union is one of the most important causes for incompatible graft –
union.
Physiological incompatibility is due to inability of the stock or the scion to supply the other
component with the necessary amount or quantity of minerals for normal functioning. There
is some evidence that in certain graft combinations one component (scion or stock) produce
chemicals that is toxic to the other, killing the entire plant.
The third factor governing incompatibility in certain combination is attributed to virus
disease.
Symptoms of graft incompatibility
Incompatibility in graft may be manifested in a number of ways
1. Complete failure to form a graft union
2. Very low percentage of graft success
3. Degeneration of tissues at the graft union, yellowing of foliage & premature defoliation
4. Small stunted growth and general ill of the graft
5. Deficient symptoms or nutritional disorder
6. over or under growth of the scion or stock
7. Excessive swelling at the graft union
8. Breaking –off the tree at the point of graft union and the break is clear & smooth.

1.1.Types of Grafts

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A. Splice Graft
Splice graft is simple and easy to make. It is the same as the whip-and-tongue graft, except
that the second, or “tongue,” cut is not made in either rootstock or scion. The same slanting
cut of the same length and angle is made in either the rootstock or scion. These are placed
together and wrapped or tied as described for the wire graft.
The splice graft is particularly useful in grafting plants that have a very pithy stem or that
have a wood that is not flexible enough to permit a tight fit when a tongue is made as in the
whip-and-tongue graft.

B. Cleft/ split grafting

Cleft grafting is one of the most widely used methods of grafting, being especially adapted to
top working. In this case the branches to be worked should be cut hard back and split across
the surface of the cut with a clefting tool (chisel or chopper).
Two grafts (scion stick) are then cut with wedge-shaped ends, and are fitted into the split thus
made, so that the cambium layer of the scion is in close contact with the cambium layer of the
stock
C. Side/Stub grafting
It is use full in grafting branches of trees that are too large for the whip-and –tongue graft yet
no large for other methods such as the cleft or bark graft. For this type of side graft, the best
root stocks are branches about 2.5 cm in diameter. The Scion should contain two or three
buds and about 7.5 cm long and relatively thin. As the name implies, in this type of grafting
the scion is inserted into the side of the stock, which is generally larger in diameter than the
scion

D. Side-veneer grafting
The side veneer graft is widely used for grafting small potted liner plants such as seedling
conifers, deciduous trees and shrubs, and fruit crops.

i. Types Used When Scion and Rootstock are Approximately Equal in Size

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 Whip/tongue graft Splice graft Saddle graft

ii. Types Used to Repair Damage

Inarching Bridge graft Brace graft

(To replace damaged root system) (To repair damaged trunk) (To support weak
branches)

iii. Types Used when Scion is smaller than Rootstock

Side graft Cleft graft wedge graft Bark graft Approach graft Top-
working

Propagation by Specialized Stems and Roots

General information

Bulbs, Corms, Tubers, Tuberous Roots and Stems, Rhizomes, Psuedobulbs are specialized
vegetative structures that function primarily in the storage of food for the plant’s survival

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during adversity. Plants possessing these modified plant parts are generally herbaceous
perennials in which the shoots die down at the end of the growing season, and the plant
survives in the ground as a dormant, fleshy organ that bears buds to produce new shoots the
next season. These specialized organs also function in vegetative propagation. The
propagation procedure that utilizes the production of naturally detachable structures, such as
the bulb and corm, is generally spoken of as separation. In cases in which the plant is cut into
sections, as is done with the rhizome, stem tuber, and tuberous root, the process is spoken of
as division.

1. Propagation by Separation

As mentioned earlier, plants which are propagated by separation are those which produce
bulbs or corms as specialized underground plant parts which are responsible for food storage
and propagation of the plant. Separation is a natural process.

1.1. Bulbs

A bulb is specialized underground organ consisting of a short, fleshy, usually vertical stem
axis (basal plate) bearing at its apex a growing points or a flower primordium enclosed by
thick, fleshy scales. Most bulbs consist of bulb scales, which morphologically are the
continuous, sheathing leaf bases. The outer bulb scales are generally fleshy and contain
reserve food materials, whereas the bulb scales toward the center function less as storage
organs and are more leaf like. In the center of the bulb, there is either a vegetative meristem
or an unexpanded flowering shoot. Meristems develop in the axil of these scales to produce
miniature bulbs, known as bulblets, which when grown to full size are known as offsets. In
various species of lilies (Lilium spp.), bulblets may form in the leaf axils either on the
underground portion or on the aerial portion of the stem. The aerial bulblets are called
bulbils, while the underground organs are called stem bulblets.

There are two types of bulbs: Tunicate and Nontunicate bulbs Tunicate (laminate) bulbs are
represented by the onion (Allium), Narcissus, Hippeastrum and Tulipa. These bulbs have
outer bulb scales that are dry and membranous. This covering, or tunic, provides protection
from drying and mechanical injury to the bulb. The fleshy scales are in continuous,
concentric layers, or lamina, so that the structure is more or less solid.
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 Nontunicate (scaly) bulbs are represented by the lily. These bulbs do not possess the
enveloping dry covering. The scales are separate and attached to the basal plate. In general
nontunicate bulbs are easily damaged and must be handled more carefully than the tunicate
bulbs.

1.1.1. Propagation Procedure

i. Offsets
Offsets are used to propagate many kinds of bulbs. This method is sufficiently rapid for the
commercial production of tulip, Narcissus, bulbous iris, and hyacinth. Offsets are removed
by cutting them close to the main stem with a sharp knife. If it is well rooted, the offset can
be potted and rooted like a cutting. If insufficient roots are present, the shoot is placed in a
favorable rooting medium and treated as a leafy stem cutting.

ii. Underground bulblets

These are used to propagate the Easter lily (Lilium longiflorum) and some other lily species.
Some lilies naturally grow small lily bulblets on the stems and even in leaf axils.
Commercially grown lily bulbs are separated and individual bulb scales are planted to
produce new bulblets.

iii. Aerial stem bulblets

Commonly known as bulbils, are formed in the axil of the leaves of some species of lily.
They are harvested shortly before they fall naturally and then handled in essentially the same
manner as underground stem bulblets. Increased bulbils production can be induced by
disbudding as soon as flower buds form.

iv. Bulb cutting

Among plants that respond to the bulb-cutting method of propagation are the Hippeastrum,
Narcissus, Nerine, etc. A mature bulb is cut into a series of 8-10 vertical sections, each
containing a part of the basal plate. These sections are further divided by sliding a knife down
between each third or fourth pair of concentric scale rings and cutting through the basal plate.
Each of these fractions makes up a bulb and segments of 3 or 4 scales. The bulb cuttings are
planted vertically in a rooting medium, such as peat moss and sand, with just their tips
showing above the surface. The subsequent technique of handling is the same as for ordinary
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leaf cuttings. A variation of this method is called twin scaling and involves dividing bulbs
into portions, each containing a pair of bulb scales and piece.

1.2. Corms

A corm is the swollen base of a stem axis enclosed by the dry, scale-like leaves. In contrast to
the bulb, which is predominantly leaf scales, a corm is a solid stem structure with distinct
nodes and internodes. The bulk of the corm consists of storage tissue composed of
parenchyma cells. In the mature corm, the dry leaf bases persist at each of these nodes and
enclose the corm. This covering known as the tunic, protects it against injury and water loss.
At the apex of the corm is a terminal shoot that will develop into the leaves and the flowering
shoot. Examples of cormous plants include Freesia, Gladiolus, Hemerocallis, Crocosmia,
and Crocus.

1.2.1. Propagation procedure

i. New corms
Propagation of cormous plants is principally by the natural increase of new corms. To
propagate corms, dig up the plants when they have died down at the end of the growing
season. After digging the plants are placed in trays with a screen or slat bottom arranged to
allow air to circulate between them, and cured at about 32oC at 80-85% relative humidity (In
cool and dry place). Then the new corms, old corms, cormels, and tops can be easily
separated. The corms are graded according to size, sorted to remove the deceased ones,
treated with a fungicide and returned to a 35oC temperature for an additional week. This
curing process helps to heal the wounds and to combat fungal infection. Then after these all
procedures, the new corms are replanted before the start of the next growing season.

ii. Cormels
Cormels are miniature corms that develop between the old and the new corms. One or two
years growths required for them to reach flowering size. Shallow planting of corms, only a
few inches deep, results in greater production of cormels, increasing the depth of planting
reduces cormel production.
The cormels are planted in the field in furrows about 5 cm deep in the manner of planting
large seeds. The cormel does not increase in size but produces a new corm from the base of
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 the stem axis. At the end of the first growing season, the beds are dug and the corms
separated by size. A few of the corms may attain flowering size, but most require an
additional year of growth.

iii. Division of the corm

Large corms can be cut into sections retaining a bud with each section. Each of these should
then develop a new corm. Segments should be dusted with a fungicide because of the great
likelihood of decay of the exposed surfaces.

1.3. Tubers

A tuber is a special kind of swollen, modified stem structure that functions as underground
storage organ. The potato is a notable example of a tuber-producing plant. A tuber has all the
parts of a typical stem but is very much swollen. Externally the 'eyes', present in regular order
over the surface, represent nodes, each consisting of one or more small buds subtended by a
leaf scar. The arrangement of the nodes is a spiral, beginning with the terminal but on the end
opposite the scar resulting from the attachment to the stolon. The terminal bud is at the apical
end of the tuber, oriented farthest (distally) from the crown of the plant. Consequently tubers
show the same apical dominance as any stem.

1.3.1. Propagation procedure

Propagation by tubers can be done either by planting the tubers whole or by cutting them into
sections, each containing one or more buds or “eyes.” Division of tubers is done with a sharp
knife shortly before planting. The cut pieces should be stored at warm (200C) temperatures
and relatively high humidity (90 %) for two to three days prior to planting. During this time
the cut surfaces heal (suberization) and the cut piece is effectively protected against drying
and decay. Disease control is more difficult with cut tubers than with whole ones. The best
way to plant potatoes is to buy certified potato “seeds”. These are small potatoes of a known
cultivar which have been checked to ensure that they are disease- free.

1.4. Tuberous Roots and Stems

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The tuberous roots and stems class includes several types of structures with thickened
tuberous growth that functions as storage organs. Botanically these differ from true tubers,
although common horticultural usage sometimes utilizes the term “tuber” for all of them.

i. Tuberous stems
Tuberous stems are produced by the enlargement of the hypocotyl section of the seedling
plant, but may include the first nodes of the epicotyl and the upper section of the primary
root. Typical plants with this structure are the tuberous begonia (Begonia x tuberhybrida) and
Cyclamen. Their structures have a vertical orientation with one or more vegetative buds
produced on the upper end or crown. Fibrous roots are produced on the basal part of the
structure.

1.4.1. Propagation procedure

Crops with tuberous roots and stems are propagated by dividing the crown, or cluster of
roots, when the plant is dormant. The plant is dug after the top has died back. The soil is
washed away from the roots and they are allowed to dry. The roots are stored in dry sawdust,
peat, or other materials at a temperature of 40 to 100C to prevent shriveling or complete
drying out. In warm, moist condition the buds begins to grow, and the tubers can be divided
with assurance that each section will have a bud. The new pieces are planted in the garden or
nursery row after the danger of frost has passed.
The sweet potato, a tuberous root, sends out many shoots from adventitious buds. For such
objective the roots are laid in sand so that they do not touch one another and are covered to a
depth of 5-6 cm. Then the bed is kept moist. After the new shoots (slips) come through the
covering, more sand is added so that they are covered as deep as 10-15 cm. After the slips are
well rooted, they are pulled from the parent plant and transplanted in to the field

1.5. Rhizomes

A rhizome is a specialized stem structure in which the main axis of the plant grows
horizontally at or just below the ground surface. A number of economically important
ornamental plants, such as Canna, Strelitzia, many ferns, and rhizomatous Iris, and many
grasses have rhizomes structure. Rhizome is composed of nodes and internodes. A leaf-like
sheath is attached at each node; it encloses the stem and, in an expanded form, becomes the

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foliage leaves. When the leaves and sheaths disintegrate, a scar is left at the point of
attachment identifying the node and giving a segmented appearance. Adventitious roots and
lateral growing points develop in the vicinity of the node. Upright-growing, above-ground
shoots and flowering stems (culms) are produced either terminally from the rhizome tip or
from lateral branches.

1.5.1. Propagation procedure

Division is the usual procedure for propagating plants with a rhizome structure, but the
procedure may vary somewhat with the two types.
In pachymorph rhizomes, individual sections (culms) are cut off at the point of attachment to
the rhizome, the top is cut back, and the piece is transplanted to the new location. When
cutting up a rhizome, each piece must have two or more buds.
Lepthomorph rhizomes can be handled in essentially the same way by removing a single
lateral “offshoot” from the rhizome and transplanting it. Division is usually carried out at the
beginning of a growth period or at or near the end of a growth period. Propagation is carried
out by cutting the rhizome into sections, being sure that each piece has at least one lateral
bud, or “eye”; it is essentially a stem cutting. Bananas, for instance, are propagated in this
way.

1.6. Runners and other Modified Stems

Many plant species produce elongated or modified stems terminating in a vegetative

meristem, which can be easily propagated. Runners arise from leaf axils, which grow
horizontally above and along the ground, and produce new plants at each node or the tip. The
new plants can be removed and propagated or allowed to form roots while still attached to the
original plant. The spider plant (Chlorophytum) and the strawberry geranium (Saxifraga
sarmentosa), for example, form runners.
Redosier dogwood (Comus stolonifera) and mint (Mentha) produce stolons, which are stems
that grow at or just below the surface of the soil and produce plants at the nodes. Runners and
stolons are often used in commercial propagation, but suckers and offsets are generally
limited to small-scale propagation.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
MEDIAN AND CONTAINERS FOR ROOTING AND GROWING OF FLOWERING
CROPS
7.1 Propagating Media
Introduction
Are various substances and mixtures of materials that are used for germinating seeds and
rooting of cuttings? Different kinds of media are used for the propagation of different
horticultural plants through seeds, cuttings or other methods of propagation.

An ideal medium should have the following characteristics:

1. Sufficiently firm & dense to hold seeds or cuttings or layers firmly in place during
germination or rooting
2. Its volume should remain constant upon drying or wetting
3. Should have enough ability to retain & supply ample amount of moisture to the
seeds or cuttings or layers (hydrophilic)
4. It should be highly decomposed and stable. Fresh or partially decomposed substrates
are harmful to the newly growing seedlings or for rooting of cuttings.
5. It should be porous enough to permit adequate aeration & to drain out excessive
moisture
6. Must be free from seeds of unwanted plants (weeds) & pathogens, which may affect
the germination of seeds or rooting of cuttings adversely
7. It must be free from high level of salts. Media components with high salt content
generally they are not suitable to produce vigorous and healthy starting materials.
8. It should be able to provide adequate nutrition to the germinating seeds or cuttings
or other plant parts
9. It must be capable of being pasteurized with steam or chemicals without harmful
effects
10. Consistent quality from batch to batch with no or less fluctuation.
11. Should be readily available and economical.

Commonly used media

1. Soil: sometimes called universal medium, has both organic and inorganic components
and good in its buffering property and has high CEC. Usually widely used by many small
scale propagators where financial capital is a limitation.
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 Good texture=> depends upon relative proportion of the sand, silt & clay (i.e., have
proper proportion of solid, liquid & gaseous states),
– Sandy loam soils are excellent ingredients for preparation of soil mixtures for
container growing plants
– Soil having neutral pH (5.5 to 6.5) is preferred
2. Sand: the size of sand varies from 0.05-2 mm in diameter (available in many grades &
sizes)
– Sand contains silica with almost no mineral
– Sand is the heaviest of all the rooting media and therefore it should be used in
combination with some other organic material
3. Peat: contains mainly the partially decomposed parts of aquatic vegetation
– Its composition depends upon the vegetation from which it originated
– Usually it has low pH (< 5.5)
– Peat is not a uniform product and can be a source of weed seeds, insect-pests
and pathogens. Thus, it must be pasteurized before using as a propagation
medium.
– Among different classes of peat, moss peat is very popular propagating
medium
2. Sphagnum moss:
It is relatively sterile, light in weight, having very high moisture holding capacity
– It is widely used for keeping the live material moist for distant transport and in
air layering of plants
– It can also be used as a rooting medium for cuttings
5. Perlite: a gray-white silicaceous material, is of volcanic origin, mined from volcanic origin
• It is a sterile medium with pH of 6-8 & high cation exchange capacity & water
holding capacity (it holds three to four times its weight of water).
– It contains no mineral nutrient & is useful in increasing aeration in a mixture,
when used in combination with other propagating medium
6. Coco peat: It is also called as cocodust.
– It is a byproduct of cuttings & shifting of coconuts for fibre production.
– It is becoming very popular propagating & growing medium now-a-days
because it has an excellent pore space (25-30%) & fine structure required for
proper growth & development of the roots of seedlings.
– It is rich source of nutrients & can easily be mixed with other growing media
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7. Shredded bark and saw dust: Shredded bark, sawdust and wood shaving of different
plants can also be used in mixtures with various propagating medium.
• Shredded bark, wood shavings may contain toxic material like phenols, resin and
tannin etc. when fresh. Therefore, these should be decomposed wel.
8. Compost: prepared by decomposing bulk organic wastes biologically under controlled
conditions in piles or bins.
– Compost is a rich source of mineral nutrients with good water holding
capacity
– It can be used as a medium for propagation but by mixing with soil
– The various microorganisms like bacteria, fungi & nematodes & insects like
beetles, cut worms can often be found in compost piles
– Therefore, compost should be properly pasteurized before use

7.2 Containers for propagating and growing plants

Advantages of the container-grown plants:
• Such plants are not frequently damaged during packing & long distance transport
• Most of the containers have higher durability
• The mortality rate of the container grown plants is very less
• Plants in container look attractive & help to fetch good price in the market
Flats:-shallow plastic, wooden or metal trays, with drainage holes in the bottom.
• Useful for germinating seeds or rooting cuttings.
• Standard size (LxWxH) = 60cmx30cm

Clay pots
– Heavy
– Porous & lose moisture readily
– Easily broken Fig 3: Clay pots
– Their round shape is not economical of space
– Toxic salt accumulations build up after continuous use
– But it is relatively cheap and locally available.

Plastic pots- round & square in shape

Advantages:
• Nonporous
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 • Reusable
• Light-weight
• Use little storage space
Common in Agricultural research centers and higher learning institutions and commercial
flower farms

Polyethylene bags- Polybags of different sizes, thickness & colour are available in the market
• Comparatively cheaper and can be used time & again.
• Handling of plants is very easy =>
• Light in weight and are easily available
• Before planting, polybags should be perforated for proper drainage
• Most commonly used to produce seedlings of trees and coffee in many parts of our
country.
Paper pots/bags- made from paper & are biodegradable.
• Mainly used for mechanized planting or automatic seed filling machine
• Now a day – mainly utilized in cut flower planting materials producing companies in
Eth.
Fiber pots- made from wood fiber plus peat with fertilizer added
-Biodegradable =>possible to transplant seedlings or rooted cuttings with pots

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CHAPTER – EIGHT

CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FLORICULTURE CROPS

1. Cultivation and Management of Major Cut Flower Crops

1.1. Rosa

Common name: rose

Scientific name: Rosa hybrida L.
Family and related taxa: Rosaceae Juss. This family is huge with over 100 genera and
2000 herbaceous to woody species. Many important food and ornamental plants are in the
Rosaceae family including Fragaria - strawberry; Malus-apple; Prunus-almond, apricot,
cherry, peach, and plum; pyrus-pear; and Rubus-blackberry, loganberry, and raspberry.

Origin: The exact species involved in the development of the present-day rose is not known.
Most rose species are found in the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, especially
from southern China and the Far East, the Indian Himalayas and Bengal into Ethiopia and
west to North America from the Arctic Circle to New Mexico. Recurrent or perennials
flowering rose plants were introduced into Europe from the Far East at the end of the
eighteenth century and were the results of countless generations of breeding in China, India,
and Japan. Rosa chinensis and R. gigantean were major contributors to recurrent roses. They
are commonly believed to be also involved in the evaluation of modern hybrids.

Uses and Current Status

The rose is one of the world's most popular flowers. It plays an important role in social and
cultural life of people; and serves as symbols of love, beauty, peace, etc. In addition colors of
rose are used to convey evocative messages, for instance red roses to express true love,
congratulations; white-colored to state innocence, purity, humility, etc.
 Occasions- Valentine days, Weddings, birthdays, anniversaries, funerals
 Interior décor – offices, homes, hospitals
 Love gifts- wives, girlfriends, the sick and relatives

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 Roses are commonly grown as cut flowers, potted plants, or specimen plants in home gardens
or "antique" roses. Potted plant sizes can range from small plants in 7.5cm pots to 90cm tall
topiary tree roses. Genetically dwarf miniature roses originated from Chinese breeding
efforts. Interest in miniature roses continues today with many cultivars patented in Denmark,
the Netherlands, Untied States, and Canada

Types of Cut Roses

There are mainly four different types of roses on the market, which are classified according to
flower size and stem length.

i. Large flowered roses (hybrid Tea): These roses have long stems, often 60-120 cm, and
large flowers with buds of about 5cm.Their yield is relatively low between 110-200 stems
per m2 per year. They are expensive to transport due to low packing rates, but they fetch a
higher price. They are mainly sold through the florist market sector, and they are sold
mainly for the gift market.

ii. Medium flowered roses (Intermediate): These roses have, in general, shorter stems than
the above group about 50-70 cm, 3.5-4 cm bud. The yield is about 250-300 roses per m2
per year. This group is, in general, easier to handle and transport than the hybrid teas, and
they generally have a good packing rate. They fetch a good price on the market and are
increasingly popular and have become the major market assortment for roses. This group
represents also the major rose production sector in Africa. They are sold both through the
florists and the supermarket sectors, often in different qualities and at different prices.

iii. Small flowered roses (Sweet hearts): This assortment was introduced to the European
markets in the 1960’s. These varieties have a high production generally between 300-350
stems per m2 per year or more, but the flowers are small (2.5-3cm) and the stems are short
between 30-50 cm. They are to a large extent sold through the supermarket sector, but also
to a certain extent to florists, especially the longer qualities.

iv. Spray roses: Spray roses produce many flowers per stem, which fetch a much lower price.
They generally produce low yields of exportable stems and have a low packing rate. This
assortment has never become popular in Europe, and the market volumes are rather small.

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 Some Spray roses can grow well in open field, but since the market is small the risk for
over supply is very high.

All species in the genus Rosa are woody and noted for their thorns, spines, or prickly stems.
Plants can be upright, forming a shrub, or can be trailing and climbing. The leaves are
alternate and may be deciduous or persistent. Many wild species have five petals and
numerous stamens. The ovary is inferior and develops into a fleshy fruit or "hip" which can
become colorful yellow to red when ripe. The prominent five-part sepals (calyx) are leaf like,
cover the flower bud, and become refluxed at flowering to expose the petals. Petal colors
range from white to pink, yellow, orange, or red with an unbelievable variety of shades and
color combinations. Rose fragrance is world renown, but unfortunately has been lost in many
modern cultivars.

Cultivars

It is estimated that over 10,000 cultivars have existed over the centuries. Rose breeding firms
exist in every major rose growing country and superior new cultivars move between countries
at an astonishing speed. Cut flower production has shifted from northern latitudes to areas
near the equator, which have a higher altitude, equal day/night durations, high light
intensities, cool temperatures, and economical labor. In particular, the high light and cool
temperatures results in high quality. Annually, the best cultivars for both home and
commercial use are recognized and prompted by various methods, from commercials and
amateur flower shows to mailed advertisements.
The goals of breeding programs vary, but some common objectives are disease resistance to
powdery mildew, black spot, and botrytis; insect resistance, particularly the red-spotted
spider mite; flower productivity under a wide range of climatic conditions from near the
Arctic to near the equator in Columbia and Ecuador at high elevation; flower form, size, and
color, stem strength; improved post-harvest characteristics; cold hardiness and heat resistance
particularly for the home garden; improved flower fragrance; and increased essential oil
content for the perfume industry.
Cultivar Selection

Variety selection is very difficult and very important for the future success of any company,
and is becoming increasingly difficult with an expanding production and an increasing

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number of varieties to choose from. There are presently over 450 different rose varieties sold
on the Dutch flower auctions, of which only a few are large volume varieties, but the
majorities are relatively small volume, where a new planting of 1 hectare would crash the
market. The criteria below are guidelines of what to look for and how to avoid making
mistakes in variety selection:

Guidelines for variety selection

 A new variety should NEVER be planted in large volumes. New varieties should first
be tested under local conditions. The variety should have a price and market volume
history of at least 2-3 years. However, it is very tempting to plant a new variety,
because the prices are, in general, very high.
 When evaluating a variety, the grower should look at the price and market volume
history of the variety. The auction functions, in such a way that the introduction price
is often high, and will often remain stable for the first 2-3 years after the introduction.
When larger volumes are introduced the prices will decline steadily until the price
reaches a level where there is a balance between the productivity and the price, which
may take 5-10 years. When the variety starts to decline in popularity the price will
decline below that point and become less interesting for new plantings.
 Before deciding on a new variety, the grower should try to obtain information about
its growth and shipping performance, from his own country or from his own trials, in
order to evaluate the probable success of the variety. Varieties with a shorter vase life
should not be planted.

Structure of the Cut Rose Plant

The rose plant consists of two parts, which are joined together through grafting:
 The root part called the rootstock.
 The top of the plant, called the scion, is the hybridized variety that is planted for
production. This may be grafted on the rootstock as an eye or a branch, depending on
the propagation system.

In the beginning grafting was used only if the scion (variety) was difficult to root or was
weak on its own roots. However, though some varieties appear to do well on their own roots,

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the general consensus appears to be that budded or grafted plants generally perform better
than own-root plants.

Rootstock Selection

The reasons for using a rootstock include increasing yield and quality, suitability to a
particular production method and soil condition. There are many different types of rootstocks
with different properties and the selection of the best rootstock has been under debate for the
last 40- 50 years. Unfortunately, it is not possible at the moment to select a particular
rootstock for all conditions, but the ideal rootstock should have the following desirable
qualities:
 Easy to root
 Give high yields and quality
 Adaptable to a wide range of soil drainage conditions and climate
 Resistant to diseases and pests
 Have no rest or dormant periods
 Produce few wild stems
 Resistant to draught, excessive heat and low temperature

The type of rootstock influences the number of stems harvested and the number of bottom
breaks per plant. Each rose variety has its own favorite rootstock. The ideal combination
depends on environmental factors, specific situations in the different greenhouses and the
system the grower uses. For example, a grower who wishes to grow on soilless substrate may
need a different rootstock from one who wants to grow in soil. The quality of flowers
produced is also dependent on the rootstock in a way that the length of the stem and color
strength depends on the grafted combination among other things.

Types of rootstocks

1. Rosa canina: There are many selections of R. canina of which the only one used for
greenhouse roses is ‘Inermis’ which is thornless is quite popular in the Netherlands. It is
propagated by seed to ensure homogeneity of the plant material. Many years ago it was
recommended to use ‘Inermis’ mainly for yellow, cream bicolors and orange varieties. It

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 is considered to require a winter rest and therefore is not very good for clay (heavy) soils.
It sometimes causes slow growth in some varieties.

2. Rosa indica major, it is a more vigorous or stronger growing rootstock than R. canina
‘Inermis’, but is sensitive to frost. Due to the strong and deep penetration root system, it
is quite resistant to water shortage. It requires no resting period, provided that the plants
have been kept with adequate foliage, however, it is not good for orange, yellow and
bicolor varieties as it results into faint colors.

3. Rosa ‘Natal Briar’ is the one mainly used in Ethiopia these days. It is well adapted to
many African climates. It has a strong growth with long stems and relatively good color
formation, it is propagated by cuttings. However, it is said that it is not suitable for all
varieties.

Propagation Methods

1. Seed
Seeds are used only in breeding or genetic projects. Crosses can be made at any time of the
year. The seed requires scarification and stratification for rapid germination. Six to 10 years
are required from pollination to release of a new cultivar. The rate of success in producing a
named seedling is only 1 in 30,000 to 40,000 seedlings. All commercially available cultivars
are patented and cannot be propagated without permission. Also, in vitro propagation can be
used and embryo rescue has been practiced for several years.

2. Stenting
Stenting is used to propagate cultivars used for cut flowers. It is a rapid propagation method
in which a cut rose is placed on an unrooted piece of rootstock. Rooting of the rootstock and
fusion between scion and rootstock take place simultaneously. In the technique of stenting the
base of the scion and the top of the rootstock are cut slant (in 30º angles), both sections fitted
on one another and fixed by using clothes-peg. The rootstock base has to be dipped into IBA-
powder for hastening root development. Then, after the stent is placed into rooting media
(coco-peat, coir, or peat-moss can be used). The success percentage appeared to be influenced
by the scion and rootstock quality and genotype, and above all the environment of the
propagation unit where the rooting takes place. The temperature during the stenting period

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should be between 21 and 28ºC with relative humidity between 98 and 100%. Extra carbon
dioxide up to 800 ppm, results in higher rooting percentage and less quality loss as a result of
leaf yellowing. Most cultivars are patented and permission must be obtained to root cuttings.

3. Bud Grafting
Bud grafting is used to propagate flowering potted plants and garden plants.

4. Stem cuttings
Miniature flowering potted plants are exclusively propagated by single leaf-node stem
cuttings. The best cuttings are obtained from shoots from the second cutback or pinch of
plants already in production or of stock plants. Cuttings will wilt rapidly if harvested when
not mature enough. If cuttings are too mature, rooting is slow and propagation will be
delayed. Generally, only one to two suitable cuttings per shoot can be obtained. Rooting can
occur in mist, fog, or high humidity chambers; or in propagation beds or in pots.

Bed Preparation

In soil systems: Soil tests must be done before bed preparations. The tests are aimed at:
 Establishing the nutrition level and pH of the soil
 Identifying soil borne pests
Where nutrition levels are low, pre-plant fertilizer application should be done to raise the
nutrient content to the desired levels. Agricultural lime may be applied where soil pH is very
low. If soil borne pests are prevalent soil fumigation must be done.

Bed preparation: A rose crop is expected to last for many years, and it is very important to
work the soil well and deep. It is recommended to apply the basic fertilizers during working
the soil, so the fertilizers mix well and even throughout the bed volume. The bed should be
carefully worked down to 40-50 cm depth. Any drainage installation should have been done
prior to working the soil for the planting. If the soil is heavy, it is recommended to rip the soil
down to 80 cm with a tractor, in order to improve drainage and aeration. It is of utmost
importance that the soil is in good tilt when it is prepared, or the structure may be completely
destroyed.

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Bed size and plant density: Most rose beds, inclusive of paths, in Ethiopia vary between 1.4-
1.6 m, and 1.5 m is a very common width. Bed length also varies depending on the length of
the greenhouse. There should be 60 cm - 1.0m walk ways between beds. Each bed is planted
with two rows of plants, and the most common planting density is 60.000 plants per hectare
(6 plants per square meter). The total plant density may vary a little with the design of the
greenhouse or cultivar type from 57-63.000 plants per hectare. However, no studies have
been done to determine optimum plant density for all rose varieties in our country. This is a
suitable area for research. The most common planting system is a two row planting with 30
cm between the rows and 23-20 cm respectively between the plants.

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Planting

Planting Procedure
Plants (seedlings) should be kept in a cool shaded area before they are taken to the field. All
plants should be examined carefully when planted, in order to detect any disorder such as
drying out or diseases.
It is important that the soil is of good worked before the planting starts. A hole should be
made in the bed for each plant in the row, and the hole should be deep enough to enable the
planter to place the roots straight into the hole but not so deep as to bury the grafting point.
It is important that the rows are straight because the drip lines will be installed along each
row. Plants must be handled with great care in order not to damage the root system. The soil
should be carefully filled around the roots and gently pressed in order for the roots to get
good contact with soil. After planting, each plant is watered separately with a hose at low
pressure. The most critical part of the plant is planting and after planting treatment. The
precision with which the grower handles the plants during the first two-three weeks will
influence the result of the plant performance.

Plant Establishment

The vigor with which the rose crop starts and the way the plant is built determines the success
of the planting. The first few months in the greenhouse are, therefore, the most important and
critical period in the life of the rose plant.
Growers should aim at building and maintaining sufficient leaf area on rose plants as soon as
planting is done. The leaf area on the plant is essential for the establishment of the young
plant throughout the whole life span of the crop, and will determine the quality and yield the
grower receives, provided that all other aspects are optimal. The target is to maintain an
optimal amount of productive leaves on the plants all the time, in order to achieve the
maximum assimilation function, which will allow the plant to strengthen itself as well as
produce an optimum quantity and quality of flowers. Light must be intercepted by the leaves
for it to be useful. Optimal leaf area can be achieved through various cultivation systems. The
most known cultivation systems are the traditional system and the bending system

1. The traditional system

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The rose plant is built up through the process of pinching using the traditional system.

Pinching: Is the removal of the flower bud to stimulate growth of auxiliary buds (i.e. a bud in
axils of a leaf lower down the stem). Proper pinching controls growth of the plant, and
develops a short compact plant rapidly with heavy shoots and “bottom breaks”.
o Types of pinching – There are basically two types of pinches – soft and hard. They are
distinguished by the size of the bud. If the bud to be removed is less than the size of a
pea (“rice stage”); the pinch is soft, if the bud is greater than the size of a pea, the
pinch is hard.
o Locations of the pinch - Most pinches, soft or hard, are made down to the second five-
leaflet leaf from the main stem, depending on the cultivar and the growing technique.
o How many pinches – In most cases two times of pinching before allowing the crop to
flower are sufficient. Building up of the plant must be balanced against when flower
production is wanted. The greater the number of pinches given, the larger the plant,
however, the longer the time for the start of flower production.
o How to pinch - The cut should be made close to the node. This removes the stub and
reduces the possibility for disease ingress. This also causes straighter stems for a
potential knuckle cut. The auxiliary bud in the axil of the leaf will start to grow and in
approximately 8 weeks produce a flower.

Traditional production system has limitations in such that it creates undesirable large plant
size which reduces harvesting efficiency and light penetration and increases difficulty of
plant maintenance.

2. The Bending System

A method of rose production, known as bending or arching, has been developed to allow
easy harvest and reduced plant size. The system is to bend the plant close to the grafting
point, which promotes a low breaking point for the next generation of shoots. This is repeated
several times depending on the leaf area assembled and on the strength of the new shoots
which can be harvested.

Flower buds developed from poor quality shoots are removed at pea size and the shoots are
commonly bent downward above the second node from the axis of main stem towards the
path. If plants are grown on a bench, the stems can be bent down in the correct position
without interfering with harvest or coming in contact with the medium. The bent stems

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supply photosynthates to shoots that develop from the basal buds (bottom break). Bottom
breaks are shoots growing from the base of the plant and they have a very outstanding typical
growth. They have a very rapid and strong vigorous growth. They are long, thick, and grow
to a height above the bush. Many of these new shoots are high quality and are harvested.

This process is repeated throughout the year and the plant height does not appreciably
increase when shoots are bent, compared with the traditional method. Because plants do not
have to be pruned heavily to reduce plant height, production can continue uninterrupted.
Older bent stems are removed continuously. The process of bending the stems allows light to
penetrate the base of the plant, which increases the quality of the resulting shoots. In addition,
longer stems can be harvested because there is no need to leave two five-leaflet leaves to
provide photosynthates for the axillary shoots as in traditional production systems. They are
harvested close to the grafting point as well, and the next generations of shoots are basically
the base shoots.

Much still needs to be learned about the bending system. Bending generally increases stem
thickness and uniformity of length. Allows easier harvest, and eliminates support wires.
However, spider mite control can be difficult within the dense foliar canopy.

Flowering Control and Dormancy

Greenhouse roses are generally day-neutral, and flowering is recurrent and occurs on a year-
round basis. Flower initiation is not dependent on environment factors.
Floral differentiation occurs shortly after axillary buds are released from apical dominance.
With cut flowers the transition from vegetative to reproductive growth occurs in 4 to 21 days.
Axillary buds from the upper nodes form flower buds sooner and with fewer leaves than
lower nodes.

Dormancy does not exist in commercial cultivars. However, placing a rose plant at 2 to 4oC
for 4 to 6 weeks will stimulate axillary bud development and adventitious (bottom breaks)
shoots from stem bases.

Growth Requirements

A. Growing media

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The soil should be fertile and well drained from the beginning. If this is not the case, soil
improvement has to be done as well as drainage. The soil must be analyzed for pH, EC and
other elements, especially toxic levels of micro elements. This analysis should be done at a
laboratory which is experienced in rose production. Soils should be tested for soil-borne pests
too. Soils highly infested with nematodes or any other soil-borne pests should be avoided, or
if there is no choice, fumigated.

Soilless media: Desirable characteristics

 Highly porous
 Adequately aerated (20 -30% air)
 High stability
 Good water holding capacity
 Easy hydraulic conductivity
 Low salinity (EC)
 Slightly acidic pH (5.5 – 6.5)

B. Climatic Factors
i. Temperature

Roses respond dramatically to temperature. The rate of axillary bud break, shoot
development, leaf unfolding, and flowering increases as the temperatures increase, all other
factors equal. Experience indicates that high temperatures result in a quicker and rapid shoot
growth and flower development and higher yields. But lower quality in terms of stem
strength; stem length, bud size and number of petals. Excessively high temperatures increase
number of shoots which fail to produce a flower (“blind shoots”) and decrease flower quality,
petal number, flower stem length, and weight of the entire flowering stem. Excessively high
temperatures are also associated with rapid water loss and increased stress on the plant
reducing the quality and shelf life of the cut bloom.
In contrast, low temperatures reduce yield and delay flowering but result in higher quality,
especially in bud size, stem length and stem strength. Interestingly, when temperatures are
too low, blindness is also increased due to an increase in branching and competition for
photosynthates, particularly when irradiance is low.
Optimum temperatures often vary with the cultivars. Most varieties of roses produce the best
quality and highest yields at 24-26oC day temperatures and 17-18oC night temperatures.

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ii. Light

The shelf life of most cut flowers improves with increasing light intensity due to an increase
in the efficiency of photosynthesis and the carbohydrate content of the flower. Low light
intensity can result in elongation of the stem and petiole and retard natural "hardening" which
can result in the common problems of "bent neck" in roses. Low light intensity can also
influence the number of flowers on a stem in spray varieties and causes weak, fragile stems.
Light intensity also influences the color of the petals and leaves. Low light levels produce
paler poorer quality blooms and excessively low levels causing petal "bluing" in some red
varieties of roses. However, excessively high levels can also affect quality adversely by
bleaching, red coloration of tissue, leaf spots, browning leaf and petal droop.

iii. Humidity

Humidity influences the rate of transpiration and uptake of nutrients. It also influences the
development of injurious pests and diseases. High humidity encourages development of
disease causing organisms like Botrytis cinerea but discourages Red Spider Mites. The main
effect of humidity on the shelf life and quality of the crop is that high humidity during the day
reduces heat stress, improving leaf color and the condition of the stem and bloom. However,
high humidity during the night will cause an increase in disease pressure. Long periods of
excessively high humidity can cause a reduction in the transpiration throughout a crop
resulting in induced mineral deficiencies such as calcium causing physiological problems
such as "leaf tip burn" and premature petal drop.

iv. Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is an essential raw material for the process of photosynthesis, and is present
at concentrations of approximately 150-300ppm in normal air. When compared to the other
gaseous constitutes, the carbon dioxide content of outside air is relatively low. Perhaps the
most important effect of carbon dioxide enrichment is the improvement in quality. Rose cut
flowers are heavier, contain more petals, and have longer, thicker stems at carbon dioxide
levels of 1000 - 2000ppm, than they are at normal levels (150-300ppm). The yield increases
in response to carbon dioxide enrichment ranging from 7- 60 % depending on variety. Carbon
dioxide enrichment also reduces the number of blind shoots particularly when light energy
levels are low. Modern green houses are equipped with chambers that can enrich carbon
dioxide levels up to 1200ppm.

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v. Irrigation and Fertilization
Precise watering and fertilization regimes are essential for quality flower production.
Excessive nitrogen use may increase the rate of growth and color of the leaves but decreases
the vase life and encourages disease infection. Likewise, high potassium use encourages
hardening of the stem and petiole, prolonging shelf life and discourages disease. Minor
element deficiencies, such as iron and manganese, usually caused by faulty cultural practices
and over watering, can render a cut flower unsalable.

Good-quality water must be delivered economically to the plant by constant flow system
(drip irrigation). The decision to irrigate cut flowers has been mainly made by human
judgment. Now various irrigation indicators such as tensiometers can be used to aid in the
decision. Computer monitoring and control are now replacing day-to-day irrigation decisions.
The water must be analyzed for pH, EC and other elements, especially toxic levels of micro
elements. This analysis should be done at a laboratory which is experienced in rose
production.
Water stresses both by under-watering and over-watering is one of the major causes of
reduced shelf life and poor bloom quality. Under-watering will result in increased stress, and
an increase in soil salinity; high levels of salinity reducing, greatly, the vase life and
senescence of the crop. Overwatering reduces the soil oxygen levels and root activity
resulting in loss of root and the uptake of water and nutrients and reducing the appearance,
quality and vase life of cut flowers.

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Height Control

Cut flowers: No height control is needed.

Miniature flowering potted plants: Although miniature roses are genetic dwarfs, some form
of height control will be needed with most cultivars to produce a proportional plant.
Reducing temperatures for 2 hr. prior to sunup has been reported to be partially effective to
control height. With the use of temperature, plant height can be reduced by 50%. In larger
scale commercial production, Bonzi (paclobutrazol) is commonly used and several
applications may be needed, depending on the cultivars and season.
Two cutbacks are requires to produce a well-branched miniature flowering potted plant with
days after plants are removed from propagation. The second is approximately 3 weeks later.
The height of the first pinch is 2.5 cm. above the medium level; the second pinch is made
approximately 1.2 to 2 cm above the primary pinch.

Pest Control

Roses are sensitive to both diseases and pests. Most of the diseases are related to high
humidity in the green house. Proper spraying techniques are important in protecting the rose
plant from diseases and insect pests. Rose flowers and foliage are very sensitive to chemicals
and it is of utmost importance to spray correctly and with proper chemicals. For high quality
flowers, the leaves should be green and shiny.
Roses are attacked by a number of pests and diseases, which are a threat to the flower
industry. In order to control the health of the plants, both preventive and curative treatments
have to be administered and detailed in a spraying program. The health status of the plants
has to be checked continuously throughout the growing season.

i. Insects

Red spider mites, thrips, aphids, whiteflies and caterpillars are commonly seen insects in rose
production. Exclusion and monitoring are a priority. Chemicals should be used only on small
outbreaks versus large-scales sprays. Biological control of thrips and mites on roses is a

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 reality. These new environmentally sound techniques can be used as a marketing tool to
customers.

ii. Diseases

Mildew (Sphaerotheca) and Botrytis are the two major disease problems. Exact
environmental control in the green house is required for both Botrytis and Mildew. Water
condensation occurs when temperatures fall below the dew point. Guttation of water along
the edges of leaves also occurs. Drying must occur to prevent diseases establishment.
Roses are continually plagued by several other diseases such as, black spot, root and stem rot
and virus-like diseases. In addition, nematodes and bacterial diseases may be prevalent in
some areas.
As discussed earlier, environmental control is the primary method for avoiding mildew and
Botrytis, and plants should be planted in pasteurized medium.

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Physiological Disorders
Petal tip-burn or black petal edge is a sever blackening and marginal incurving of the
outermost wrapper petal. The tapered flower form is frequently unaffected. To reduce the
severity of this disorder, use supplementary lighting during cloudy weather.
"Bullhead" flowers are a disorder in which the flowers are not tapered at the apex, but are
flatter and often darker than normal flowers. Frequently vigorous new shoots are bullheads.
Other potential causes may also be too low temperatures during flower development or thrips
damage. Some cultivars are more prone to producing bullhead than others. This problem is
not common in potted flowering roses.

Harvesting and Post-harvest Handling

Cut Stage
The exact stage at which any flower is harvested is critical and defined for the particular
species or variety. Roses need to be harvested when the first petal is just reflexing and the
calyx fully reflexed.

Mode of Harvesting
The damage to any cut flower starts with harvesting. Even if the correct cutting stage is
identified by the harvester, damage can occur during the actual process of cutting, handling of
flowers, collecting the flowers and transporting to the cold store.
The method of cutting the flowers does not have a significant influence on the vase life, but
careless cutting causing bruising or crushing of the stems or tearing tissue results in excessive
"bleeding" of the sap which encourages bacterial infection and reduces the stems ability to
take up water. Clean sharp tools are necessary and these should be sterilized after each
harvest. The cut should be smooth with a slanting angle.
To facilitate easy handling, the beds need to be properly laid out to avoid undue stress by the
harvester. Too wide a bed will encourage stretching and possible damage to the harvested
bloom and ideally, no bed should be more than 120 cm wide. Likewise if the bed is too long
the harvested bunches will be too large before reaching the end of the row and damage will
result. Ideally, no bed should be more than 40 m long. Harvesting each bloom in the arms of
the harvester can also cause bruising damage however careful the harvester is and a simple
sling type trolley avoids this completely and allows freedom for the harvester to harvest
longer and wider beds.

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The harvested bloom needs to be placed in cool water as soon as possible after cutting.
Transporting trolleys equipped with overhead shade with water filled buckets should be
placed in the main pathway for the harvester to place his cut bloom into water as quickly as
possible. The emphasis should be on getting the cut bloom to the cold store as soon as
possible.

Common Factors Affecting Quality in Post-Harvest

i. Temperature & humidity after cutting

Temperature is the most important factor affecting flower quality. High temperatures
accelerate flower development, increase respiration thus increasing water loss. Lower
temperatures retard development, reduce the flowers sensitivity to ethylene, reduce water loss
and the development of diseases.
Low humidity leads to rapid water loss and wilting. Water loss is reduced by increasing
humidity.
Ideally temperatures should be kept low with high humidity throughout the entire cutting,
transportation, storage and packing stages.

ii. Period from cutting to cold store

This must be as short as possible: The cut flower continues to "grow" even after cutting and
will continue its gradual opening at ambient temperature. This process is only arrested under
controlled conditions of lower temperature in the cold store.

iii. Cold store

Correct temperature settings are essential. Temperature measurements should be taken

regularly with the thermometer probe placed within the crop for it is the temperature of the
crop which is important not the temperature of the air. Frequent opening of the store will
cause fluctuating temperature to the detriment of the crop.
Cold stores should be well designed and high enough to avoid direct chilling injury from the
fans. The recommended minimum size for 1 ha of flowers is 108 cubic meters - 6 m x 6 m x
3 m. Cold stores tend to dehydrate delicate blooms and to avoid this humidity needs to be
kept at greater than 80%. Humidity is also important to reduce transpiration and aid in
maintaining turgor and preventing the tissue below the flower from collapsing. This common

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problem is called "neck wilt" or "bent neck". Cultivars vary in sensitivity to bent neck. Cold
stores should be kept clean and regularly disinfected.
Roses are best stored at a temperature a little above the freezing point of plant tissue, i.e.
about 2oC.

iv. Ethylene

The effect of ethylene damage cannot be over emphasized. If just one or two stems in any
bunch are too advanced in opening they will emit high levels of ethylene. Cigarette smoking
should be banned from any cold store and the pack house. Old or rotting flower stem or
bloom should be removed immediately. Ethylene producing fruits or vegetables should not
be allowed into the cold store. Stores should be naturally vented every day, by opening the
main doors for at least one hour to exhaust any traces of ethylene.

v. Pack-house

The design and layout of the pack-house for any cut flower enterprise is critical to its success.
As a guide, the minimum recommended area for each hectare of cut flowers is at least 300
square meters.
Ideally the pack-house should be temperature controlled. If not some kind of cooling should
be effected e.g. by placing sprinklers on the roof. Pack houses should be equipped with ample
grading tables. These tables should be marked with the desired stem lengths to enable
accurate size grading. All machines and equipment must be kept spotlessly clean and
disinfected daily. Likewise all standing buckets should be emptied daily and disinfected with
chlorine - household bleach.
Water for standing solutions should be from a clean source ideally potable drinking water.
Clean water directly pumped from deep bore wells is suitable but water from open tanks,
reservoirs and rivers is generally required to be free from bacterial and algae contamination.
Ideally the farm should be equipped with a rapid pre-cooler to reduce the temperature of the
blooms after boxing.

Grading

Cut flowers are graded according to the specific regulations and requirements of each
importing country. For any market it is important that each bunch is made up of the same
size, weight or quality of bloom - the criteria being:

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  Stem length: The longer the stem the better the quality. Usually there is a minimum
acceptable stem length and a 10cm difference between the various grades.
 Stem strength: The stronger the stem the higher the quality.
 Cut stage: Whether the bloom is in tight bud, half open or mature.
 Appearance: The flower should be well formed and free from any defects such as
calyx splitting, bullheads or bent neck. The individual flower, stem and leaves should
have a good overall appearance and there should be a balance between the flower or
flowers and the stem. There should be no chemical, soil or dirt deposits detracting from
the appearance.
 Pests & Diseases: All the flowers, stems and leaves should be free from any pest or
disease.

Flowers are judged subjectively by grading personnel and it is important to have highly
trained supervisors to maintain uniform grading and sizing.

Bunching

Each bunch must contain the exact number of stems stipulated for the bunch, usually 20's.
The flowers should be carefully put together without damaging the bloom and leaves and
secured with a rubber band at the base and close to the bunched heads. Great care needs to be
taken at this stage to avoid damage, particularly bruising.

Packing

Corrugated boxes are generally used for transporting cut flowers and vary in size according to
their source and destination. Quality board must be strong enough to withstand the trauma of
transportation. Ideally boxes should be designed to fit a standard pallet. Over packing and
under-packing both contribute to excessive damage.
On larger farms where packing is a continuous process throughout the day, the bunched
bloom should be stood in a cold store at the desired temperature.

Wrapping and sleeving

Different flowers require different methods of wrapping or sleeving. Polyethylene sleeves

are commonly used for wrapping flowers. These wraps tend to retain moisture and run the

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risk of fungal attack for this reason bunches should be sleeved in the cold store. Hot needle
sleeves allow bunches to breathe and reduce the likelihood of fungal attack.
The delicate rose buds require protection from bruising from contact with the sides and ends
of the box. This is commonly achieved with soft corrugated paper head wraps 15-20cms wide
secured with an elastic band around the heads of each bunch. The wrap should protrude
above the buds to give protection from pushing up against the end of the box.

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 Stem treatment and preservatives

i. Hydration and vascular blockage

The ability of the cut flower to take up water is critical to its vase life. The objective of
hydration is to remove any vascular blockage allowing the natural water stream through the
stem to be revived. The lower end of stem should be cut with a clean knife and the exposed
stem immersed into water which has lower pH, to encourage water uptake. Water uptake can
be improved by the addition of a wetting agent such as ‘Agral 90’ in the standing solution.

ii. Preservatives
Water used in flower containers can quickly become contaminated with bacteria, algae and
fungi which multiply on the plant tissue. They produce or induce toxic substances which can
block the vascular tissues in the stems causing premature wilting and shortened vase life. In
recent years emphasis has been placed upon stem treatment to inhibit the development of
micro-organisms and thereby prolong vase life. Readymade solutions are available though
simple farm based formulae can be equally effective. These can be made from Aluminum
Sulphate, Citric acid or Hypochlorite (household bleach). Such solutions are also ideal for
general sterilizing of tables, water buckets, and other tools.

Marketing

Roses from Ethiopia are sold through the Dutch auction or through an importer. Quality
requirements for both marketing avenues do not differ.

Quality parameters
 Bud size
 Stem length
 Cut stage - The exact stage at which any flower is harvested is critical and defined for
the particular species or variety. Roses need to be harvested when the first petal is
just reflexing and the calyx fully reflexed.
 Uniformity in all aspects – Flowers in a bunch should be uniform

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1.2. Dianthus
Family: - Carryophyllaceae
Common name - Carnation
Popular species- Dianthus caryophyllus
D. carthusianorum

Origin: Dianthus caryophyllus is a native of the Mediterranean area, originally flowering

only in the early spring

Uses and current status

Carnation is one of the world's most popular cut flowers. The precise development of the
resent day hybrids is not known; however, the original species had single flowers with five
petals. The present carnation flower form originated in the United States as the Sim cultivar
group. The "miniature" or "spray" carnation is considered to be more similar to the original
species branching habit.
Colors of D. caryophyllus include white, pink, red, purple, yellow, and apricot orange in
various combinations.

Cultivars
Breeders over the past centuries have developed thousands of cultivars; many of which were
suited for specific climatic environments. The two basic inflorescence types are the standard
and the spray or miniature type. With standard carnations the axillary flower buds below the
terminal flower are removed so that only one large flower will develop. With sprays, the
axillary buds are on long stems and the terminal bud is removed to encourage their
development. The standard types have genetically larger flowers than the spray types.

Propagation
Rooted cuttings are purchased from specially propagators, who produce culture indexed,
virus-free cuttings. Un-rooted and rooted cuttings can be stored at -10C for 6 or 4 months,
respectively. Seed of garden cultivars can be germinated at 18 to 210C.

Flowering Control and Dormancy

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Axillary vegetative shoots differ in the number of leaves that they will form prior to floral
initiation. Shoots from nodes just below the flower will form few leaves prior to flower
induction; basipetal shoots will form numerous leaves before flowering. This fact is
important in selecting cuttings, pinching plants, and harvesting the flowers. The basal nodes
are superior for producing long stems.
The modern carnation flowers perpetually under a wide range of photoperiods and climatic
conditions however, D. Caryophyllus is classified as a facultative LD plant because floral
indication is more rapid under LD than under SD conditions. Fewer leaves will subtend the
flower under LD; while under SD there will be more leaves. Both the standard and spray
carnation cultivars react similarly to LD and SD. Long days from night interruption lighting
are more effective than day extensions; incandescent lamps are more effective than
fluorescent lamps, and cyclic lighting is as effective as continuous night break lighting. Floral
induction occurs rapidly if irradiance is high.
Temperature
Temperature influences the rate of both floral induction and development. The optimal
temperature for flower production is 100C night and 13 to 160C day.

Light
Light intensity determines the rate of floral induction. When light levels are low, floral
induction is slow and more leaves are produced; with high light, floral induction is more
rapid and stems have fewer leaves at harvest. However, rate of flower development is not
influenced by light irradiance. Low irradiance is responsible for weak stems and
consequently poor quality or low grades, regardless of flower diameter. Greenhouses are
never shaded unless temperatures are extreme.

Water
A variety of bed irrigation systems are available; automation of an irrigation system is
essential for efficient production. Reducing available water can result in stronger stems under
low light. However, reduced flower diameters can occur if water restriction is carried to an
extreme. Soluble salts should be checked as carnation roots are sensitive to high EC and leach
medium when needed.

Carbon dioxide

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Net photosynthesis increases as carbon dioxide is increased up to 1500 ppm. Flower weights
and production numbers increase with elevated carbon dioxide levels. With both high light
and carbon dioxide, meristematic leaf making activity rate is increase and floral induction is
more rapid.

Nutrition
Nitrate nitrogen is favored over ammonium in low light areas to avoid soft winter growth and
ammonium toxicity under cold temperatures. On the other hand, excess nitrates can cause
weak stems. The optimal nitrate level in the medium is 25 to 40 ppm; phosphorus 5 to 10
ppm; potassium 25 to 40 ppm calcium 150 to 200 ppm, and magnesium 30 to 40 ppm. Boron
is commonly deficient and media levels should be maintained at 30 to 35 ppm. Regular soil
and tissue tests should be taken to determine existing levels.

Media
Media should be suitable for long-term production with sufficient aeration and drainage,
because the plants are grown for 1 to 2 years. Regular media tests should be conducted to
maintain proper pH and nutrient levels. It is essential that the medium be free of pathogens,
nematodes, and weeds.

Height Control
No height control is required.

Spacing
Spacing is determined by the length of time the bed is to be used before replanting. Cuttings
are spaced 10 x 15 cm for 1-year production and 15 x 15cm for 2-years production. A 15 x 20
- cm spacing may also be used for 2-years production.

Pinching and Disbudding

Pinching of vegetative shoots is an "art" with Dianthus. There are two types of pinches of
newly planted rooted cuttings:
1) Three to 4 weeks after the cutting has become established and growth has commenced,
the young plant is pinched leaving four to five pairs of leaves behind. Although four
shoots usually develop, some growers allow only three shoots to develop on the inner
rows of plants.
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 2) Plants are pinched as in method 1 but half of the developing axillary shoots are pinched
again. The second pinch can be up to 5 to 7 weeks after the first pinch. Some growers
will pinch all the developing axillary shoots from the first pinch.

Proper harvesting of the flowering stems influences future production. With standard
cultivars two to three nodes are left on a shoot; four to eight nodes are left on spray carnation
shoots.
With standard carnations, the axillary flower buds are removed as soon as they can be
handled, twisted, and removed. All axillary growth, both reproductive and vegetative, must
be removed at least 30 to 45 cm below the terminal flower bud. With spray carnations the
apical or dominant flower bud is removed as soon as feasible, which will encourage axillary
flower buds to develop uniformly on equal stem lengths.

Support
Support is an absolute necessity. Usually four layers of wire or plastic mesh with10 x20-cm
openings are used. The first level of support is placed 10 cm above the medium. The
remaining layers are spaced 20 cm, 25 cm, and 30 cm apart, respectively, starting above the
previous layer.

Insects
The major insect pests are the spider mites, thrips, and aphids. Other mite species,
caterpillars, and slugs can also be a concern. Sanitation and monitoring can help keep these
problems under control.

Diseases
Pathogen control starts with purchasing rooted cuttings from a reliable propagator. Systemic
diseases such as Pseudomonas, Corynebacterium, and Fusarium are best controlled by using
disease-indexed cuttings, pasteurized medium, and strict sanitation. Over the years, new
Fusarium resistance cultivars have been released into the trade, but this disease is still a threat
particularly when temperatures are above optimal, medium is kept too wet, or when a new
crop has been planted. Alternaria, Botrytis, Rhizoctonia, and various other diseases can be
found on the foliage, stems, or flowers. These can be frequently controlled by keeping the
plants dry. Numerous carnation viruses are known and are fortunately controlled through
certified virus-free cuttings from reputable suppliers.
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Physiological Disorders
Calyx splitting is the most common nonpathogenic problem. Uniform night temperatures and
reduced variation between day and night temperatures will aid in reducing this problem.
Reducing ammonium, using mainly nitrate nitrogen, and applying sufficient boron will also
aid in reducing splitting.

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Post-harvest
Harvesting and grading are major undertakings. Flowers are harvested in the morning when
turgid, then graded and placed into holding solution under refrigerated 1 to 4 0C conditions to
reduce tissue temperature. Carnation flowers can be harvested at various stages of
development, from very tight buds to when the petals have reflexes over the calyx. For long-
distance shipping, flower buds are best cut when the petals are 0.5 to 1.5 cm above the calyx
and the appropriate petal color is visible. Spray carnations are harvested when two or three
flowers have opened and petal color is evident on the rest of the buds. When stems are
dehydrated, warm 38 to 430C water should be used.
Tight flower buds with little or no color showing can be harvested, pulsed with silver
thiosulfate (STS), and stored dry for up to 24 weeks at 0 to 10C. When typical flowers are
"bud-harvested" they can be stored for 4 to 5 weeks; open flowers are best stored for 2 to 4
weeks at 00C and 90% relative humidity. Botrytis is a constant potential problem with any
stored carnation. Carnations are sensitive to external and self-generated ethylene and their
response to STS and other floral preservative components is dramatic. Vase life for an
untreated control flowering stem is 6 to 9 days, whereas STS treated flowers held in a
preservative have a vase life of 30 days. If a sucrose based floral preservative is used, vase
life is only 12 to 16 days. Stems and flowers should be pulsed for 20 hr. at 200C with STS,
sucrose (10%), and a microorganism inhibitor (8-hydroxyquinoline citrate, 8-HQC) in pH 3.5
water. Once pulsed with STS, repeated use of STS is not required and may cause
phytotoxicity. Sucrose-based floral preservatives are best used at all times, when-ever flower
stems are recut and placed in water.

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CHAPTER NINE

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

The control of greenhouse pest is based on the three basic components required for an insect
or disease to become established: (1) the pest organism, (2) a susceptible host, and (3) the
proper environment for the pest to develop and reproduce. All three components interact to
form a triangle. The goal of pest control is to disrupt or eliminate any one of these three
components. For example, Botrytis can be controlled by (1) sanitation or chemical
applications to eliminate the presence of Botrytis; (2) growing Botrytis resistant crops; or (3)
making the environment unsuitable for disease development.

Integrated Pest Management

The focus of integrated pest management (IPM) is the integration of all strategies for
controlling insects and diseases into one coherent plan. IPM begins with prevention to keep
pest problems from starting in a crop, if possible. New plant material should be inspected and
isolated from existing crops to prevent infestation of existing, pest-free crops. Pests can be
excluded by barriers between greenhouses or sections within a greenhouse, and excluding
customers and nonessential personnel from key areas.

When possible, grow pest-resistant species or cultivars. All media should be pasteurized and
high sanitation standards should be implemented including indoor and outdoor weed control,
use of clean containers, sterilization of benches, and prompt removal of all sources of disease
inoculums such as dead plants, fallen leaves, and other plant materials. Remove extra or
personal plants from production areas.

The next step in IPM is to implement environmental or cultural control procedures. For
example, high humidity can be vented out in the early evening to reduce Botrytis infection. A
slight increase in temperature in the early evening will also decrease relative humidity. Proper
air circulation and dry foliage reduce foliar diseases. The pH and soluble salt levels (EC) of
the media should be regularly tested and maintained near optimum, because extremely high
or low pH and high EC can predispose plants to disease problems.
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Irrigate plants regularly and properly as required by each crop species. Irrigating too
frequently or too infrequently can stress plants and increase the likelihood of pest problems.
Use a well-drained medium or a naturally disease-suppressive medium, if possible. Root rots
are one of the most common disease problems in floriculture production, and can be greatly
reduced by media choice and proper management of pH, EC, and water.

Pest control checklist

Before Production Starts:
 Use pasteurized or pathogen-free media.
 Use clean, sterile containers.
 Clean and sterilize benches periodically.
 Clean and sterilize the irrigation system periodically.
 Remove weeds in the greenhouse and within 3 to 9m of the outside of the
greenhouse.
 Remove fallen plant material, media, and other debris.
 Use insect exclusion screens.
 Remove extra or personal plants.

During Production:
 Grow pest- resistant species or cultivars.
 Inspect incoming plant materials carefully.
 Isolate new plant materials, if possible.
 Produce plants at the optimum growing conditions.
 Avoid over-or under irrigation.
 Keep hose ends off the ground.
Maintain optimum medium pH and EC.
 Avoid water dripping on plants from overhead leaks.
 Irrigate early in the day to allow foliage to dry by evening.
 Reduce humidity by venting/heating in the evening.
 Scout regularly and thoroughly
 Use yellow and/or blue sticky cards for monitoring insect populations.

If a problem occurs or is likely to occur:

 Decide on the threshold of tolerance for each pest.
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  Apply chemical controls when appropriate.
 Use beneficials when appropriate.
 Remove diseased or heavily insect-infested plants promptly

Beneficials
The commercial availability of beneficial insects and diseases have greatly expanded pest
control options. Research is taking place around the world and many more pest control
options are likely to be available in the future. Beneficial organisms, known simply as
beneficials, include predators, parasites, and microorganisms. Predators eat the undesirable
insect; for example, lacewing predators (Chrysoperla rufilabris) eat aphids. Parasites lay eggs
on or in the pest; for example, the parasitic wasp (Encarsia formosa) lays eggs on whiteflies.
Microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, or nematodes directly attack the pest; for
example, Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria kill caterpillars. Microorganisms also compete with
undesired organisms for nutrients and living space; for example, Agrobacterium radiobacter
is a competitive inhibitor of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, the bacterium that causes crown
gall. Combinations of two or more beneficials may be needed for effective controls which
draw on the strengths of each species, increasing control and versatility. Effective control
using beneficials usually requires scheduled releases, proper environment (especially
temperature), and receipt of live organisms from reliable suppliers. Generally a pesticide- free
environment is required; however, a few pesticides, especially insect growth regulators are
compatible with some beneficials.
All commercial crop producers will need to make management decisions regarding the
amount of a pest they can tolerate on a crop before the population level is unacceptable or
quality is sufficiently reduced to cause a monetary loss. This is known as the economic
threshold, below which level the pest is thought to be economically insignificant.
Unfortunately, the economic threshold is close to zero for potted foliage, potted flowering
crops, and cut flowers because they are to be used indoors where the customer readily notices
any insect or disease problems. Unlike most vegetable or fruit production, the entire plant is
harvested in floriculture and must be unblemished. Even tiny insect or disease populations
may increase during marketing or in the home. The threshold can be higher for insects on
bedding plants because the insects often disappear after the plants are placed outside. In
addition, the threshold can occasionally be higher at beginning of crop than later in crop cycle
when the plants can be “cleaned up” before sale. This strategy can be risky because the pest
population may become so great that it cannot be controlled.
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One primary component of IPM is pest scouting or early detection. Plants must be checked
regularly, at least once a week, for the presence of pests. Set up a regular scouting pattern that
allows a uniform and thorough check of the plant materials. Choose up to 10 plants per
bench; selecting plants form both the outer and inner portions of the bench. Hanging baskets
and plants near doors and vents are particularly prone to insects and should be checked
accordingly. Examine each plant carefully check the undersides of old and young leaves, leaf
axils, flowers, and buds. Yellow or blue sticky cards can be used to monitor populations of
insect pests such as whiteflies, thrips, and winged aphids. Not only must scouting be done
regularly, but the information must be used. Identification of a problem is useless unless
quick and proper action is taken. Also, the person in charge of scouting should be
knowledgeable and keep good records, which will allow the grower to detect patterns and
anticipate and plant for future problems.

Chemicals

Chemicals have traditionally been one of the main control methods against pest problems.
However; problems with cost, pest resistance, availability, and environmental concerns have
prompted the focus on non-chemical pest control methods.

Pesticide Safety
All chemicals should be treated with care, including plant growth regulators, cleaning
supplies, and any organic chemicals. Many countries have regulations designed to protect the
safety of workers when chemicals, especially pesticides, are being used. Anyone who works
with chemicals or supervises people who work with chemicals may need to obtain a license
or be certified.

Pesticide Action
Pesticides can be divided into two groups based on their method of control: contact or
systemic. Contact pesticides require that the chemical actually contact the pest’s body of be
ingested by the pest. Systemic pesticides are absorbed by the plant, often the roots, and
moved throughout the plant. The pest is controlled when it ingests plant material, such as leaf
tissue or sap, containing the chemical. Although systemic chemicals may be able to control
pests that are difficult to reach, many plant organs including flowers, woody stems, and old
leaves do not readily take up systemic chemicals
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Pesticide Formulations

Chemicals are available in a variety of formulations and some chemicals can be obtained in
more than one formulation. When considering which formulation to use, the ease of
application includes the labor required applying the pesticide and the amount of time required
to clean the equipment. Plant coverage refers to how easily it is to treat an entire plant,
especially the lower surfaces of the leaves. Various numbers of formulations and
combinations of formulations are available, but the major are the following.

Wettable powders (WP) - powdered solid particles are suspended in water; the solution is
sprayed on plants. Constant agitation is required to keep the particles suspended is required to
keep the particles suspended in water and a surfactant may be required for better spray
coverage on the plant surface. Surfactants decrease the surface tension of water and prevent
the pesticide solution from beading and running off the plant. The particles may eventually
clog the sprayer. Wettable powders can also be use as drencher.

Emulsifiable concentrate (EC) - the pesticide is dissolved in an oil, which is emulsified in

water; solution is sprayed on plants. Generally no surfactant is required. This formulation can
also be used as a drench. Residue is little but high potential for phytotoxicity.

Dust (D) – Pesticide is a powdered solid, mixed with filler, such as talc, and spread on plant
surfaces. Dusts are rarely used in commercial production due to the labor involved, drifting,
and heavy residue.

Aerosols (A) - Pesticide is contained in cylinders of compressed gas and available in two
types: (1) small handheld containers where a person manually holds down the release button
and sprays the plant, or (2) total release containers where the cylinder automatically
discharges its contents after being activated. Aerosols should generally be used only when the
temperatures are 15 to 29oC. Application is easy, little residue but not widely available (John,
1999).

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Fogs - Pesticide is vaporized by injection into either a hot pipe or a hot air-stream. Fogs
should generally be used only when the temperatures are 15 to 29oC. Method of application
is not difficult but potential for phytotoxicity is high.

Smokes-Pesticide is contained in a combustible carrier, which is ignited. Smokes should be

used only when the temperatures are 15 to 29oC. Very easy to apply with effective plant
coverage.

Granules (G) – Pesticide is incorporated into a carrier, such as ground corn cobs, which is
applied to the root medium surface. Granules are watered in, allowing the pesticide to be
released and absorbed by the plants. Many granule pesticides are systemic. Highly toxic
pesticides are frequently formulated as a granule because it is considered the safest method to
apply a pesticide, but all granular pesticides are not highly toxic.

Volatilization- Pesticide is heated and volatilizes directly into the air. This method often uses
a sulfur burner to heat the chemical. Legality of this method should be checked beforehand.
Application is easy. Complete plant coverage can be obtained if properly applied.

Pesticide Compatibility

Tank mixing two or more chemicals can increase effectiveness, but may lead to more rapid
resistance to chemicals. So that it is not advisable to mix pesticides unless someone is certain
that they are compatible. Consult your chemical supplier or an appropriate government
agency to determine which pesticides can be applied together. Mixing incompatible
chemicals may result in increased phytotoxicity, decreased effectiveness of one or both
chemicals, formation of insoluble precipitates, and increased human toxicity.

Pest Resistance to Chemicals

Many insects and fungi have become resistant to one or more pesticides. Resistance to a
pesticide develops because any one pesticide is rarely 100% effective at controlling an insect
or disease. For example, the first application may kill 90 to 95% of the individual organism.
A portion of the surviving 5 to 10% may have come in contact with the pesticide, but
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survived due to incomplete coverage or inappropriate concentration. When the resistant
survivors reproduce, a portion of their offspring will also be resistant. Thus, later applications
of the same pesticide may only control 80 to 85% of the next generation. This process
continues until the pesticide is largely ineffective. Pest resistance to one pesticide increases
the likelihood of resistance to other pesticides in the same class. The probability of pest
resistance can be reduced by rotating between different chemicals at each application,
because pests resistant to one pesticide are probably not resistant to pesticides from an
unrelated class. Examples of different chemical pesticide classes include botanical,
carbamate, chlorinated hydrocarbon, insect growth regulator, macrocyclic lactone, microbial,
pythrethroid, and organophosphate. The likelihood of resistance can be reduced when using a
pesticide by applying the correct concentration, completely covering or penetrating the plant,
rotating among pesticide classes and applying a pesticide only when required. When a pest
becomes resistant to all control methods, radically different measures may be required, such
as not growing the susceptible crop, changing to more resistant cultivars, or temporarily
closing down and sanitizing the entire greenhouse complex.

Phytotoxicity

Phytotoxicity is possible with the use of any chemicals for pest control or growth regulation.
Before applying chemicals to a crop, check the label to determine if the chemical is
acceptable for use on that species. Symptoms of phytotoxicity include one or more of the
following: marginal necrosis, chlorotic or necrotic patches or spots, and blighted flowers,
buds, and young leaves.
A number of factors will increase the likelihood of phytotoxicity. Petals, bracts, and young
leaves are most sensitive and more likely to be damaged than mature tissue. Water stress or
any other plant stress will also make a plant more sensitive to chemical damage. The chance
for phytotoxicity increases sharply with high temperatures; 18 to 27oC is probably the safest
temperature range. During warm periods of the year, apply chemicals late in the evening or
early in the morning before the greenhouses become too hot. Phytotoxicity is also likely
when water is on the foliage and the chemicals are applied through fogging, smokes,
aerosols, or volatilization. Do not apply tank mixes of two or more chemicals unless
thoroughly tested beforehand. Do not exceed recommended rates and use wetting agents only
when necessary. Finally, be sure the application equipment has never been used to apply
herbicides and apply chemicals uniformly to the crop.
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Insects and related organisms

Insects and related organisms that are common pests in the greenhouse production are
numerous. In this section, however, listed the most important that frequently create trouble
particularly in our country greenhouse production system. The life cycle of each pest is
included briefly. The actual times for each life stage will be determined by the temperature.
Generally, the warmer the temperature the faster each generation of life stage will be
completed and the more quickly pest populations can increase. Outdoor production is
subjected to a much greater number of potential pests which normally do not occur in the
greenhouse.

1. Aphids

Aphids, also called plant lice, are common on young leaves and growing tips of stems. Two
of the most common species are the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) and the melon aphid
(aphis gossypii), which attacks many garden crops. Aphid populations are effectively held in
check where natural enemies such as lacewings occur. They are important because cause
plants to grow with less vigor and are able to transmit a number of viruses that cause
devastation to horticultural crops. Aphids excrete honeydew, which supports unsightly black
mold. Aphids have soft, winged or wingless bodies in a wide range of colors from yellow
green to dark brown to red. Aphids have become resistant to many pesticides and control can
be difficult.
Aphids feeding mechanism is piercing and sucking shoot tips, buds, and leaves Host ranges
very wide. The common Damage symptoms are distortion, curling of shoot tips, buds, and
leaves.
Control of aphids consists of spraying aerial insecticides and systemic insecticides, and using
beneficials such as Aphidius colemani (parasitic wasp), Aphidoletes aphidomyza (aphid
midge), Chrysoperla camea, and C. rufilabris (lacewing predators) Harmonia axyiidus
(Asian beetle predator), and Beauveria bassiana (parasitic fungus).
Life cycle – Normally give birth to live female nymphs, which can mature and begin
reproduction in 7 to 10 days. One female aphid can produce 50 to 100 young in a 30-day
period. Long distance movement occurs when winged females are produced because of
overcrowding or low food supplies.
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2. Leaf Miners

The leaf miner is difficult to control if it becomes established in a greenhouse. The larvae
burrow within the leaf tissue and are protected by the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf.
All susceptible plant material should be inspected carefully for the distinctive tunnels. The
purchase of clean plant materials is important. The adults appear as small, dark winged flies.
Host ranges relatively narrow, especially found on chrysanthemums (Dendranthema x
grandiflorum), kalanchoe (Kalanchoe blossfeldiana), and columbine (Aquilegia).
Larvae burrow in leaves, eating subcuticular tissue and cause tunnels lace leaves. High
infestations can stunt plants. Control is difficult, as there are many chemical resistant strains
and the larvae are encased in leaf tissue. Systemic insecticides are effective against larvae and
regular aerial chemical applications can be used to kill adults.
Life cycle- from adult to adult occurs in about 4 to 5 weeks. An adult has a life span of 2 to 3
weeks, during which a female may lay over 100 eggs. The eggs hatch into larvae in 5 to 7
days and up to 14 days later the larvae change in to pupae. Two weeks later the adults emerge
from the pupa.

3. Mealybugs

Although mealybugs are rarely a major problem in commercial greenhouses, recently this
insect become one of the major damage causing pests exclusively in our country cut rose
production. Some species inject a toxic substance into the plant during feeding. Mealybugs
excrete honeydew, which supports unsightly black mold. These flat, soft bodied, wingless
insects are distinguished by the waxy white powder on their bodies.
Mealybugs have a wide range of host. They feed by piercing and sucking shoot tips, leaves,
buds, and roots. The damaged shoot tips, leaves, and buds usually become chlorotic and
distorted. Heavy infestations may lead to chlorosis of entire plant.
Controlling is difficult to kill adults due to waxy coating, repeated applications of aerial or
drench contact insecticides may be required to kill crawlers as they hatch. Systemic pesticides
are also effective against adults and larvae. The beneficial insect Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
(ladybug predator) is able to partially control mealybugs.

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Life cycle- from adult to adult may take anywhere from 6 weeks to 2 months. Females can lay
300 to 600 eggs. The eggs hatch into tiny nymphs 7 to 10 days later, which move around the
plant for 6 to 8 weeks before becoming adults. Some types of mealybugs produce live young.

4. Mites

The most common mite problem is the two spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) which
produces a characteristic webbing when populations are high. Unfortunately, the infestation
is usually severe by the time the webbing is noticed. In hot, dry environments, the spider mite
population can explode. Syringing plants to wash insects off and wetting walkways to raise
the humidity were used to prevent spider mite populations from becoming unmanageable
before pesticides were widely available. These tiny organisms are not true insects but are
related to spiders and scorpions. Mites can be more readily observed by tapping plant parts
over a piece of white paper. Leaves may also feel gritty to the touch. Spider mites range in
color from red to green to yellow with the two-spotted mites having two, large dark spots
after which they are named. Another mite, the Lewis mite (Eotetranyclus lewis) is similar to
the spider mite in appearance and habits but has been a problem on poinsettias, which is not a
typical host for the two-spotted spider mite. Cyclamen mites (Phytonemus pallidus) are even
smaller and cannot be seen with the naked eye. Cyclamen mites differ from spider mites in
that they are favored by high humidity (80% or more) and cool temperatures of (16oC).
Mites host a wide range of plant species. The spider mite pierces and sucks shoot tips and
leaves and commonly attacks undersides of leaves causing chlorosis and tiny, necrotic spots
of the leaves. The cyclamen mite feeds predominately in bud tissue, thereby distorting young
leaves and buds and stunting plants. Cyclamen mite damage is often confused with other
problems such as microelement deficiencies.
Controlling is difficult, because mites have many pesticide- resistant stages. Mites also prefer
relatively inaccessible location: the cyclamen mite often burrows deeply within shoot tips and
the spider mites prefer the undersides of leaves. Systemic pesticides or thorough applications
of aerial pesticides may be effective. Beneficials (predatory mite), used to control spider
mites include Neoseiulus californicus, Phytoseiulus persimilis Phytoseiulus longipes,
Neoseiulus fallacies (Predator), Feltiella acarisuga (Predatory midge), and Metaseiulus
occidentalis or Stethorus punctum (Predatory beetles). A low temperature, high humidity
environment slows spider mite reproduction and spread.

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Life cycle – for the spider mite from egg to adult can take as little as 7 days during hot, dry
weather, but at a temperature 21oC the life cycle is 20 days. Females lay an average of 100
eggs. The eggs hatch into larvae 2 to 8 days later, feed for a short time, and enter into an
inactive resting stage of about 1.5 days. This sequence is repeated three more times until the
adult is produced from the last resting stage. Female cyclamen mites can also produce up to
100 eggs during her 4-week life span. The adults will be produced 4 weeks later.
5. Thrips

Of the several species that injure plants, the western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis)
is the most troublesome because it transmits the destructive tomato spotted wilt and impatiens
necrotic spot viruses. These tiny insects are less than 3 mm long, have two wings, and range
in color from yellow to brown or black. Often found in flowers, thrips can be more readily
observed by dissecting flowers or tapping plant parts over a piece of white paper.
Thrips have very wide host range; feeds by scraping plant parts, especially flowers and young
leaves, and sucking the exposed plant sap. Silvery streaks on flowers and foliage and
distortion of new growth are the most known symptoms.
Aerial chemical applications (applied 3 to 5 days apart) provide good result. Systemic
generally do not work well. Beneficial controls include Thripobius semileuteus (parasite),
Orius insidiousus (predator), Neoseilus (Amblyseius) cucmeris and N. degerans (predatory
mites), Hypoaspis miles (predatory mites), and Beauveria bassiana (parasitic fungus).
Heating a greenhouse during the hot seasons by shutting the vents, turning off the cooling
system, and allowing the temperature to rise can be used to eliminate thrips populations in the
greenhouse. Four days 40oC and 10% relative humidity will kill 100% of western flower
thrips (John, 1999).
Life cycle- from egg to adults can occur in as little as 2 weeks. Each female can lay 150 to
300 eggs on plant tissue and live from 27 to 45 days. The eggs hatch in 2 to 4 days into small
yellowish larvae and molt twice. The larvae then drop off the plant and change into adults by
means of pseudo pupae.

6. Whiteflies

Whiteflies can quickly build up into large populations. Not only do the whiteflies damage
plants but they also are annoying for the customers as they fly. Whiteflies excrete honey-
dew, which supports unsightly black sooty mold. Two whitefly species are of particular
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interest, the greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) and the silver leaf whitefly
(Bemisia argentifolia). Both species are small white flies covered with a waxy powder. The
greenhouse whitefly eggs are bright white when first laid and turn to dark gray. The pupae
have parallel sides that are perpendicular to the leaf surface when viewed head-on.
The adults have whitish bodies and hold their wings mostly flat over the bodies, making the
wings parallel to the leaf surface. The color of silver leaf whitefly eggs varies from light
brown to gray and the pupae are rounded when viewed from head-on. The adults hold their
wings at an angle (roughly 45o) over their bodies which may have a yellowish cast.
Whiteflies cover very wide host range, especially poinsettias (Euphorbia pulcherrima),
cineraria (Pericallis X hybrida), gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii), and calceolaria (Calceolaria
herbeohybrida). They attack by piercing and sucking leaves and cause stunting of growth and
chlorosis of leaves.
Aerial application to undersides of leaves, dip cuttings in insecticide before bringing into the
greenhouse, systemic insecticides, and beneficial controls such as Encarsia Formosa and E.
deserti (parasitic wasps), Delphastus pusillus (predator beetle), Eretmocerus californicus
(parasitic wasp), and Beaureria bassiana (parasitic fungus) give better result.
Life cycle- from egg to adult takes about 4 to 5 weeks. The females lay up to 250 eggs in
batches of up to 20 eggs. The eggs hatch 5 to 14 days later into nymphs remain stationary for
up to 3 weeks, during which they progress through three molts ending in a pseudo pupa. The
winged adult emerges 1 week later and can lay eggs in 3 days for silver leaf whiteflies and fin
4 days for greenhouse whiteflies. The life cycle for the silver leaf tends to be slightly longer
than for the greenhouse whitefly.
DISEASES

A number of diseases are commercially important and in some cases may completely destroy
an entire crop. Generally, prevention is more effective and pesticides less effective with
diseases than with insects. A number of common diseases are discussed in this section taking
their importance into account. Many other diseases are possible, especially with outdoor
crops, but most are only locally important.

1. Bacteria

Bacterial diseases are most prevalent during propagation when soft rot bacteria such as
Erwinia can turn cutting and seedlings into a soft, black rotted tissue. Many plants are
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susceptible to other bacterial diseases such as leaf spots at some point during production.
Host ranges very wide, especially soft rotting bacteria on foliage plants.
Damage includes, rotting of cuttings, seedlings, bulbs, tubers, corms, and so forth. Other
bacterial infections result in leaf spotting with yellow margins, wilting and yellowing of
shoots, and crown galls.
Bacteria are spread through human activities, such as propagation, and water movement.
Sanitation, eliminating water on the foliage, and prompt removal of infected plant materials
will limit the spread of bacteria. Aerial application of chemicals may help prevent bacterial
infection and reduce further contaminations, but control through pesticides is usually
marginal.

2. Botrytis

Botrytis can occur at any stage of production, from propagation to marketing. Botrytis occurs
on fallen leaves, petals and other debris, and on senescing plant tissue still attached to the
plant. Botrytis is favored by warm temperatures and high humidity and is one of the most
common plant diseases in commercial greenhouse production. The gray hyphal growth of
fungus is often visible on infected plant materials, especially deep within the plant canopy
where the humidity is high.
Botrytis can kill seedlings and cuttings during propagation which is usually a warm and
humid environment. On whole plants, Botrytis often infects dead tissue but can also infect
healthy vigorous leaves, stems, flowers, and buds during production. Botrytis is an especially
important problem on flowers and foliage during storage and shipping.
Environmental manipulation, with reduced humidity and increased air circulation, can help to
minimize the damage. Once Botrytis is established, aerial fungicide applications may be
required. Sanitation is always important to reduce inoculum; clean up fallen plant debris and
remove infected plants or plant tissue. Microorganisms showing potential for control or
prevention of Botryis include Gliocladium roseum (fungus) and Cryptococcus humicola
(yeasts)

3. Crown and Root Rot

Crown and root rot is considered to be one of the most important plant diseases in floriculture
and typically involves one or more of the following five fungal genera: Fusarium,
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Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Phytophthora and Thielaviopsis. Generally, the specific disease
organism is difficult to distinguish without a laboratory diagnosis. Root rot fungi are quite
common and often infect plants stressed from high soluble salts, improper watering,
nutritional deficiency, insect damage, or flowering.
Infected plants usually show symptoms of yellowing of lower leaves, brown or black roots.
The fungi infect and kill roots and lower stems. Pythium and Phytophthora usually infect
roots first. Pythium can sometimes be distinguished by pulling off the root tip; the remaining
inner root tissue will look like a wire.
Controlling methods include pasteurized medium, clean pots and benchers, and good plant
care. Fungicides may be used as a preventative measure or after disease is established to
prevent spread. Often two chemicals are necessary to treat all genera of fungi causing crown
and root rot; some pesticides contain two of the appropriate chemicals already. Be sure to
check the label for which fungal genera are controlled. Microorganisms showing potential for
control and prevention of Rhizoctonia stem and crown rot include Pseudomonas cepacia
(bacterium) and Paeeilomyces lilacinus (fungus). Gliocladium virens (fungus) and
Trichoderma harzianum (fungus) can be useful against both Pythium and Rhizoctonia root
rot.
4. Damping-Off

Damping-off is a general disorder usually caused by Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia and

other pathogens. They are difficult to tell apart but are quite common. Pre-emergent
damping-off occurs when the seedlings are infected before they emerge from the medium and
post-emergent damping-off occurs after the seedlings have emerged from the medium. Many
times growers blame poor germination results on poor seed quality when Pre-emergent
damping-off is the cause. In the case of post-emergent damping-off, white or brown or black
fungal strands may be visible. The fungal strands are typically “dull brown to dark brown”
with Rhizoctonia and “shiny coal black” with Pythium.
Infected seedlings are killed before, during, or after emergence from the medium. Seedlings
sometimes appear normal at first except for a black area on the stem at or immediately above
the medium line.
Pasteurized media, clean pots and benches, and proper watering practices are major
controlling methods. Germinate seed under optimum conditions to reduce time in propagation
and maintain good air circulation. Seed treated with fungicides can also be helpful. Fungicide
drenches may also be used as a preventative measure or to prevent the spread of damping-off
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after it is established. Often two chemicals are necessary to treat all genera of fungi causing
damping-off; some pesticides contain two of the appropriate chemicals already. Micro-
organisms showing potential for control or prevention of damping-off include Gliocladium
virens (fungus), Trichoderma harzianum (fungus), and Streptomyces griseoviridis (fungus).

5. Mildew

Tow general types of plant pathogenic mildew occur: Powdery mildew and downy mildew.
Powdery mildew is distinguished by the whitish, powdery growth on plant materials.
Although it can occur on old leaves with some species, it is most damaging when it occurs on
young leaves, stems, buds, and flowers where it can cause twisting and distortion. On older
leaves necrosis and senescence can occur. Powdery mildew should not be confused with
downy mildew, a disease that is really seen in the greenhouse and is similar in appearance to
powdery mildew.
Downy mildew generally infects the undersides of older leaves, while powdery mildew
favors the upper sides of younger leaves. Pale green to yellow patches can appear on the
upper sides of leaves infected with downy mildew and frequently, the leaves turn completely
brown. Organisms causing downy mildew are related to the “water molds”, Pythium and
Rhizoctonia, and are not controlled by the same types of chemical as powdery mildew.
Host range is limited to certain species in greenhouses, especially roses (Rosa), begonias
(Begonia), and African violets (Saintpaulia ionantha), but can be common on a variety of
outdoor crop species. Although mildew species tend to look similar on various plant species,
mildew species are usually very host specific. A strain that infects one plant species is
unlikely to infect another plant species. Mildew reduces plant vigor and new growth may be
distorted and curled.
To control mildew growers require using systemic fungicides or aerial applications of contact
fungicides. Spores will not germinate in free water or below 95% humidity – either
frequently spray plants with water or reduce humidity. Powdery mildew is also favored by
poor air circulation which allows areas of high humidity to develop around the leaves.
Downy mildew is most prevalent during periods of cool temperatures and high humidity.

WEEDS

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Weeds must be controlled in the field of ornamental plants production. Weeding is
particularly important in cut flower production as competition with weeds reduces the
quality. In addition a bed full of weeds increases the time required to harvest, raising labor
costs. Weeds often harbor insects and disease, reducing the effectiveness of pest control on
the crops. Although weeds are a greater problem in outdoor production, they should not be
ignored in the greenhouse Weeds below the benches or along the walls can be a source of
seeds for weeds in container grown crops, which require expensive hand labor to control. The
best control is vigilant scouting to locate and remove weeds before they can get established.
Also, remove weeds from around the outside of the greenhouse to reduce introduction of
seeds.
In general a single method of weed control will not be successful in sustainable cut flower
production, and therefore, an integration of weed management methods are necessary to
follow. Integrated weed management combines several strategies, such as selection of
cultivars which can able to withstand the effect of weed, effective land preparation, correct
planting time, crop rotation, judicious use of herbicides, appropriate irrigation and other
preventive weed control methods (regular cultivation, soil solarization, use of cover crops and
mulching). Solarization is the process of allowing empty, dry greenhouses to heat up and kill
weeds through drought and heat.

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CHAPTER TEN

POSTHARVEST HANDLING OF FLORICULTURE CROPS

A. Harvest; Harvesting is one of the crucial features in the floricultural operation. It is the
costliest part of production, and its timing has a direct effect on the final quality of the
product. So that establishing optimum time of harvesting for each crop is very essential. The
harvest activities comprise half or more of total labor. Flowers must be in excellent condition
and have excellent quality if maximum shelf life is desired. A quality product is essential for
a grower to survive in the market place. The best possible quality of any commodity exists at
the moment of harvest. From that point on, quality cannot be improved, only maintained.
All harvest systems must be designed to slow the decline of the flowering stem and provide
the retailer and consumer with the longest vase life. Any activity that accelerates the decline
should be avoided or modified to minimize the effects on quality. Remember that vase life
begins at harvest.

1. Harvest – Stage of Maturity

A number of factors must be considered to determine the optimum stage of maturity for
harvesting a variety of species of cut flowers.

a. The genetic nature of the cultivars

There are different cultivars that mature at different dates due to their inherent variability. In
other words, the time required to reach the harvestable stage varies widely form cultivar to
cultivar. Some flowers need to be picked before the flower buds open, while others at the
stage when the bud begins to open and show color. There are also crops which may require
their flowers to be harvested after they are completely open. Table 1 lists the optimum stage
of maturity for harvesting major cut flowers species.

b. The marketing options

Flowers can be marketed to a flower wholesaler, a retail florist, or directly to the public
(consumer). Flowers for direct sale to final consumers should be harvested slightly more
mature than flowers sold to retailers for resale. Likewise, selling to wholesalers requires a
slightly less mature flower than a retailer would require.
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 c. The intended use
Ideal stage of maturity will also vary with the intended use. Flowers for drying should be
harvested when almost fully open; while for fresh use they should be less mature.

2. Harvest Time
The rate at which a flowering stems declines is dependent on the tissue temperature and water
status of the flower, stem and foliage. High temperature accelerates the rate of decline,
because at higher temperature, respiration activity is very high, and vase life will be very
short. Water stress also fastens the rate of deterioration. Therefore it is always best to harvest
flowers during the cooler parts of the day, in the morning because that is when the plants
have the highest water content and tissue is coolest. In addition, morning harvest saves the
rest of the day for grading, packaging, and shipping. There is also less “field heat” in the
plant material, which must be reduced.

Table 5. Stage of development for harvest of numerous cut flower species

Stage of Development
Plant type

10 to 20% of florets open

Dianthus barbatus

Dianthus
caryophyllus
Half-open flowers
Standard Cultivars
2 to 3 fully open flowers per spray
Spray cultivars
Freesia cultivars First floret beginning to open
Gerbera jamesonii Two outer rows of florets showing pollen

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 1 to 5 buds showing color
Gladiolus cultivar
20 to 30% of flowers open for shipping fresh, 50 to 60% of
Gypsophila cultivars
flowers open for drying or for local fresh use
½ of florets open
Hydrangea
quercifolia
Colored buds
Iris germanica
Lilium cultivars Colored buds
Limonium spp. ½ to 2/3 of florets open
Rosa cultivars
Red and pink cultivars First two petals beginning to unfold, calyx refluxed below a
horizontal position
Yellow cultivars Slightly earlier than red and pink
White cultivars Slightly later than red and pink
Strelitzia reginae Bud sheath cracked and swollen to first floret open
Tulipa spp. Half-colored buds
Zantedeschia Just before the spathe begins to turn downward
cultivars
The information provided in the table should be considered as a general guideline of harvest
maturity for retail sales direct to final consumers.

3. Harvesting Method

Hand harvesting is still the only practical method used for many high value flower crops,
because the flowers must be picked selectively and carefully. Always use a sharp knife or
shears or secateurs to harvest flowers. Dull blades (tools) tend to crush stem ends and may
restrict the flow of water in to stems and thereby, diminish product salability.
Harvesting of different cultivars must be done always separately. Almost all cut flowers must
be cut as low down as possible.

B. Post-harvest operations
1. Factors Influencing Post Harvest Life

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A number of physiological and biochemical processes occur in the harvested product that
contribute to change. These may result in the deterioration of quality in some crops, and in
the improvement of quality and appearance in those crops that complete ripening after
harvest. Post-harvest flower performance is the most important aspect of production in the
eye of the consumer. How long a flower or bouquet remains attractive is critical to repeat
business. The life of cut flowers is markedly shorter than that of the same flower left on the
growing plant. The reasons for the short vase life of most flowers are not completely
understood, but the key factors are believed to be the following.

1.1. Pre–harvest Production Conditions

In production, any cultural factor that ‘stresses’ plants or reduces plant quality is likely to
reduce post-harvest life. Pre–harvest conditions, such as wrong application of fertilizers,
insect & disease damage, improper irrigation, media pH, temperature, light and humidity
might influence to a great deal the vase life of flowers.

1.2. Post–harvest Retail Handling

A serious reduction in quality can occur on florist crops in retail outlets. Major causes of
flower quality reduction during marketing include, wilting, undesirable long period storage,
mechanical damage, poor transportation, disease development and the like. Bruising and
breaking destroys the aesthetic & economic value flowers.
A retailer can take several steps to ensure that the plant materials have maximum longevity in
the store and in the customer’s home. Unpack all plant materials as soon as possible; inspect
for insects, diseases, and damage; and water all potted materials immediately, if needed recut
the stems of cut materials under water and place them in water or preservative solutions.
Place cut materials in a cooler immediately.

1.3. Excessive Water Loss

The movement of water through the stem to the leaves and flowers is very important in
prolonging the life of the flowers. If turgidity is not maintained, the plant wilts and dies
regardless of the amount of food reserves present. Any wilting of cut materials will result in a
vase life reduction.

1.4. Negative Effect of Ethylene Gas

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Ethylene is an odorless, colorless gas produced naturally by plant materials or by incomplete
combustion of heating fuels and engine exhaust. Ethylene can also be produced by plant
pathogens which can be especially detrimental during shipping when plant materials are
enclosed and air circulation is limited. Many floriculture crops are sensitive to ethylene and
this gas has various undesirable effects, such as abscission of leaves and flower petals,
yellowing of leaves, abortion of flower buds, and rapid flower senescence. Concentrations as
low as 1ppm and exposure times of as little as 2 hours can lead to damage. Higher
Concentrations of ethylene can cause damage in shorter time periods.
In general, the extent and type of damage will vary with the plant species, duration of
exposure, ethylene concentration, and temperature. Plant ethylene sensitivity varies from high
for such species as carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus), orchids, Freesia, Hibiscus, Impatiens,
Fuchsia to low for such species as Rosa cultivars, Gladiolus, Anthurium, Gerbera, Paeonia,
Zinnia, etc.
Excessive temperature enhances the effect of ethylene as it increases the rate of respiration
and other metabolic activities. Plant tissue wounds also increase the production of ethylene
gas.
Ethylene damage can be prevented by:
- avoiding exposure to engine or other sources of smoke
- removing senescing plant materials from production area
- avoiding storing of flowers with ripening fruits and vegetables
- lowering storage temperature
- using anti-ethylene agents

1.5. Depletion of Food Reserves

Shortage supplies of carbohydrates to support respiratory activities and other biochemical and
physiological processes are one the factors that cause a short vase life. When the flower is
removed from the plant, it loses its life support system. The roots of the plant can no longer
supply water and nutrients to the leaves and flowers. However, the life process, such as
respiration, transpiration and other metabolic activities in the harvested blooms take place
continuously. The lasting life of cut flowers is greatly influenced as a result of food reserves
depletion.

1.6. Harvesting Stage of Maturity

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Floriculture crops should be harvested at optimum stage for maximum post-harvest life. In
addition, the temperature level at the time of harvest, the quality of the tools used and the
overall sanitation procedures greatly affect the post-harvest life of cut flowers.

2. Post-harvest Treatments
Much effort has been expended recently to find ways to maximize cut flower longevity by
means of post-harvest treatment. Different species of plants have unique post-harvest
requirements. However, most cut flowers benefit from preservatives and cooling.
Post-harvest treatments used to maintain quality and to maximize longevity of cut flowers
include:
a. Supplying of cut flower foods
b. Improving water relations
c. Elimination of contaminants

a. Supplying of Cut Flower Foods

A cut flower is still a living organism. Respiration and transpiration take place continuously;
and both processes require energy. On the other hand, photosynthesis does not occur to
replace the food used in these processes. Low carbohydrate levels in the stems and leaves will
reduce vase life, which can be partially remedied by the presence of sugars (sucrose) in the
holding and vase solutions. The best practice is to maximize the endogenous carbohydrates in
flowers before harvest and cool as soon as possible to prevent excessive respiration, which
will reduce carbohydrate levels. Sugar can also be supplied in concentrations of 1 to 7% for
vase or long–term holding solutions and from 5 to 12% if given as an overnight pulse. The
specific concentration will vary with the species and cultivars.

Floral foods are usually supplied in two ways.

 Pulsing (short term treatment)
 Long term treatment

i. Pulsing
Pulsing (loading) refers to short-term treatment of cut flowers with sugar solution and anti-
ethylene agent prior shipment to extend longevity or prolong vase life. The treatment is not
continuous and typical pulsing last for 2-12 hrs. Concentration of sugar used for pulsing

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 varies from plants to plants. For examples, crops with soft leaves, such as Rose cultivars and
Chrysanthemum require very low concentrations (1-2%). On the other hand, flower crops,
like Gladiolus, Gypsophila, carnation may tolerate up to 20%, 10%, and 7% sugar
concentrations respectively.
Sugar (sucrose) and anti-ethylene agent (1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) or silver thiosulfate
(STS)) solutions are put in the holding water and the flowers are held at various temperatures
for a certain time period. This treatment makes it possible to ship immature (unopened)
Gladiolus, carnation Rose and Chrysanthemum flowers longer distance. Because pulsing
helps the immature flower buds to retain their ability to open normally as they reach
consumers hand.

ii. Long Term Treatment

Floral solutions for long-term treatment are required to include such other chemicals as
bactericides and acidifying agents to control microorganism growth. Long-term floral
solutions treatment can last for several days (2-7days), depending on the vase life expectancy
of the crop. Harvested stems are usually immersed immediately in non-metallic container
with preservatives; but the solution must be checked periodically for bacterial growth, which
is apparent when the solution becomes cloudy. It is usually recommended to replace the
solution at 2-3 days intervals.
Floral preservatives are very effective in maintaining quality and extending longevity. On the
average, they can double the vase life of cut flowers when compared to water.

iii. Components of Conserving Solutions

Preservation solutions, in general, are required to supply food source, reduce microbial build
up and vascular blockage, increase water uptake of the stem, and arrest the negative effect of
ethylene. For prolonging the vase life of flowers, growers, wholesalers, retailers and
consumers can use preservative solutions. They can either buy commercial product or make
their own using things like sugar, bleach, and citric acid. One of the earliest home remedies
consist table sugar (Sucrose), aspirin and sometime a coin was added to the vase to provide
copper as a bactericide. There is some value in these remedies, although further investigation
may require to be ascertained the precise effect.
Recently much effort has been expended to formulate commercial products of cut flora food.
There are various commercially available formulations of preservative solution including
products, such as Flora life, Oasis, Rogard, Ever-bloom, etc.
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iv. Classes of Ingredients
 Energy source
Energy source may be supplied to the flowers in the form of a metabolizable sugar, such as
sucrose and D-fructose.

 Microbicide
Microbicides reduce microbial build up. HQC (8 – Hydroxyquinoline citrate) at 200–600
ppm is commonly added to most keeping solutions. Sodium benzoate at 100ppm or
aluminum sulfate at 100-200 ppm may also be used as microbicides.
Acidifying Agent
Acidifying agents maintain the keeping solution pH 3.0 to 4.0 and this range will increase
water uptake and arrest microorganism build up. Citric acid is commonly used to acidify
water. The amount of citric acid required will vary with the water quality and up to 500 ppm
may be needed with alkaline water.

 Anti–ethylene Agent
Although research continues on a number of anti-ethylene agents, silver thiosulfate (STS) is
currently the most commonly used agent. STS is quite effective at extending the vase life of
many cut flowers such as carnation, snapdragon, and Delphinium.
Because the primary component, silver, is a heavy metal, caution in handling and disposal
should be taken. In addition, there may be restrictions on its use. The environmental problems
with STS have led to the development of an organic gas, 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP),
which is likely to replace STS. MCP is effective at rates as low as 20 parts per billion.
Because MCP is a gas, treatment methods will differ from STS which is usually applied as a
spray to potted plants or as floral preservative. For example, commercial application of MCP
may occur in a greenhouse before packing, transportation vehicle, shipping container, or
holding or storage area. MCP will be available as a powder, which creates a gas after mixing
with water. MCP leaves no residue and is effective on most crops that respond to STS. MCP
will be marketed under the name Ethyl Block® and can be legally used on both cut flowers
and potted plants.

 Water

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Water of high quality has been shown to be essential to extend the vase life of cut flowers.
Total dissolved solids of more than 100 ppm or fluoride levels in excess of 3-4 ppm will
shorten flower life.

b. Improving Water Relations

Various treatments that maximize water up take and reduce excess transpiration will extend
the vase life of cut flowers. Maximum water up take may be ensured by:
i. Sharp, diagonal cuts of the stem each time plants (stems) are removed from the
holding solutions. Diagonal cuts increase the surface area of the stem and prevent the
cut end from resting on the bottom of the container
ii. Using warm solutions (38 - 430c) when the stems are first immersed. Warm water has
lower viscosity, which increases its uptake; and it is better able to dissolve air bubbles
inside the water-conducting tissues
iii. The avoidance of microbial build up in solutions through the use of microbicides &
acidifying agents. The vascular system of stems may be blocked by microorganisms,
air plugs, and physiological blockage. Bacteria and fungi are found naturally on plant
tissue and in tap water and can readily build up in large numbers in holding and vase
solutions. The microorganisms are taken up into the stem (xylem tissue) and
physically block further water movement. Sanitation is of utmost importance. Clean
and disinfect buckets and utensils frequently. Buckets should be clean enough to drink
from. Decaying plant material provides an important source of microorganisms;
therefore, foliage that would remain below the water should be removed. If flowers or
foliage are dusty, rinse gently to clean.

c. Elimination of Contaminants
In general, water quality is very important to prolong the vase life of cut flowers. Water
uptake can be promoted by using high-quality water which has low soluble salt levels and
alkalinity. Be sure to test the pH and EC of the water regularly. Floral preservative generally
contain water acidifiers; however, if the water has high alkalinity and pH, additional
acidification will be necessary. Make sure knives and stem cutters are sharp, as dull blades
will crush and tear the stems. Finally flowers should not wilt. Although any degree of wilting
will reduce post-harvest life, practical shipping and handling procedures may result in the
slight wilting of some flowers.

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3. Cooling of flowers
Cooling is one of the most important steps in bringing fresh specialty cut flower materials
from the grower to the market place. Low temperatures provide many advantages to extend
vase-life by:
 reducing respiration and internal breakdown by enzymes
 reducing water loss and wilting
 slowing the growth of disease organisms
 reducing the production of ethylene
 Providing ‘time’ for proper handling, packaging and marketing.

Once harvested, flowers quality cannot be improved, only maintained –deterioration cannot
be reversed; only slowed. The most common system for handling harvested flowers is
refrigerated storage. Generally two main types of refrigerated storage methods (Wet–cold
storage and Dry–cold storage) are used for cooling flowers.

A. Wet–Cold Storage
This system is the most commonly used one, which involves the following sequential steps
and other necessary procedures.
♥ Flower stems should be cut with a sharp knife or shears to prevent crushing of stem
and water- conduction cells.
♥ The cut flowers should be placed in a warm (38-43oC) preservation solution as soon
as possible to prevent wilting.
♥ They should be placed immediately inside the refrigerated storage room for pre-
cooling. Pre-cooling refers to the rapid removal of heat from freshly harvested flowers
in order to reduce deterioration prior to storage or shipment. Usually the internal
temperature of cut flowers harvested on a hot day may be 4-11oC higher than the air
temperature. The removal of field heat (flower temperature in the greenhouse or field
at harvest) can be achieved in 20 minutes if freshly cut flowers, unbunched and
unpacked, are kept at appropriate storage temperatures (0.5 - 4oC). The lower the
temperature the better, because the respiration rate falls off with diminishing
temperature. Cooling rate will be determined by the mass of flowers and other
produce in the store, the cooling capacity of the particular store and the ventilation
around the flowers. After pre-cooling the flowers are either shipped to the market or
stored for some more time.
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 ♥ After pre-cooling flowers can be stored for some more time if required. In this case
the temperature should be a bit lower (0.5oC –1.5oC) than recommended for pre-
cooling. There are few exceptions to the recommended temperatures, because of the
chilling injury that may occur on some plant species.
♥ Potential sources of ethylene gas should be avoided by keeping fruit and vegetables
out of the cooler. It is also necessary to discard old flowers and wash the inside of the
cooler periodically.
♥ Replace the preservations solution at 2 – 7 day intervals. The preservative should be
checked periodically for bacterial growth, which is apparent when the solution
becomes cloudy.
♥ The flower after being sold to a wholesaler, who intern sells them to a retail shop,
should continue to preserve the quality you have worked hard to maintain.

Wet-cold storage is commonly used for day-to-day handling of cut flowers and works well
for periods of a few days, as is often necessary during the marketing period.

B. Dry-Cold Storage
Cut flowers can be held in refrigerated storage for longer periods of time (up to18 days) by
placing them in dry–cold storage at -0.50C. Only top-quality, fresh plant material should be
stored. There are certain advantages to long-term storage. Flowers usually sell for higher
prices at major holidays. In anticipation of holiday sales, the grower can build up a larger-
than-normal supply of flowers by placing them in dry – cold storage. In addition at times, too
many flowers may appear on the market, driving the price down. Under such situation,
grower can place some flowers in dry – cold storage until the prices improve. However, there
are limits to the amount of time a grower can store cut flowers and still sell a product that
offers full value to the consumer.
Dry-cold storage involves the following sequential steps and other necessary procedures.
 In dry–cold storage, the temperature must be held at – 0.50C exactly.
 The flowers are not put into preservative solution or water when they are first cut
 No water (solution) is used during the storage process
 The storage containers must be vapor proof and should also prevent moisture loss, but
they should not stop gas exchange. The most commonly used containers are boxes
lined with plastic that can be sealed with tape.

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  The containers must be placed in the refrigerator with space between them to permit
air circulation. The movement of air helps maintain a uniform temperature in the
boxes.
 The flowers placed in storage must be high quality, undamaged, disease free and
insect free. Dry – cold storage cannot improve the quality of poor flowers.
 After the crop is cut, it should be moved in to storage as quickly as possible.
 After the flowers are removed from dry-cold storage, 2.5cm is cut from the base of
the stem. Then they should be placed in to a hydrating solution warmed to 38 – 430c.
The container must not be filled with too much flowers. The solution must be about
10 – 12.5cm deep in the container. Then, the containers should be placed at room
temperature out of draft and out of direct sunlight for at least one hour; or as long as it
takes to fully hydrate them. After the flowers are fully turgid it is recommended that
they then be placed into a cut flower food solution. The containers are returned to a
refrigerator at 0.5 – 1.5oC.
In dry-cold storage carnations can be held for 28 days, Chrysanthemums for 28-30 days, and
roses for 15 days.
4. Grading
The inherent variability of cut flowers at harvest and their differences in value make it
necessary to grade them according to some objective standard. Grading is the basis of long–
distance trade and it has a number of advantages.
♥ Grading permits the description of products in terms that are understandable both to
buyer and to seller.
♥ It adds tangible value to floricultural products
♥ Without a system of grading, all products would have to be individually inspected

Grading has two distinct functions. The first is to eliminate completely all obviously
unsatisfactory items. This is extremely important in packaging since diseases spread rapidly
in the suitable environments of packages
The second function of grading is consolidation. Products may be consolidated by cultivars,
size, appearance, defects, and where possible, quality. Within a variety, size is the most
obvious gradable factor. Various size characteristics may be used:
 Stem length - (roses)
 Stem diameter - (trees)

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  Spread - (shrubs) (canopy size)
 Flower bud size
 Flower stalk (peduncle)- length the stalk which supports a flower
Grading for appearance may be based on the absence of defects, conformation (shape), color
and color retention, flower presentation on the stem and Leaf color and texture.
In most countries, inspection and grading is backed by Federal (state) laws. Every country
has its own phytosanitary procedures at the point of export or import and issues the necessary
certificates. This is in compliance with an international convention designed to prevent the
spread of plant diseases. So that all imported or exported plant items are required to be
accompanied by the necessary phytosanitary certificate issued by the plant protection services
in the country of origin.
During grading, leaves of many florist crops, such as chrysanthemums, roses & carnations are
stripped by the grower at harvest.

5. Packaging
Packing is a key factor in flower trade. If flowers are badly packed there is the risk of a
serious loss of export opportunity. Packaging affords protection, convenience, economy and
appeal (attraction).
The most widely used type of packing material is the cardboard (carton). Some are specially
coated to give them wet strength. Polyethylene plastic is also used particularly for the process
of putting flowers in a consumer unit to make selling more attractive.
The size of packing materials used for any specific crop is determined mainly by stem length.
The stem lengths of roses, for example, vary from 40 to 80 cm. The number of flower stems
per carton is equally variable depending on the type and quality of the flowers being
dispatched. High value flowers, which often have long stems, are sometimes packed
individually, with holding solutions around the stem base. This method of packing is mainly
justified for high quality Anthurium, Gerberas, orchids etc.
Carton sizes are usually 100 x 40 cm for Strelitzia, Roses (small size), and Anthurium. 60 x
40cm – for Gerbera, orchids and the like.

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CHAPTER – ELEVEN

MARKETING OF FLORICULTURAL CROPS

Introduction
Many people are attracted to the floriculture industry because of their interest in growing
plants. However, actual plant production accounts for only a portion of what is required for a
successful business:

Grow a Quality product  Sell the crop  Make a profit

Production  Marketing  Business management

Floriculture businesses must be equally adept at marketing their crops and managing the
business to generate a profit and justify the financial investment. New businesses should
realize that it usually requires 3 to 5 years for the business to show a profit and owners should
plan accordingly. Competition in most areas of the world is great enough that a poorly
organized business will not be successful. This chapter focuses on a few topics unique to
floriculture businesses.

1. Growing a Quality Product

Growing a quality product is required in today’s competitive business environment. A

grower’s attention to the crop must start at the beginning of the production cycle and be
carefully maintained until the product is delivered to the customer. A company’s marketing
choices decrease considerably when trying to sell a substandard product. Even if the company
is successful in sell the crop, it will lose the confidence of its customers and may have
difficulty making another sale to them. If subsequent sales are made, the price may be lower.
Opportunities to sell low-quality plant materials are limited and a company will not be able to
compete with a competitor selling a higher-quality crop for the same or greater price.
Management must answer the following questions to define quality for their business.
1. What level of quality do you want to produce?
2. Are you delivering the quality you promised?
3. Are you continuously improving the quality?
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 4. Do you always deliver above average products or services?

The first step in growing a quality crop is to understand what constitutes quality. In general
terms, a quality crop consists of well grown pest-free plant material harvested at the proper
stage and handled in such a way that it will provide a long post-harvest life for the consumer.
Potted flowering plants must have sufficient stems, foliage, flowers, and buds to provide an
attractive display; cut flowers must have sufficiently long and strong stems, appropriately
sized flowers and enough flowers and foliage. Of course, potted and cut foliage will have
similar standards, but without the flowers.
Unfortunately, beyond these general descriptions, the definition of quality becomes vague
and ill-defined. Many times the requirements for buying and selling of a crop have little to do
with the plant itself and are based on the following factors:
1. Container size – potted flowering and foliage plants, perennials, hanging baskets
2. Number of plants per flat – bedding plant flats
3. Stem length and number of stems in the bunch- fresh cut flowers and foliage
4. Bunch weight, stem number, or a combination of both measurements - fresh cut filler
flowers, most cut foliage and dried materials.

The most well-developed grades and standards have traditionally been for cut flowers.
Unfortunately, even with cut flowers, no universal grades and standards exist and three
general sets are currently followed: European (also followed by Africa). Latin American (also
followed by Miami, Florida), and Californian (followed by most of the United States).

Growers are in little agreement even on the number of stems per bunch. As a general rule, the
European system calls for 10 stems per bunch, but there are many exceptions. The
Californian system often relies on the “grower bunch,” for many species in which the stem
number is determined by the grower. Even grower bunches from one firm may vary in stem
number depending on the amount of product that is available. Bunches from one business
may be large during peak production and much smaller when product is scarce. This
variability in bunch size has made it difficult for growers to determine the production costs
for each bunch and for buyers to know what they will receive. Certainly, as world trade
increases, universal standards will be critical to the survival of local cut flower growers.
Many large buyers and shippers have created their own standards that must be met by the
growers from which they buy product. For example, with bedding plants, a buyer may
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specify the flat insert type (cell number of plants/flat), minimum and maximum plant height,
minimum number of flowers, and the minimum flower size. Regardless of the type of plant
material, producers and buyers must communicate when selling and purchasing plant
materials.

2. Developing a Marketing Plan

Marketing and sales also involve how the business will contact customers and the image the
business projects. Marketing and sales methods are as numerous and varied as there are
businesses in the floriculture industry. Each business must develop a marketing plant for the
company, which should include the following.
1. Who are your customers (or who will be your customers) and which categories of
customers are most important to the business?
2. Why will your customers buy from you (what customer needs are you trying to
satisfy)?
3. How will you reach your customers?
4. How will you determine that your marketing plant is effective?
5. What expectation do you have for your marketing plants?
6. What image will the company project?

For example, a retail garden center may decide that middle- to upper-income homeowners are
their most important customers (question 1) and they will be attracted by the best selection of
quality bedding plants in the area (question 2). The customers can be reached through
newspaper ads, sport team sponsorships, and direct mail newsletters (question 3). The garden
center could include coded coupons in each of their advertisements to determine the
effectiveness of the marketing campaign (question 4) and has decided that a realistic goal for
next year’s marketing campaign is to increase sales by 15% (question 5). The overall image
the company has developed is that of a friendly, helpful merchant who carries the best
selection of high-quality bedding plant and unusual perennial in town (question 6).

3. Marketing and Sales

A beautiful crop is of little value if it cannot be sold. Before production starts, the producer
should know where and how the crop will be sold. In some cases, the crops can be sold on
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contract before it is grown. The simplest definition of marketing is the selling of products;
however, marketing is much more involved. Marketing involves selecting the right product
and developing the correct pricing strategy, promotional programs, and distribution out lets
for a particular market. Sales are part of marketing that involve all the steps required for a
customer to buy a product or service. Sales contact with customers can be made in person by
a salesperson or by telephone, direct mail, e-mail, or advertising.
Several options are available for distributing and marketing a crop (Fig. 1)

3.1. Marketing Option I

The most direct path is from the grower to the final consumer, the general public; a large
portion of bedding plant and specialty cut flower sales and small portion of the potted foliage
and flowering plant sales are made by this rout. Although selling price should be high when
selling directly to the consumers, so too are the marketing costs. Direct marketing costs
include maintaining a customer-friendly sales facility, sales personnel, and advertising.
Growers use the following marketing methods to sell product directly to the public.

3.1.1. Garden Center

The garden center has emerged as a primary outlet in the floriculture industry due to the rapid
increase in bedding plant sales. Garden centers typically sell herbaceous and woody plants for
outdoor gardens and all the associated supplies for the home gardener. Most garden centers
also sell indoor foliage and seasonal flowering plants, and a few garden centers include a
florist shop for sales of cut flowers, arrangements, and so forth. Some garden centers grow
their own product; others buy their entire product from wholesale growers, and most do a
combination of both.

3.1.2. Farmers Market

Farmers markets are a relatively easy marketing method for new growers of bedding plants,
perennials, herbs, and cut flowers. Overhead costs are generally low and most, if not all, of
the advertising and organization duties are handled by the farmer’s market organization. The
time spent for selling product is usually limited as farmers markets are only open for a few
hours a day and a limited number of days each week. Customers expect to buy directly from
the producer and typically are not as concerned about such things as packaging and displays.
Prices can be high because the product is considered fresh from the grower; however, in some
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cases they may be lower if customers are expecting a “bargain” by buying directly from the
grower.

3.1.3. Roadside Stand

As with farmers markets, the overhead costs on roadside stands are usually low. The stand
can be operated directly from the growing location or can be set up at a highly visible
location near or in population centers. Often bedding plants and fresh and dried cut flowers
are sold with fruits and vegetables. The floriculture crops are compatible with the edible
products in that the bright, eye-catching colors of flowers can alone bring in customer. As
with farmers markets, prices can be high, depending on customer expectations.

3.1.4. On-Farm Sales

On-farm sales have been developed more extensively in the fruit and vegetable industries but
are readily applicable to floriculture. On-farm sales can range from something as simple as a
roadside stand to a pick-your-own field cut flower operation to a fully developed family
entertainment center with animals, areas for children, tours, and educational displays.
Floriculture crops such as cut flowers or bedding plants are often sold with fruits and
vegetables. One appeal of on-farm sales is being able to manage all aspects of the business
from the farm. Of course, the drawback is the need to maintain the farm in a highly
presentable condition. Location is especially important as the general public must be able to
easily locate the business, yet retain a rural image.

3.1.5. Mail Order

Seed, perennials, bulbs, and even cut flowers are being sold through the mail. Mail order is
generally most successful in bringing a large selection of plant materials to customers that are
not able to buy them locally.
The keys to a successful mail-order business are the catalog and the mailing list. Catalogs
need not be elaborate but must excite the customer into buying. In recent years, the internet
allows successful mail-order companies to forgo the catalog.

3.1.6. Florists
Along with garden centers the traditional florist is a major outlet for floriculture products.
Florists sell large amounts of cut flowers and foliage, usually in the form of flower
arrangements. Florists also sell decorated potted flowering and foliage plants. Much of the
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florists sales are based on events such as holidays, birthdays, funerals, anniversaries, and
parties. In addition to local sales, florists act as agents for nationwide floral services. To send
flowers to a friend or relative in a distant location, customers contact their local florist who
sends the order to florist in the second location.

3.1.7. Mass Markets

Mass market outlets are those companies including grocery stores, department stores, farm
supply stores, and home improvement stores that sell plant materials as part of a broad range
of items. Although the floriculture products are often an important part of the business, they
rarely constitute the majority of sales. The commitment to floriculture sales by mass markets
ranges from bedding plants sold for a few weeks to full-service florists or garden centers that
operate the entire year. Mass markets often focus on daily or impulse purchases.

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3.1.8. Craft Stores
For the dried and preserved segment of the floriculture industry, craft stores are an important
source of sales. Products commonly offered range from bunches of single species to mixed
bouquets of many flowers to potpourri. Besides stores, large amounts of arts and crafts using
dried and preserved floriculture products are sold through craft show, farmers markets, and
other nontraditional outlets.

3.2. Marketing Option II

Bedding plants, most of the potted foliage and flowering plants, and a portion of cut flowers
are sold first to a retailer, such as a florist or garden center, before being sold to the general
public. Prices paid to the grower tend to be lower than with direct sales to the general public,
but marketing costs should also be lower. Since individual customers (retailers) typically buy
much larger quantities than individuals in the general public, fewer customers are required.
Consequently marketing costs are also reduced.
In some cases sales to the retailers may be made through a broker who does not take
possession of the product but arranges the sale between the grower and the retailer. Brokers
usually acquire product from several growers to meet a retailer’s needs. Because the broker is
usually paid by receiving a percentage of the total sale, the grower receives smaller profits
per unit sold. However, the broker incurs the marketing expenses rather than the grower.

Figure 1 - Marketing options for distribution of floriculture crops

Option II Option III

Option I

Grower Grower Grower

Broker/Cooperatives Broker/ cooperatives

Wholesaler/Auction
Retailer
Consumer

Retailer

Consumer
Consumer

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In some cases, cooperatives may replace a broker. Although cooperatives can take several
different forms, a common type is the grower cooperative. Cooperatives allow growers to do
one or more of the following:
1. Pool their resources to buy larger quantities of supplies at a discount
2. Coordinate growers to reduce intra-cooperative competition
3. provide customers with a larger quantity and selection of product compared with what
a single grower could supply; and
4. Reduce the number of items that any one firm produces which allow individual firms
to specialize
Some cooperatives provide a central shipping area for all its members; other cooperatives
simply arrange the sales. As with brokers, the cooperative is supported by collecting a
percentage of sales.

3.3. Marketing Option III

The last marketing chain is the most elaborate and includes another intermediary, the
wholesaler or the auction (in some cases, a cooperative may also serve in this capacity). The
wholesaler or auction brings in product from numerous growers allowing the retailers to
obtain all their plant materials from one location. In North America most of the common cut
flowers, such as Rosa, Dianthus, and Dendranthema, and a portion of potted foliage and
flowering plants, are marketed through wholesalers. Auctions have tended to be small and
few in number in North America. However, in Europe and Japan, auctions play an important
role in handling both cut flowers and potted plants.
From the grower’s point of view, prices received from the wholesaler tend to be low, but so
are marketing costs. The price per unit must be recovered by growing and selling large
volumes of plant materials efficiently. Wholesalers are also concerned with buying from
reputable growers who will be able to deliver a consistent and high-quality product.
Plugs, cuttings, liners bulbs, dormant plants, and seeds can go through similar marketing
channels as finished products. Brokers are particularly important in the marketing of plugs,
cuttings, liners, bulbs, and dormant plants. Similarly, most seed is sold through wholesale
seed distributors.

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