Chapter 2.

Water pollution
1. State different characteristics of natural water & the sources of potable
water (4 marks)

Characteristics of natural water:

Physical Characteristics of Water

1. Turbidity of Water

 The turbidity is measured by a turbidity rod or by a turbidity meter with optical observations
and is expressed as the amount of suspended matter in mg/l or parts per million (ppm).
 For water, ppm and mg/l are approximately equal. The standard unit is that which is
produced by one milligram of finely divided silica (fuller’s earth) in one litre of distilled water.

2. Colour

The standard unit of colour is that which is produced by one milligram of platinum cobalt
dissolved in one litre of distilled water. For public supplies, the colour number on cobalt scale
should not exceed 20 and should be preferably less than 10. Colour determined by an
instrument is known as tintometer.

3. Taste and Odour

The extent of taste or odour present in a particular sample of water is measured by a term
called odour intensity, which is related with the threshold odour or threshold odour number.

Water to be tested is therefore gradually diluted with odour free water, and the mixture at
which the detection of odour by human observation is just lost, is determined. The number of
times the sample is diluted represents the threshold odour number. For public supplies, the
water should generally free from odour, i.e. the threshold number should be 1 and should
never exceed 3.

4. Temperature of Water

For potable water, temperature of about 100C is desirable. It should not be more than 250C.

5. Specific Conductivity

The total amount of dissolved salts present in water can be easily estimated by measuring the
specific conductivity of water.
Chemical Characteristics of Water

1. Total Solids and Suspended Solids

Total solids (suspended solids + dissolved solids) can be obtained by evaporating a sample of
water and weighing the dry residue left and weighing the residue left on the filter paper. The
suspended solid can be found by filtering the water sample. Total permissible amount of solids
in water is generally limited to 500 ppm.

2. pH value of Water

If H+ concentration increases, pH decreases and then it will be acidic. If H+ concentration

decreases, pH increases and then it will be alkaline. pH + pOH = 14 if the pH of water is more
than 7, it will be alkaline and if it is less than 7, it will be acidic.

Permissible pH value for public supplies may range between 6.6 to 8.4. The lower value of pH
may cause incrustation, sediment deposits, difficulty in chlorination.

3. Hardness of Water

Hard waters are undesirable because they may lead to greater soap consumption, scaling of
boilers, causing corrosion and covering of pipes, making food tasteless etc.

Temporary Hardness: If bicarbonates and carbonates of calcium and magnesium are present
in water, the water is render hard temporarily as this hardness can be removed to some extent
by simple boiling or to full extent by adding lime to water. Such a hardness is known as
temporary hardness or carbonate hardness.

Permanent Hardness: If sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium or magnesium are

present in water, they can not be removed at al by simple boiling and therefore, such water
require special treatment for softening. Such a hardness is known as permanent hardness or
non-carbonate hardness. It is caused by sulphates, chlorides, nitrates of Ca and Mg.

 Carbonate hardness is equal to the total hardness or alkalinity which ever is less
 Non-carbonate hardness is the total hardness in excess of the alkalinity. If the alkalinity is
equal to or greater than the total hardness, there is no non-carbonate hardness.
 One French degree of hardness is equal to 10mg/l of CaCO3.
 One British degree of hardness is equal to a hardness of 14.25mg/l.
 Water with hardness upto 75 ppm are considered soft and above 200 ppm are considered
hard and in between is considered as moderately hard.
 Underground waters are generally harder than surface waters.
 The prescribed hardness limit for public supplies range between 75 to 115 ppm.
4. Chloride Content

The chloride content of treated water to be supplied to the public should not exceed a value of
about 250 ppm. The chloride content of water can be measured by titrating the water with
standard silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as indicator.

5. Nitrogen Content

The presence of nitrogen in water may occur in one or more of the following reasons:

Free ammonia: It indicates very first stage of decomposition of organic matter. It should not
exceed 0.15mg/l

Albuminous or Organic Matter: It indicates the quantity of nitrogen present in water before the
decomposition of organic molten has started. It should not exceed 0.3mg/l

Nitrites: Not fully oxidized organic matter in water.

Nitrates: It indicates fully oxidized organic matter in water (representing old pollution).

 Nitrites is highly dangerous and therefore the permissible amount of nitrites in water should
be nil.
 Ammonia nitrogen + organic nitrogen = kjeldahl nitrogen
 Nitrates in water is not harmful. However the presence of too much of nitrates in water may
adversely affect the health of infants causing a disease
called methemoglobinemia commonly called blue baby disease.
 The nitrate concentration in domestic water supplies is limited to 45 mg/l.
•
6. Metal and other chemical substances in water:

Iron – 0.3ppm, excess of these cause discolouration of clothes. Manganese – 0.05ppm Copper
– 1.3ppm Sulphate – 250 ppm Fluoride – 1.5 ppm, excess of this effects human lungs and
other respiratory organs. Fluoride concentration of less than 0.8 – 1.0 ppm cause dental cavity
(tooth decay). If fluoride concentration is greater than 1.5ppm, causing spotting and
discolouration of teeth (a disease called fluorosis).

7. Dissolved gases

Oxygen gas is generally absorbed by water from the atmosphere but it being consumed by
unstable organic matter for their oxidation. Hence, if the oxygen present in water is found to be
less than its saturation level, it indicates presence of organic matter and consequently making
the waters suspicious.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

The extent of organic matter present in water sample can be estimated by supplying oxygen to
this sample and finding the oxygen consumed by the organic matter present in water. This
oxygen demand is known as Biological oxygen demand (BOD). It is not practically possible to
determine ultimate oxygen demand. Hence, BOD of water during the first five days at 200C is
generally taken as the standard demand. BOD 5 = BOD of 5 days = Loss of oxygen in mg/l x
dilution factor. The BOD of safe drinking water must be nil.

Bacterial and Microscopic Characteristics of Water

Five types of parasitic organisms (i.e. bacteria, protozoa, viruses, worms and fungi) are
generally known to be infective to main and are found in water.

1. Bacteria

These are the minute single cell organisms possessing no defined nucleus and having no
green material to help them manufacture their own food. They are reproduced by binary fusion
and may of various shapes and sizes are 1 to 4 microns, examined by microscope. a) Non-
disease causing bacteria – Non pathogenic bacteria. b) Disease causing bacteria – Pathogenic
bacteria.

2. Protozoa

These are single cell animals and are the lowest and the simplest form of animal life. They are
bacteria eaters and thus destroy Pathogens. They are counted by microscope.

3. Viruses

4. Worms
These are the larva of flies.

5. Fungi
These are those plants which grow without sunlight and live on other plants or animals, dead
or alive.

Sources of potable water:

1. Surface Source

 River
 Lake
 Reservoir
 Canal
 Streams
 Ponds
 Imponded Reservoirs
 Rain water Dumps

2. Sub-Surface Source

 Springs
 Wells
 Infiltration Galleries

*****
2. Mention the water quality standards of following parameters according to BIS
(4 marks)

i. Turbidity

 The turbidity is measured by a turbidity rod or by a turbidity meter with optical

observations and is expressed as the amount of suspended matter in mg/l or parts
per million (ppm).
 For water, ppm and mg/l are approximately equal. The standard unit is that which is
produced by one milligram of finely divided silica (fuller’s earth) in one litre of distilled
water.

ii. Dissolve oxygen

IS 3025 (Part 38):1989 (Reaffirmed in 2003)

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen that is present in water. Water bodies
receive oxygen from the atmosphere and from aquatic plants. Running water, such as
that of a swift moving stream, dissolves more oxygen than the still water of a pond or
lake.

iii. Residual chlorine

IS 3025 (Part 26):1986 (Reaffirmed in 2003)

The level of residual chlorine (R) in mg of chlorine per litre (mg/l) is determined
by comparing the colour of the water supply under test in chamber (a) with the tablet
added with the standard colours on the vessel (chamber (b).

Residual chlorine. Mg/l = VI X N x 36460

VI
Where
VI == volume of standard sodium thiosulphate used,
V2 = volume of sample taken for test, and
N = normality of sodium thiosulphate used.

iv. Dissolved solid

IS 3025 (Part 16):1984 (Reaffirmed in 2006)

Dissolved solids" refer to any minerals, salts, metals, cations or anions dissolved in
water. Total dissolved solids (TDS) comprise inorganic salts, principally calcium,
magnesium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulfates and some small
amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water.

*****
3. Describe various impurities present in water (4 marks)

1) Microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi all regularly interfere with sterile
research applications
2) Viruses
3) Pyrogens.
4) Dissolved Inorganic Ions
5) Dissolved Organic Compounds
6) Dissolved Gases
7) Suspended Particles
8) Colloidal Particles.

*****
4. State & describe the types of water pollution (4 marks)

The main sources of freshwater pollution can be attributed to discharge of untreated

waste, dumping of industrial effluents, and run-off from agricultural fields. Industrial
growth, urbanization and the increasing use of synthetic organic substances have
serious and adverse impacts on freshwater bodies.

The major sources of water pollution are domestic waste from urban and rural areas,
and industrial wastes which are discharged into natural water bodies.

Categories of Water Pollution:

Following are ten categories of water pollution. There are a great variety of ways to
delineate types of pollution or its nature, but regardless of the manner chosen, those
areas listed below represent the most relevant.

1. Oxygen-Demanding Wastes:

Oxygen is a basic requirement of almost all plant and animal life-forms in any given
body of water. If an insufficient amount of oxygen is available to support life, damage to
the ecosystem results.

All organic materials or wastes can be broken down or decomposed by bacterial and
other biological activity (biodegradation). Although some inorganic substances are
included in this category, most are organic compounds that can exhibit a biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) or also possibly a chemical oxygen demand (COD), because
oxygen will be used or is required in the degradation process.

Typical sources include sewage from domestic and animal sources; industrial wastes
from food processing, paper mills, tanning operations, meatpacking plants, etc.; natural
decaying vegetation; and the decay of dead plant or animal life. Biological degradation
takes place at all times in almost all environments.

This category of water pollution becomes a problem when the oxygen required for
chemical oxidation or biological decomposition of the organic material present is greater
than the available oxygen in the ecosystem. Natural systems do have a limited
capability to accommodate self-purification through decomposition by employing a
number of re-oxygenation processes. However, anthropogenic pollution often
overwhelms the given system.

2. Disease-Causing Agents:

There are various types of pathogenic microorganisms that pass through their host
species and may enter the aquatic ecosystem, for example, by way of contamination
from human or animal waste. Through drinking water consumption or through various
water-contact activities, the spread of diseases such as typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, etc.
may occur.

Pathogens may be spread to water only sporadically, and once there, do not survive
long, so testing for them is difficult. We usually use indicator species testing— e.g.,
coliform bacteria—as a means of identifying a problem.

In this category, we may also want to consider man’s activities resulting in the creation
of an environment that fosters disease. Mosquito-breeding environments, with the
mosquito as an agent for malaria, can be created, for example, by certain construction
activities that may create stagnant water suitable for mosquito larvae.

3. Thermal Pollution:

The discharge of cooling water from industrial and commercial operations may
artificially heat up the aquatic environment. Organisms may become physiologically
stressed from exposure to heated water or can be directly killed if escape is not
possible. Some can adapt to the point of dependency and suffer if the thermal source is
suddenly removed.

If artificial heat loading is combined with natural seasonal warming of an aquatic

system, the impact can be quite severe. Besides causing outright death, the problem
also may result in the interference with natural life processes such as growth rates,
respiration, reproduction, and distribution of species. However, thermal pollution
primarily causes a decrease in oxygen content, which may directly kill aquatic species
through asphyxiation.

4. Sediments and Debris:

Soils, sands, and silts washed from the surrounding lands naturally follow a progression
of turning wetlands into dry land. Upland lakes and ponds eventually evolve into
marshes, swamps, bogs, and finally into meadowlands. Man’s artificial manipulation of
the environment adjacent to wetlands and water bodies, from such activities as clearing
and development operations, may release weathered sediments through runoff.

These sediments may directly smother and kill aquatic life. Delicate ecosystems, such
as coral reefs, are particularly vulnerable to this. Transported sediments can directly
destroy habitats, precluding their use in fulfilling any one of a number of potential
biological needs. The siltation of rivers with gravel bottoms directly destroys the
spawning areas of salmon. Improper farming and mining techniques especially
encourage erosion and sediment runoff.

As the origin of sediments is terrestrial, it is convenient to include the debris discarded

by man into the aquatic environment. We have all seen pictures of marine life strangled
by plastic six-pack holders, or of Dead Sea turtles that mistakenly swallowed a plastic
bag instead of a jellyfish.
Autopsies performed on dead seals often show severe intestinal blockage. The
presence of medical waste on our beaches from such sources as combined sewer
overflows or direct illegal dumping may present a significant human health hazard
besides the obvious aesthetic damage. The list of examples in this category is endless.

5. Plant Nutrients:

In this category, the primary focus is on fertilizing chemicals such as nitrates and
phosphates. While important for plant growth, too much fertilization encourages the
overabundance of plant life and can result in environmental damage called
“eutrophication.” This can occur at both the microscopic level by algae (phytoplankton)
or by macroscopic algae and aquatic plants. It is a normal process until man
accelerates it and thereby creates a pollution situation.

Nitrates and phosphates are made available through natural means; however,
anthropogenic sources such as sewage treatment plant effluents, the use of fertilizers,
and a variety of point and non-point sources can create significant problems.

6. Petroleum Hydrocarbons:

Much oil seeps from the earth as a natural material; however, man’s activities pose an
even greater threat to the environment. From crude oil through highly refined petroleum
products including gasoline, the release of this material into aquatic systems is very
detrimental.

Direct smothering, acute and chronic toxic effects, loss of habitat, etc., can all result.
Recent events have greatly focused our attention on this form of pollution, particularly in
the transport of the material, but daily wastewater discharges, leaching, recreational
boating, bilge cleaning, and underground tank leaks are all factors.

On Long Island, New York, petroleum hydrocarbons, particularly from leaking

underground storage tanks, are the single greatest threat to the drinking water supply.
This is because Long Island is a “sole-source aquifer” and pollutants released at or near
the land surface eventually find their way into the drinking water resources.

7. Inorganic Chemicals and Minerals:

This type of pollution is generally associated with various types of mining and industrial
processing operations. The most common operations include processes that can
release acids and heavy metals into sediments from leaching of raw or processed
wastes or materials, or through direct discharges.

In particular, many problems have been associated with tailings, spoils, and direct
leaching from wastes piles and stockpiles in mining operations. Acid rain and runoff not
only threaten aquatic life directly through the effects of low pH, but also indirectly
through leaching, which may increase the heavy metal burden on receiving water
bodies.

8. Synthetic Organic Compounds:

Especially since World War II, the production of synthetic chemicals has risen at an
overwhelming rate. Accidental and intentional discharges of these potentially hazardous
materials have created many cases of serious pollution. As pure products, by-products,
and waste products, they may have both a powerful and quick-acting “acute” effect and
a long-term “chronic” effect on aquatic ecosystems. They include everything from
plastics, plasticizers, solvents, detergents, pesticides, PCBs, pharmaceuticals, paints,
and many other synthetically created compounds.

Because they are synthetic, these compounds may be resistant to biological breakdown
and persist and accumulate in the environment. They may be directly toxic to aquatic
life, or they may make objectionable tastes and odors in aquatic species taken for
human consumption.

The potential for much more serious biological effects on humans is a primary concern,
especially from low-level chronic exposure in drinking water supplies. Some of the more
common contaminants include 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane, trichloroethylene (TCE), and
tetrachloroethylene, also called per- chloroethylene (perc).

9. Radioactive Substances:

Radioactively unstable elements emit forms of radiation that can be highly injurious to
aquatic organisms by affecting biological process such as reproduction, or can be
directly lethal. Sources of such materials include the mining and processing of ores;
nuclear weapons manufacturing and testing; the handling and disposal of nuclear fuels;
the use of nuclear materials for medical, industrial, and research applications; and the
legal and illegal discharge of radioactive wastes.

Russia has recently admitted to dumping radioactive wastes into the Baltic Sea.
Contamination of the shallow groundwater aquifer has been confirmed at the nuclear
repository at Han- ford, Washington, and at the Brookhaven National Laboratory on
Long Island.

10. Biological Pollution:

The introduction of a non-indigenous species into an established environment by man

very often has led to disastrous consequences. Sometimes the introduction has been
intentional, such as for hunting; in other instances, species have accidentally been
released or have escaped from man’s control.
In other circumstances, an activity of man has enabled a species to invade a habitat
that geography or other conditions had precluded. The classic case of an aquatic
species expanding its range through man’s activity is the sea lamprey.

To facilitate shipping, the Welland Canal was constructed to bypass Niagara Falls and
associated rapids. This enabled the lamprey to penetrate the lakes beyond Lake
Ontario. The result was the almost total destruction of the fishing industry, followed by
40 years of eradication efforts at high cost and only limited success.

The introduction of species on land also can have an effect on aquatic resources. In
New Mexico, 125 years of introduced cattle ranching has in some places severely
denuded and compacted the soil. Subsequent to a drought, heavy rains and runoff so
clogged the existing small streams with sediment that many fish species were simply
smothered to death.

These two examples are unfortunately only a few of the many situations that have
occurred.

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5. State the sources of water pollution (4 marks)

Sources of Water Pollution:

Industrial wastes:

Certain types of organic, inorganic and radioactive substances present in the industrial
waste in minute suspended or colloidal form and microorganisms pollute the sources of
water, where these are disposed off. The decomposition of the industrial wastes by
microorganisms results in the products which are odoriferous or unacceptable in taste
appearance as well as harmful to public health.

The organic impurities give odour, colour and taste to the water, whereas inorganic
compounds give foaming, odour, turbidity etc. Various types of bacteria, viruses and
plant life also grow in the trade wastes.

Various types of organic compounds such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, soaps,

resins, rubber, waxes, oils, coal, dyes, tar, synthetic, detergents, ketones, amines,
acids, alcohols etc., present in the industrial wastes are objectionable.

Keratin from wool industries, proteins from egg- albumen, tannin from tanneries,
gelatine from bones and animal tissues, case in from dairies fibroin from natural silk,
gelatin from wheat etc., when discharged in the natural water sources from industrial
wastes, undergo degradation by bacterial action resulting in compounds like putrescine,
cadaverine, indole, skotole, lower aliphatic amines, indole-thylamine etc.

These all compounds impart most objectionable colour and pollute the water. The
pollutants add colour, taste and odour in the receiving water, make the water oily,
greasy, corrosive and unfit for industrial recreational or domestic use. They also impart
hardness change pH-value, increase temperature and algae growth destroy the aquatic
life and increase the insect nuisance.

When the organic pollution load is small and DO content of receiving water are high, the
aerobic bacteria break down the organic matter into simple compounds, which are
relatively harmless, stable and odourless.

If the DO is unable to cope with the load, the anaerobic bacteria decompose the organic
load into compounds such as organic sulphate compounds, organic amines, hydrogen
disulphide, phosphine etc., which are highly odoriferous.

Therefore, the discharge of such pollutants into the receiving water converts them into
obnoxious mixture and objectionable matter should be removed for the utilization of the
water for various purposes. It will be economical to control the oxygen-demand load of
the inflowing wastes into the receiving waters, rather than the treatment of objectionable
water at the later stage.
This method will also reduce the air pollution and surrounding land. Therefore, the
industrial waste should be given proper treatments, before disposal in the water
courses.

Domestic garbage and wastes: Water mixed with soap and detergents used in
domestic chores are the main causes of water pollution. The garbage kept deposited for
long on the ground in the urban areas produce poisonous chemicals and bacteria, that
infect the river water, the terrestrial water bodies of all sorts.

Following heavy downpours, a big volume of the infected water flow down the sewerage
from the garbage dumps into rivers, ponds, lakes and other water bodies polluting them
dangerously.

Mineral oils: If the mineral oils and their by-products mix with the sea water, they
pollute the sea extensively. This results in death of numerous aquatic plants and lives
and degradation of the aquatic ecology.

Thermal power stations: The ebullient water that comes out from the thermal power
stations, nuclear power plants or from the iron and steel industries to fall into the river or
lake or sea make the water of the receiving water-bodies so hot that the aquatic life-
stream there perishes.

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6. State any four compositions each of domestic, industrial waste water (4 marks)

The composition of domestic wastewater:

Analysis parameters Wastewater type

Unit Concentrated
5-days Biochemical Oxygen mg O2/l 350
Demand (BOD5)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) mg O2/l 740
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) g C/m3 250
Suspended Solid (SS) g SS/ m3 450
Volatile Suspended Solid (VSS) g VSS/ m3 320
Alkalinity eqv/ m3 37
Conductivity mS/m 120
Total Nitrogen g N/ m3 80
Total Phosphorous g P/ m3 23
3
Fats, oil and grease g/ m 100

The composition of industrial waste water:

Class of pollutant Significance

Heavy metals Health, toxicity, aquatic biota
Organically bound metals and Toxicity, aquatic biota
metalloids
Inorganic species Water quality, toxicity, aquatic biota
Trace organic pollutants Toxicity
Polychlorinated biphenyls Toxicity, aquatic biota, wildlife
Pesticides Toxicity, aquatic biota, wildlife
Detergents Toxicity, aquatic biota
Chemical carcinogens Incidence of cancer

*****
7. State the discharge standards of industrial waste water and the effects on
receiving bodies (4 marks)

Industry
Type Characteristics Treatment
(example)
High organic pollution, easily
Organic Food industry Biological simple
biodegradable

High organic pollution, not Refinery Biological

Organic
easily biodegradable Petrochemistry adapted

Physicochemical
High organic pollution,
Organic Organic synthesis Biological
nonbiodegradable
adapted
Low organic pollution Toxics Steel industry
Electroplating
Mineral Physicochemical
High suspended solids industry Extractive
industry
Physicochemical
Miscellaneou Organic pollution (with major
Chemistry Biological
s pollutants), high salinity
adapted
Physicochemical
Miscellaneou Organic pollution (mixture), Pulp and paper
Biological
s salinity industry
adapted

Effect of industrial effluents on receiving bodies/ waters

Rapid industrialization during the last few decades has significantly increased the
amount of pollutants in the environment. Improper treatment of some hazardous
industrial wastes released into water bodies has been creating toxic effects on all type
of life forms directly or indirectly. Heavy metals are one of the major water pollutants
that are persistent and non-biodegradable in nature. Intake of some toxic heavy metals
by aquatic fauna can cause detrimental health problems in other animals and ultimately
humans via the food chain.

 Point Sources of Water Pollution; These are the sources in which the effluents
produced are discharged directly into the river or stream.
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD); It is the amount of oxygen required by the
micro organisms to decompose the organic matter in the water.
 effluents from industries processing plant contain a mixture of complex organic
substances such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats as their major pollution load.
 These substances are readily biodegradable and when introduced into the
environments are quickly decomposed through the action of natural microbial
populations.
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): It the measure of the total quantity of oxygen
required to oxidize all organic material into carbon dioxide and water.
 The availability of plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus are important
determinants of the biological productivity of aquatic ecosystems.
 In warm weather, nutrients stimulate rapid growth of algae and floating aquatic
weeds.
 The water often becomes opaque and has unpleasant tastes and odours.
 Turbidity :Turbidity is an expression of the optical property that causes light to be
scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines through a water
sample.
 Light attenuation by suspended particles in water has two main types of
environmental impact: reduced penetration into water of light for photosynthesis and
reduced visual range of sighted animals and people.
 Electrical Conductivity (EC): Electric Conductivity or Total Dissolved Solids is a
measure of how much total salt (inorganic ions such as sodium, chloride,
magnesium, and calcium) is present in the water.
 If the conductivity of a stream suddenly increases, it indicates that there is a source
of dissolved ions in the vicinity.
 Heavy metals (Lead, Copper and Cadmium, etc) : Heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Cd) are
among the major toxic pollutants in surface water (Chino, 1981).
 These have been found to be a problem in streams abutted by catchments with
factories dealing with tanning, smelting, welding, renovation, manufacture and
disposal of car batteries, petroleum and oil.
 Heavy metals are very toxic, when consumed causes many effect to health. Some of
these metals are cacogenic which affect the cell.
 Temperature: Most waste water have higher temperature than natural water.
 When discharged into a water bodies it increases the temperature of the water
causing an unfavourable condition for aquatic life, which tend to the migration of
some aquatic animals and eventually death.
 Salinity from irrigation can occur over time wherever irrigation occurs, since the
water contains some dissolved salt. Heavy metals like( Lead, Copper and Cadmium,
etc) when contained in an irrigation water reduces the fertility of the soil causing
reduced production of plant, sometimes causes death.
 Oil and Grease Removal; Some industrial effluents contain oil and grease which
makes it hard for the conventional water treatment to remove these pollutants.
 Some wastewater may be muddy, when transported to the water treatment plant it
settles in the transport system and causing plugging in the tanks.
 Effluent with high organic matter contains low dissolve oxygen in which a proper
aeration must be done before treatment.
 Heavy metals in the effluents can not be removed by conventional treatment.
 An advanced process must be applied to remove these metals which need more
process to be done and more cost of treatment.
 Industrial effluents pose many threats to the ecosystem causing many harmful effect
to the habitats. Proper environmental remediation should be taken to save the
environmental impacts caused by these activities.

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8. State impact of Pesticides, oils, grease, organic matter on water (4 marks)

There are diverse categories of water pollutants often encountered in nature. They are
primarily high nutrients like PO4, NO3, CO3 or SO4; acidity or alkalinity of water,
contamination of toxic metals, high particulates load, contamination with pathogenic
microbes and pesticides, presence of oils, grease and other hydrocarbons etc.

1. Pesticides – can damage the nervous system and cause cancer because of the
carbonates and organophosphates that they contain. Chlorides can cause
reproductive and endocrinal damage.

2. Oil - The most common effect is the spreading of the oil over the surface of the
water. Most oil is less dense than water, so when oil spills, it spreads across the
water surface. Oil spreads very quickly, with lighter oils, like gasoline, spreading
faster than heavy crude oils. Currents, wind and warm temperatures will cause the
oil to spread faster. Typically, oil can spread as thin as a coat of paint very rapidly.
Oil can settle to the bottom of the water. While the density of oil ranges from 0.85
grams per cubic centimetre to 1.04 grams per cubic centimetre, most oil densities
fall into the 0.90 to 0.98 grams per cubic centimetre range. The oil can be moved,
with currents, tides and the wind. This can be a significant problem in rivers,
because the currents can carry the oil a great distance from its origin. It can also
cause substantial damage in oceans, because the tide can carry the oil to beaches
and intertidal zones, which are especially sensitive to oil pollution.

Oil spills can suffocate fish, get caught in the feathers of birds and mammals and
block light from photosynthetic plants in the water

3. Grease: When fats, oils and grease enter the drainage system they mix with food
and other sanitary waste, congeal and harden in the pipe. In addition to unpleasant
odours, FOG-related blockages can result in sewer overflows due to reduced
capacity or burst drain and sewer pipes.

4. Organic Matter : When organic matter increases in a pond, the number of

decomposers will increase. These decomposers grow rapidly and use a great deal
of oxygen during their growth. This leads to a depletion of oxygen as the
decomposition process occurs. A lack of oxygen can kill aquatic organisms.

*****
9. State permissible quality standards of following parameters of industrial
wastewater discharging in water bodies:- (4 marks)
i. BOD
ii. COD
iii. SS
iv. DO

1. BOD: 30 mg/l

2. COD: 250 mg/l

3. SS: 100mg/l

4. DO: 5 mg/l or 4 ppm

*****
10. Describe Marine, thermal and radioactive pollution in water and their
consequences (8 marks)

10.1 Marine Pollution:

 Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as

industrial, agricultural, and rsidential waste, particles, noise, excess carbon
dioxide or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harmful effects there.
 The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine
transportation significantly contributes as well.
 Since most inputs come from land, either via the rivers, sewage or the atmosphere,
it means that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution.
 Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen,
silicon, sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into the ocean.
 The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-
blown debris, and dust.
 These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through
rivers,
 but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle
into waterways and oceans.
 Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution,
atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining.
 The types of marine pollution can be grouped as pollution from marine debris, plastic
pollution, including microplastics, ocean acidification, nutrient pollution, toxins and
underwater noise. Plastic pollution in the ocean is a type of marine pollution
by plastics, ranging in size from large original material such as bottles and bags,
down to microplastics formed from the fragmentation of plastic material.
 Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in
the ocean. Plastic pollution is harmful to marine life.

Marine debris pollution

 Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is human-created waste that has
deliberately or accidentally been released in a sea or ocean.
 Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and
on coastlines, frequently washing aground, when it is known as beach litter or
tidewrack.
 Deliberate disposal of wastes at sea is called ocean dumping.
 Naturally occurring debris, such as driftwood and drift seeds, are also present.
 With the increasing use of plastic, human influence has become an issue as many
types of (petrochemical) plastics do not biodegrade quickly, as would natural or
organic materials.
 The largest single type of plastic pollution (~10 %) and majority of large plastic in the
oceans is discarded and lost nets from the fishing industry.
 Waterborne plastic poses a serious threat to fish, seabirds, marine reptiles,
and marine mammals, as well as to boats and coasts.
 Dumping, container spillages, litter washed into storm drains and waterways and
wind-blown landfill waste all contribute to this problem.
 This increased water pollution has caused serious negative effects such as ghost
nets capturing animals, concentration of plastic debris in massive marine garbage
patches, and increasing concentrations of contaminants in the food chain.

10.2 Thermal Pollution:

The discharge of cooling water from industrial and commercial operations may
artificially heat up the aquatic environment. Organisms may become physiologically
stressed from exposure to heated water or can be directly killed if escape is not
possible. Some can adapt to the point of dependency and suffer if the thermal source is
suddenly removed.

If artificial heat loading is combined with natural seasonal warming of an aquatic

system, the impact can be quite severe. Besides causing outright death, the problem
also may result in the interference with natural life processes such as growth rates,
respiration, reproduction, and distribution of species. However, thermal pollution
primarily causes a decrease in oxygen content, which may directly kill aquatic species
through asphyxiation.

Thermal power stations: The ebullient water that comes out from the thermal power
stations, nuclear power plants or from the iron and steel industries to fall into the river or
lake or sea make the water of the receiving water-bodies so hot that the aquatic life-
stream there perishes.
It is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human
influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the
physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as
a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers.
Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food
chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic
species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters.

10.3 Radioactive pollution:

Radioactively unstable elements emit forms of radiation that can be highly injurious to
aquatic organisms by affecting biological process such as reproduction, or can be
directly lethal. Sources of such materials include the mining and processing of ores;
nuclear weapons manufacturing and testing; the handling and disposal of nuclear fuels;
the use of nuclear materials for medical, industrial, and research applications; and the
legal and illegal discharge of radioactive wastes.

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11. Define biodegradation and bioaccumulation. State their effects on water
bodies (8 marks)

11.1 Biodegradation:

Biodegradation is the breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms, such as bacteria

and fungi.

Mechanisms - The process of biodegradation can be divided into three stages:

biodeterioration, biofragmentation, and assimilation.

11.1.1 Biodeterioration:

 Biodeterioration is sometimes described as a surface-level degradation that modifies

the mechanical, physical and chemical properties of the material.
 This stage occurs when the material is exposed to abiotic factors in the outdoor
environment and allows for further degradation by weakening the material's
structure.
 Some abiotic factors that influence these initial changes are compression
(mechanical), light, temperature and chemicals in the environment.

11.1.2 Biofragmentation

 Biofragmentation of a polymer is the lytic process in which bonds within a polymer

are cleaved, generating oligomers and monomers in its place.
 The steps taken to fragment these materials also differ based on the presence of
oxygen in the system.
 The breakdown of materials by microorganisms when oxygen is present is aerobic
digestion, and the breakdown of materials when oxygen is not present is anaerobic
digestion.
 The main difference between these processes is that anaerobic reactions
produce methane, while aerobic reactions do not.
 In addition, aerobic digestion typically occurs more rapidly than anaerobic digestion,
while anaerobic digestion does a better job reducing the volume and mass of the
material.
 Due to anaerobic digestion's ability to reduce the volume and mass
of waste materials and produce a natural gas, anaerobic digestion technology is
widely used for waste management systems and as a source of local, renewable
energy.

11.1.3 Assimilation

 Assimilation is the process of absorption of vitamins, minerals, and other chemicals

from food as part of the nutrition of an organism.
 In humans, this is always done with a chemical breakdown and physical breakdown.
 The second process of bio assimilation is the chemical alteration of substances in
the bloodstream by the liver or cellular secretions.

Effect on Water:

The major polluting effect of biodegradable organic materials is the reduction in oxygen
concentration in the water. Bacteria and other organisms (decomposers) break these
materials down into simpler organic or inorganic substances. They use up oxygen in the
process, and as their population increases there is an extra demand for dissolved
oxygen.
When a potentially polluting effluent is released into a stream, there follows a sequence
of events in time and distance. This sequence leads to different environmental
consequences and different aquatic communities compared with those immediately
upstream and the successive reaches downstream. After a certain distance, natural
biodegradative processes will break down the pollutants, often returning the river to
something like its original condition.

11.2 Bioaccumulation:

 Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or

other chemicals, in an organism.
 Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance at a rate faster than
that at which the substance is lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion.
 Thus, the longer the biological half-life of a toxic substance, the greater the risk of
chronic poisoning, even if environmental levels of the toxin are not very high.

Effect on Water:

The consequence of bioaccumulation is that contaminants that may be quite safe to

wildlife, or humans, when encountered at the kind of concentrations at which they are
released into water, can become concentrated at particular points in the food-chain at
levels that are not safe.

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12. Describe the chances of metal pollutants & the specifications. (4 marks)

 Metals are introduced in aquatic systems as a result of the weathering of soils and
rocks, from volcanic eruptions, and from a variety of human activities involving the
mining, processing, or use of metals and/or substances that contain metal pollutants.
 The most common heavy
metal pollutants are arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead and mercury.
 There are different types of sources of pollutants: point sources (localized pollution),
where pollutants come from single, identifiable sources.
 The second type of pollutant sources are nonpoint sources, where pollutants come
from dispersed (and often difficult to identify) sources.
 The most common metal pollution in freshwater comes from mining companies.
 They usually use an acid mine drainage system to release heavy metals from ores,
because metals are very soluble in an acid solution.
 Maximum Permissible Concentrations (MPC) of Various Metals in Natural
Waters:

Metal Chemical Symbol mg m-3

Mercury Hg 0.144
Lead Pb 5
Cadmium Cd 10
Selenium Se 10
Thallium Tl 13
Nickel Ni 13.4
Silver Ag 50
Manganese Mn 50
Chromium Cr 50
Iron Fe 300
Barium Ba 1000

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13. Describe the chances of non-metal pollutants & the specifications. (4 marks)

Nonmetal chemicals such as phosphorus, chlorine, bromine, iodine, formaldehyde,

methyl aldehyde, methylene oxide act as irritant poisons and produce inflammation on
the site of contact, especially in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, respiratory tract, and the
skin.

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