CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

With increasing concerns about fossil fuel deficit, Skyrocketing oil prices, global
warming, and damage to Environment and ecosystem, the promising incentives to
Develop alternative energy resources with high efficiency And low emission are of great
importance. Among the Renewable energy resources, the energy through the Photovoltaic
(pv) effect can be considered the most Essential and prerequisite sustainable resource
because of The ubiquity, abundance, and sustainability of solar Radiant energy.
Regardless of the intermittency of Sunlight, solar energy is widely available and
completely free of cost. Recently, photovoltaic array system is likely recognized and
widely utilized to the forefront in electric power applications. It can generate direct
current electricity without environmental impact and contamination when is exposed to
solar radiation. The immediate need would be to vitiate the problems caused by depletion
of oil and natural gas, while the long Term need would be to develop means that can
replace coal and fossil fuels. Rapid population growth and Industrialization, demands for
an increased amount of electrical energy. Solar energy is a renewable, bottomless and
ultimate source of energy. The power from the sun intercepted by earth is approximately
1.8 x 1011mw . PV module represents the fundamental power conversion unit of a PV
generator system. The output characteristics of PV module depends on the solar
insolation, the cell temperature and output voltage of PV module. However, the solar
energy is a dilute source of energy and its availability varies widely with time. So, it is
very necessary to make a complete utilization of solar energy in available time. In the
new millennium the renewable resources is the most important part which help to
increase the power generation safely. The renewable resources uses helps to reduces
harmful emission gases like green house gases and reduces the value of fossil fuels In
other hand deregulation of electric utility industry and giving chance for high penetration

Page | 1
 Chapter 1

and uses distributed resources. The demand of the costumers is high so it is not possible
due to one solar plant. The distributed generation system is played a vital role to fulfil the
consumer demand, here distributed generation system two or more power generation
plant are interconnected at one power grid that is also called distributed genco. In that
paper the modelling of PV system is shown and checks the performance of the PV cell by
testing cell on MATLAB platform. The photovoltaic panel is absorbed solar radiation is
not converted into electricity but contribute to peak up the temperature of the module.
Thus it reducing the electrical efficiency. Basically that PV system is generated
electricity from sun light. In the function of the PV system is that firstly the sun light
9converted in to an DC electricity which stored in a high voltage DC battery then DC
power has been converted by using the inverter circuit that is the conversion is called DC
to AC. Global warming and the limited resources of fossil fuels have increased the need
for renewable energy. Solar radiation is the largest source of renewable energy and the
only one by which the present primary energy consumption can be replaced. Photovoltaic
(PV) power generators convert the energy of solar radiation directly to electrical energy
without any moving parts. PV power generators can be classified into stand-alone and
grid-connected generators. In stand-alone systems, the energy storage has big influence
on the design of the systems. In grid-connected systems, the grid acts as an energy
storage into which the PV power generator can inject power whenever power is available.
Photovoltaic (PV) power system is envisaged to become an important renewable energy
source due to its pollution-free and inexhaustible nature. Large scale PV power systems
have been commercialized in numerous countries due to their substantial long term
benefits, generous fed-in tariff schemes and other initiatives provided by governments to
promote sustainable green energy. However, due to the high investment cost on PV
modules, optimal utilization of the available solar energy has to be ensured. This
necessitates a precise and reliable simulation of the designed PV systems prior to
installation.Renewable energy has recently attracted increasing attention of the
researchers due to cleanliness, on-site availability, and absence of greenhouse gas

Page | 2
 Chapter 1

emission (Salem and Awadallah, 2014). The power of sun light is converted into DC
electricity through photovoltaic (PV) cells which are usually made of semiconductor
materials. The PV cells are connected in series to form a module of typically 36, 60, or 72
cells. The modules are then assembled in different series and parallel configurations to
form an array at the desired output voltage and current. The output power of a PV array is
conditioned via power electronic circuitry before being consumed by local loads or
injected into power The first step to study about an appropriate control method in
photovoltaic systems is to know how to model and simulate a PV system attached to the
converter and power grid. In general, PV systems present nonlinear Power-Voltage (P-V)
and Current-Voltage (I-V) characteristics which tightly depend on the receiving
irradiance levels and ambient conditions. The mathematical model of the photovoltaic
device is significantly valuable for studying the maximum power point tracking
algorithms, doing research about the dynamic performance of converters, and also for
simulating photovoltaic components by using circuit simulators . Despite the recent
advancements in PV cell technology, the effects of certain disruptive environmental
factors, which remarkably reduce the efficiency of photovoltaic arrays, still remain an
inevitable hurdle. One of these environmental phenomena is partial shading grids.
Photovoltaic (PV) based power systems had significant developments during the last few
decades. There is a noticeable progress in implementation PV based power stations
around the world due to its advantages such as low maintenance, easy installation, zero
pollution. The first solar PV power station “Arco Solar” is implemented in California in
the year of 1982 with a capacity of 1 MWp1 and “Solar star” in California is the world’s
largest PV station by the end of 2015. The installed capacity of world’s largest PV station
is 579 MW2. The total worldwide PV capacity has reached to 178 GW by the end of
20143. 55GW of worldwide deployment was forecasted for the year 2015 and the
cumulative installed PV capacity is expected to be 540GW in 20204. Figure 1 shows the
projected growth of globally installed PV Capacity. Modeling of PV modules using
MATLAB is presented in many literatures5–8. A basic form of PV cell is comprised of a

Page | 3
 Chapter 1

current source and a diode connected in anti-parallel to it9. The circuit model consists of
resistor connected in series to the basic PV cell model is presented in10. Most of the
presented works describes the modeling of PV under uniform irradiation and uniform
temperature levels only. The shading effect on the PV modules greatly affects the power
produced by the PV system. Partial shading of PV reduces the power produced by the PV
modules and produces multiple peaks in the output power which affects the tracking
performance of MPPT and makes the PV system less efficient. Analysis of PV
characteristics under partial shading conditions through simulation would helps to
develop a PV power system with effective Maximum Power Point Tracking controller.
PV module modeling to study the partial shading effect is presented in many literatures.
The work presented in11 analyses the V-I characteristics of a PV module under partial
shading. But, in practical cases the PV systems have multiple modules connected in
series-parallel combination.Photovoltaic modules are connected in series and parallel to
form a PV array in order to match the power requirements in terms of voltage and current
[1,2]. The total power in such an array is, however lower than the sum of the individual
rated power of each module. There are different reasons for that. The main reason, which
is the purpose of this paper is partial shading [3,4]. In a series connected solar
photovoltaic module, performance is adversely affected if the cells are not equally
illuminated. All the cells in a series array are forced to carry the same current even
though a few cells under shade produce less photon current. The shaded cells may get
reverse biased, acting as loads, draining power from fully illuminated cells. If the system
is not appropriately protected, hot spot problem can arise and in several cases, the system
can be irreversibly damaged. The PV plants are built today in a fixed series-parallel
configuration and the single module is equipped with bypass diodes included in different
configurations.

Page | 4
 Chapter 1

1.2 MOTIVATION OF PROJECT WORK

As mentioned, the environmental conditions have a significant effect on the performance

of PV structures. Holding on to that thought, the research motivation for this thesis comes
from the necessity to explore an alternative configuration for the solar arrays especially
when subjected to partial shading conditions. The available PV panels deliver a good
amount of power but they sometimes turn out to be inefficient when exposed to
irregularities in shading patterns caused by several environmental effects such 7 as
passing clouds, bird droppings, shadows cast by adjacent buildings, dust deposition etc.
Therefore, the existing architectures of solar panels do not effectively resolve the
problems associated with partial shading which results in poor performance of the system
and potentially reduce the reliability/ longevity of the solar panels. Thus the idea is to
look for a PV system architecture which is capable of delivering the maximum power
under extreme partial shading conditions. It is observed that the utilization and
contribution of the PV generated electricity is less than other energy sources. This is as a
result of the high cost; however, it has low efficiency of photovoltaic modules. Anchored
on the advantages and the disadvantages of the PV modules (no noise associated with
their use, no or little maintenance, no health nor environmental hazards and high cost
coupled with low efficiency), it is imperative to optimize them. It is emphasis that
photovoltaic systems will continue the future development in a direction to become a key
factor in the production of electricity for households and buildings in general. This is
because PV systems contribute to reducing energy consumption in buildings as well as
lower environmental impacts.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THESIS

The main objective of this work is to study, design, and simulate a highly paralleled
architecture using SPICE and MATLAB. Figure 1.1 shows the block diagram of the
proposed parallel PV system.

Page | 5
 Chapter 1

The study aims to:

 Develop an equivalent electrical circuit model of the parallel PV module to

analyze the characteristics of the module under different operating conditions.
 Develop a small signal model of solar cells in a parallel module subjected to
partial shading conditions.
 Integrate a dc-dc converter to analyze the impact of the interface in terms of
output efficiency and effectiveness of the system under normal and partial
shading conditions.

1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS

This paper presents the modeling and simulation of PV module in detail. Performance of
the solar cell in Chapter 3, the effect of shading on PV arrays is studied and a small signal
Chapter 3 discusses the modeling of a single solar cell and characteristic features
affecting the model of a solar cell is developed to analyze a parallel connected module.
Chapter 4 presents the simulation results of the proposed architecture in comparison with
the traditional architectures from the literature. Finally conclusions and future work are
presented in Chapter 5.

Page | 6
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2 .1. Partial shadowing of photovoltaic devices

Shadowing of a single cell in a series string of solarcells leads to reverse bias of the
shadowed cell. Reverse bias and consecutive microplasma breakdown have been
physically described and modelled (Spirito and Alber-gamo, 1982; Bishop, 1988, 1989).
Kovach (1995) per-formed a thorough analysis of the reverse-biased solar cell and
applied Bishop’s model in order to draw conclusions on hot spot formation and yield
reduction of PV arrays. For commercially available crystalline and amorphous cells,
model parameters for both models were derived from by Alonso and Chenlo (1998). All
the authors observed that solar cell I–U characteristics reverse bias show more variation
than in forward bias, a result that was statistically verified by Danner and Bu¨ (1997) and
Laukamp et al. (1999). Kovach (1995) also found that under shadowing conditions a poor
PV array lay-out can lead to large energy losses and that even small shadows can
appreciably affect the energy yield. In order to protect shadowed solar cells from break-
down, bypass diodes are applied. In the 1980s a number authors contributed to optimise
the PV module design and to determine the maximum number of solar cells bypass diode
necessary in order to avoid the formation of hot spots (Arnett and Gonzales, 1981;
Bhattacharya and Neogy, 1991; Gupta and Milnes, 1981; Shepard and Sugimura, 1984).
Based on these experiences, a hot-spot endurance test became part of the type approval
for crystalline silicon modules according to IEC 61215 (1993). string of n cells being
equipped with one bypass diode, the absolute value of the breakdown voltage of a reverse
biased solar cell must be greater than n up to n11 times 0.5 V. This value approximately
equals the MPP voltage of the n-1 unshadowed crystalline silicon cells in series plus the
mission voltage of a silicon bypass diode, i.e., 0.5 to 1 V. The weakest link in a cell string
is the solar cell with the highest breakdown voltage and thus the highest leakage current
(Gupta and Milnes, 1981; Hermann et al., 1997). For today’s crystalline silicon modules,

Page | 7
 Chapter 2

the breakdown voltage of a solar cell usually is assumed to be less than 210 V.
Therefore, mostly one bypass diode is applied per 18 cells in series. Multiple parallel
interconnections btween cell strings within one module, also discussed in the literature,
are usually not applied anymore today. In measurements on commercially available
reverse biased solar cells, cases have been identified with breakdown voltage as high as
27.2 V, leading to a leakage current of 1.4 A and associated maximum cell temperatures
as high as 125 8C at 210 V reverse voltage. The reverse bias behaviour in this study has
been found to be specific to the cell type recent measurements, carried out under the
European Commission’s Fifth Framework Programme (IMOTHEE ERK5-CT1999-
00005), returned similar results, leading to the conclusion that cell sorting with regard to
leakage 1996).current should be included in the production process. way, less cells could
be applied per bypass diode in modules specifically made from cells with higher leakage
current and breakdown voltage (Hermann et al., 2001; Alonso et al., 2001) With the
increasing architectural integration of PV into roof structures and facades in the mid
1990s, again the question was raised whether the bulky external bypass diodes could be
omitted or at least reduced in number. Research was mainly carried out in the framework
of the German federal rsesearch and development (R&D) ‘‘Qualifizierung von PV-
Fassadenelementen’’ (BMBF-FKZ 032 9658). In that context, it was found that for glass
glass modules, bypass diodes should not be omitted unless the module design is modified
by applying broader cell connectors and a high-heat-conductivity foil in the module back
sheets (Knaupp, 1997). With these measures the peak temperature could be reduced by
about 16 K (Knaupp1997). PV modules were measured and simulated with Blewett et al.
(1997) applied a heliodon as used by constructed cast shadows by Laukamp et al. (1998).
It was concluded that bypass diodes may only be omitted if the irradiance distribution is
virtually always homogeneousFurthermore, all cells applied must behave almost identi-
cally under reverse bias and their shunt resistance must be too high. This however
presumes the availability of solar cells with standardised reverse bias behaviour. Cur-
rently, cell manufacturers do not control the reverse bias behaviour of their cells being

Page | 8
 Chapter 2

the reason that in this study even cells of the same type were found to differently when
biased in reverse direction (Laukamp al., 1999As a preliminary conclusion from the
aforementioned German R&D project, it was suggested that bypass should not be
omitted (Stellbogen et al., 1998). In practice one bypass diode per 18 to 20 cells should
be applied. With the application of more powerful solar cells Stellbogen al. (1998)
suggest that even a smaller number of cells per bypass diode might become necessary.
The results the European IMOTHEE project generally confirm these findings yet they
more urgently suggest the need for a smaller number of cells per bypass diode also for
crys- talline standard modules as long as manufacturers guarantee a continuously high
quality with regard breakdown voltage and leakage current of the applied While from an
architectural point of view, it would be desirable to omit the bypass diodes in the junction
box, from the shadowing point of view the more bypass diodes are available, the better. A
solution is offered to this dilemma with directly integrating the bypass diode in the
semiconductor structure of each single cell (Suryanto Hasyim et al., 1986). Another
option for increased shadow tolerance are cell-integrated converters (Meyer et al., 1997).
However, these are not likely to become commer-cially available in the near future
(Quaschning et al, 1996) In the meantime, considerable effort has also been in simulating
the electrical behaviour of shadowed PV arrays. A mathematical description of shadowed
PV arrays was first derived by Rauschenbach (1968). Abete et al. (1989) studied the
behaviour of parallel and series connected solar cells under partial shadowing by
applying Bishop’s model. Quaschning and Hanitsch (1996a) developed a model for the
photo current of partially of software tools for the assessment of the electrical behaviour
of PV arrays is commercially available, however, not all of them are suited for
examinations down to the solar cell level / under reverse biased conditions (Zehner,
2001). There are two fundamentally different approaches to estimate the reduction in
energy yield of partially shadowed PV systems. One approach is to simulate the being
cast on the PV array by surrounding obstacles and their variation in time. For this purpose
Blewett et al. (1997) applied a heliodon as used by architects to predict natural lighting

Page | 9
 Chapter 2

effects. That way, it is concluded that bypass diodes may only be omitted if the possible
to predict the shadows cast on a PV array in the built environment throughout the year
based on an ar- chitectural model. Wilshaw et al. (1995) also determined direct and
diffuse irradiance, and PV module temperature from the heliodon analysis, enabling
conclusions on the array yield of the PV system. In general, this type of, cell simulation
can also be performed on a computer. If the dimensions and arrangement of the
shadowing objects are known, the shape and size of the shadow, cast on the PV et array,
can be determined at every moment of the year. By further applying synthetic or
empirical meteorological data, the irradiance on the PV array can be calculated very
precisely for every moment in time, allowing for further simulation of the electrical
system behaviour. A detailed should description for the calculation of solar irradiance on
partially shadowed PV arrays is provided (Quaschning and Hanitsch, 1995) as is a high-
resolution electrical model for PV arrays with inhomogeneously illuminated cells
(Quaschning and Hanitsch, 1996b). One obvious drawback of such a model with high
spatial and time resolution is the necessary long computation time. Another one is the
necessity to know the precise dimensions and positions of all shadowing objects. Eleven
out of 27 programs and tools, presented in a market survey on commercially available PV
simulation software by Zehner (2001), feature possibilities for the evaluation of partial
shadowing. Four of them can calcufrom late cast shadows as a function of time as
described above.

2 .2. Partial shadowing with different system configurations

laboratory and field tests, a number of guidelines for an optimum arrangement of PV

arrays have been determined. Several authors have calculated the optimum spacing
between adjacent PV module rows in order to minimise the due to mutual shading of one
row by another (Appelbaum and Bany, 1979; Bany and Appelbaum, 1987; Quaschning
and Hanitsch, 1998a; Versluis and Jongen, , 2001). The impact of the module orientation
with snow-covered modules has been determined (Quaschning and Hanitsch, 1997).

Page | 10
 Chapter 2

In such a case when only a part of the PV module is shadowed, the module orientation
has a severe impact on the energy yield. Since a partially shadowed 18-cell substring is
usually short-circuited by its bypass diode, it is crucial to choose the module orientation
in such a way that the solar cells of as little different 18-cell substrings as possible are
shadowed at a time. The second approach is based on describing the reduc- Decker et al.
(1998) and Stellbogen and Pfisterer (1992) extended this guideline to PV module strings.
They recthe PV array. Most simulation programs in the afore- ommended to wire the PV
array in such a way that shadowed and unshadowed modules are possibly not by
connected in series but in parallel. This recommendation is generally accepted as a rule of
thumb in PV array design, however, it only holds for certain model cases. The reason is
that the 18-cell substrings equipped with bypass diodes form the largest significant unit
of the PV array with regard to string current limitation. Covering one entire module of a
module string leads to a lower string voltage. However, it does not limit the total
available string current. On the other hand, covering one single cell of an 18-cell
substring limits the current of this particular substring to zero. At the same time, the
current of the entire module string bypasses the 18-cell substring that includes the
covered cell via the bypass diodes. The power of the 17 unshadowed cells in this
substring is dissipated in the covered cell. Hence, the situation of shadowed cells in an
18-cell substring cannot be transferred to the case of shadowed modules in a module
string. The impact of the module arrangement on the energy yield of partially shadowed
PV arrays in practice is not yet clear. In practical situations a high number of factors
needs to be taken into account like MPP tracking voltage window, DC bus voltage,
number of parallel strings and inverter type, and of course the particular shadowing
situation. Another crucial and widely discussed question is the grade of modularity of the
system design. For the grid connection of PV, generally three different classes of system
configuration are available : module inverters, string inverters or central inverter.
Recentaly,also hybrid concept has been presented (Meinhardt and Cramer, 20001). In
recent years, the advantages and drawabacks of these different system configurations

Page | 11
 Chapter 2

have been widely discussed. In general, module and string inverters are said to be less
sensitive to an inhomogeneous irradiance dis-tribution and easier to install ( de Graaf and
van der Weiden, 1994; de Haan et al., 1994; Kleinkauf et al., 1992; Knaupp et al., 1996;
Kurokawa et al., 1997a; Lindgren, 2000; Meinhardt et al., 1999). Central inverters are
usually less expensive, more efficient and more reliable on a system base. From a survey
on the German market I tappears that the specific prices of small module inverters for AC
modules are still more than twice as high as the price of an inverter for a string or central
configuration . Inverter reliability does very much depend on the environment, and
especially humidity and operating tem-perature ( Wilk and Panhuber, 1995), and also on
the voltage quality of the grid. The criterion of shadow tolerance that has so often been
mentioned as an advantage of modular systems is actually difficult to specify. A wider
MPP tracking voltage window might, e.g., contribute to shadow tolerance. With several
18-cell substrings of a long string of modules being shadowed, a wider MPP voltage
window can lead to higher yields, where another MPP tracker might not succeed in
setting a stable MPP. Such a case has, e.g., been observed by Alonso et al. (1997). The
idea of modular system configurations being more shadow tolerant than central
configurations, is usually derived from the current limiting effect that one shadowed solar
cell has on a string of cells. This however, does not take into consideration the impact of
the bypass diodes. Again, the 18-cell substrings equipped with bypass diodes, form the
largest significant unit of the PV array with regard to string current limitation. Another
consequence of inhomogeneous array illumination can be the mismatch of parallel
module strings. This may indeed lead to yield reduction in central inverter
systems.Measurements and studies on existing PV systems with inhomogeneuos
irradiance distributions do not indicate significantly better results for modular
configurations. It was confirmed by different authors from field experience that in
moderate climates mismatch losses of differently oriented PV arrays connected to one
single inverter below 1% of the annual energy yield ( Laukamp and Wiemken, 1997;
Maranda, 2001). Tegtmeyer et al. (1997) concluded from laboratory measurements that

Page | 12
 Chapter 2

when partial shadowing occurs from time to time, with central inverters additional losses
are less than 5% of the optimum. A case study by Beuth (1998) who simulated two
existing PV systems with partial shadowing for different configura-tions, did not show
significant advantages of the module inverter configuration. Based on costs for inverters
and installations, and reliability considerations, he recommends the application of central
or string inverters.Conversely, Gross et al. (1997) conclude in another case study based
on heliodon analysis that replacing the present central inverter by module inverters could
reduce losses due to shadowing from 25 to 19.5% of the annual energy yield. From
measurements in the field, Wheldon et al. (2001) observed significant differences in
performance ratio between a central inverter PV system and a number of AC modules at
the same location. Partly these differences are caused by the exceptionally low partial-
load efficiency of the central inverter. It is further suggested that the better performance
of the module inverter system would partly be for the sake of reduced current limiting as
it would occur in series strings of modules and reduced string mismatch under partial
shadowing. For the analysis, the internal monitoring functions of the inverters have been
used ( Wheldon et al., 2001). For the module inverters, un-fortunately this means that DC
power is not available and AC power has been calculated from voltage times current,
disregarding the non-unity power factor. In order to analyse the impact of module
inverters with partial shadowing more in depth, knowledge of these quantities would be
key. Similarly, Carlsson et al. (1998) recommend a modular approach for increasing the
yield of a partially shadowed flat roof installation. Apparently, the extremely low yield
described there, mainly originates from mutual shading of adjacent module rows, being
comparable to the snow cover of a few cells as examined by Quaschning and Hanitsch
(1997). If this is the case, module inverters would most likely not bring much
improvement for this installation. A much more effective measure would be turning the
module frames by 908. In another case study of a heavily shadowed PV system applying
module inverters, Woyte et al. (2000) clearly identified a positive impact of the modular
design regarding the avoidance of string mismatch. The question whether a comparable

Page | 13
 Chapter 2

yield could be received by applying string inverters was not answered in this study. The
PV arrays described by Knaupp et al. (1996) and Gross et al. (1997) are rather large
facade installations of 10 kWp and 40 kWp, respectively. Although the opposite has often
been stated, from the literature there is no evidence neither on theoretical grounds nor
based on practical measurements that module inverters are more shadow tolerant than
string inverters. This is because on the one hand, shadowing of single cells can at most
affect the current of the 18-cell substrings equipped with a bypass diode, leading to
increased capture losses with module inverters as well as string inverters. Beside these
theoretical considerations, there are virtual-ly no field results that would allow to estimate
the impact of different system configurations on the energy yield of partially shadowed
PV arrays. This is why in the scientific discussion, the impact of the system configuration
on the final yield of partially shadowed systems often does not become clear. The
monitoring campaigns on existing installations usually suffer from a number of
drawbacks. Typical drawbacks are the lack of operational data as irradiance on the PV
array or on an unshadowed reference location, or electrical DC power. However, the most
significant drawback is the lack of long-term performance data from different alternative
system configurations with realistic and well known shadowing under identical oper-
ating conditions. Without such field test data from different sites, it is almost impossible
to make any firm statement on the appropriateness of the different available system
configurations with regard to partial shadowing. This is why at the electrical energy
research group of K.U. Leuven, a grid-connected photovoltaic system was set up in 1999.
The aim was to collect operational experience with the different system approaches under
non-optimum operation conditions like partial shadowing and also to assess the quality of
photovoltaic system.

Page | 14
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIAL & METHODOLOGY

3.1 SOLAR CELL MODELLING

As mentioned in Chapter 1, solar cells have been successfully integrated in power

generation systems. To understand and optimize the performance of a PV system/array,
appropriate model of a solar cell is needed. Complex models provide finer details of the
operation of a solar cell and solar arrays but they come with an increased computational
time and cost. In this chapter, the trade-offs of the model complexity of a solar cell are
discussed and the solar cell model used in the rest of the work is presented.

Output

Voltage

Dc

Power Output
Converter Voltage
Block AC

Solar Array

3-
PhaseOutp
ut Voltage

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of a photovoltaic power system

Page | 15
 Chapter 3
3.1.1 FABRICATION OF SOLAR PANNEL

A solar cell consists of a p-n junction which directly converts the incident solar energy
into electrical energy. This principle of energy conversion is known as Photovoltaic
effect. Figure 3-1 shows the typical structure of a single p-n junction solar cell. When the
solar radiation falls on the p-n junction, the photons get absorbed within the
semiconductor. When the photonic energy is greater than the band gap of the
semiconductor material, it releases an electron from the valence band to the conduction
band and thus creates the electron–hole pair.

The built in electric field at the junction separates the carriers sweeping holes to the p-
side and electrons to the n-side to be majority carriers. This charge separation creates an
electric field which is opposite to the direction of the built-in electric field, thus reducing
the net electric field at the junction. Reduction in electric field causes an increase in
diffusion currents reaching a new equilibrium for the built-in voltage across the p-n
junction. When an external load is connected, it provides a path for the electron flow
developing the required voltage drop across the output terminals.

Figure 3.2: Structure of a p-n junction solar cell

Page | 16
 Chapter 3

3.1.2 I-D SOLAR MODEL

A solar cell consists of a p-n junction which directly converts the incident solar energy
into electrical energy.

22

Fig: 3.3 I-D circuit model of an p-n junction solar cell

The equation that governs the behavior of an ideal 1-D solar cell is given as;

𝐼𝐿 =17 𝐼𝑝ℎ − 𝐼𝑂 [exp ( 𝑞𝑉/ 𝑛𝑉𝑇 )]

Where, 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝐼𝑝ℎ = 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐼𝑂 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝 − 𝑛 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑞 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎d

The photonic current source, Iph, refers to the amount of current produced by the electron
hole pairs generated by the impinging solar radiation. It depends on the incident sunlight
and also the ambient temperature at a given time in a day. A part of photonic current

Page | 17
 Chapter 3

flows through the diode to maintain the required forward bias voltage and the remaining
current IL, flows through the external load resistance, RL.

The performance of a solar cell is determined by the maximum amount of power

delivered to the load. Another performance measure is the efficiency which is given as a
ratio of the output power across load to the incident input power.

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 ∗ 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎k

With, 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.

The photonic current source, Iph, refers to the amount of current produced by the
electron-hole pairs generated by the impinging solar radiation. It depends on the incident
sunlight and also the ambient temperature at a given time in a day. A part of photonic
current flows through the diode to maintain the required forward bias voltage and the
remaining current. IL, flows through the external load resistance, RL. The performance of
a solar cell is determined by the maximum amount of power delivered to the load.
Another performance measure is the efficiency which is given as a ratio of the output
power across load to the incident input power.

Fig 3.4: I-V characteristics of a solar cell with load line.

Page | 18
 Chapter 3
We observe that the output power of the solar cell for a given operating condition peaksat
some point and decreases due to the non-linear nature of the diode in a solar cell. On the
other hand, the output power delivered depends on the load resistance and it is observed
that the maximum power transfer to the load takes place when there is an “impedance”
match between the load resistance and internal resistance of the solar cell. The “internal
resistance” of a solar cell is non-linear in nature. Therefore, maximum power point
trackers (MPPT) are used to extract the peak power out of a solar cell at a given operating
condition. The above basic 1-D model of the solar cell is ideal in nature and does not
account for losses that take place within the solar cell. Additional components must be
added to the intrinsic model which is explained in the following section.

Figure 3.5: Power vs resistance curve of a solar cell

Chapter 3
Page | 19
3.1.3 PARASITIC ELEMENTS IN A SOLAR CELL

The 1-D model is insufficient to accurately predict the behavior of the solar cell and to
determine the peak output power delivered by it especially under partial shade conditions.
Appropriate elements called as the parasitic elements have to be included in the model for
accurate behavioral analysis.

3.1.3.1 SERIES RESISTANCE

Series resistive losses account for a major part of the losses in a solar model. The several
factors which account for the series resistance are;

a). The inherent resistance of the semiconductor to the current flow in the p type and n-
type regions of the solar cell.

b). Contact resistance between the metal contacts and silicon material.

c). Resistance of the top and rear metal contacts. All of these series losses are represented
together by a lumped resistance, 𝑅𝑆, called the series resistance.

3.1.3.1.1 Effect of Series Resistance RS on a single solar cell I-V characteristics

Parametric analysis of series resistance R s for a range of [0.5Ω-0.8Ω] is conducted using

SPICE and the behavior of a solar cell is observed in Figure 3-5. The irradiance level on
the cell is fixed at the maximum point with a photonic current I ph equal to 4.343A. The
effect of is observed at short–circuit conditions where the combined series and load
resistance are in parallel with the diode of a solar cell. As the value of is increased, the
voltage drop across it increases too. This further increases the voltage drop across the
parallel diode as well and the current through it. Since diode has an exponential relation
between current and voltage, a larger portion of the photonic current then flows through
the diode to generate this additional voltage drop. This decreases the output current.

Chapter 3
Thus the current flowing through is not constant and varies with electrical load and

Page | 20
illumination or percentage of shading across the cells.

Fig 3.6 : I-V characteristics of a solar cell with varying series resistance at a fixed
irradiation level.
3.1.3.2 SHUNT RESISTANCE

There are some localized losses observed in the solar model such as;

a) Leakage of current through the cell, around the edges of the device and between
contacts of different polarity.

b) Manufacturing defects.

A resistance in shunt with the diode in the ideal solar cell known as the shunt resistance
𝑅𝑠ℎ, accounts the above losses.

Chapter 3

Page | 21
 Fig 3.7: I-V characteristics of a solar cell with varying shunt resistance at a fixe
irradiation level
3.1.3.3 RECOMBINATION EFFECT
This effect comes into picture at low voltage bias points which explains the nonohmic
current paths in parallel with the intrinsic solar cell by recombining at the space charge
region of solar cell. This can be represented in the model by adding second diode with a
saturation current density, 𝐽02, different from the ideal solar cell diode to account for the
losses at low voltage bias points

3.1.3.4 Non-Idealities in a Solar Cell

Because of the fabrication variations during bulk manufacture, we find very few models
operating with ideal characteristics. In reality, due to the non-idealities present, variations
in the typical ideal characteristics of a solar cell are noticed. To account for this, the
ideality factor of the second diode is set to 2 instead of 1.

Chapter 3

3.1.3.5 Analysis of a 2-D Solar Model

Page | 22
Including all of the above mentioned losses, Figure 2-5 represents the 2-D model of a
solar cell with the electrical parameters: photonic current 𝐼𝑝ℎ, diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2, series
resistance 𝑅𝑠 , and shunt resistance 𝑅𝑠ℎ, attached to the external load resistance 𝑅𝐿 .

Rs

Iph D1 D2 Rsh RL

Fig 3.8 : 2-D equivalent circuit model of a solar cell.

The 2-D model of a solar cell is a preferable choice in terms of accuracy but when many
such single cells are combined together to form a PV array, it increases the overall
computation time of the analysis. After performing some simulations in SPICE, it was
determined that the additional details in the 2-D model do not significantly deviate from

Chapter 3

Page | 23
the I-V characteristics of the 1-D model. Therefore, the 2-D model is reduced to an
equivalent 1-D model as shown in Figure 2-8 and used in the various analyses of the solar
cells and arrays.

3.2 Partial shading of PV module

 MSX 60 PV module has 36 cells in it. To analyze shading effect on a single PV

module, the module is divided into 3 regions (12 cells) and different irradiation
values are applied to each region.
 Fig (a) shows the V-P characteristics of PV module under partial shading of cells.
The output characteristics of PV module under uniform irradiation for standard
test conditions (T=250C and G=1000 W/m2) are also shown in Fig (b).

Page | 24
 Fig 3.9 (a) PV and (b) IV characteristics of pv module under partial shading

3.2.1 Partial Shading of PV String

 The partial shading effect on PV modules in a PV string is analyzed by

performing the simulation for PV string which has 3 series connected PV
modules. Simulation model of PV string is shown in Figure.
 Different irradiation values are applied to each of the modules by maintaining the
temperature value as constant for all the 3 modules.

Chapter 3

Fig 3.10 : PV charastic of pv string under partial shading

Page | 25
 Chapter 3

3.3 SHADING ON A PV PANNEL

PV modules are made of PV cells connected in series and parallel configurations to

generate higher voltages and currents. The manufacturing, material and architectural
constraints limit the number of cells that can be combined in these configurations.
Therefore, PV modules are interconnected to form PV arrays. Figure 3-1 shows a pure
series PV module where, single PV cells are connected back to back forming series
strings and several such strings are connected in series forming PV module.

Page | 26
 Figure 3.11: Series connected PV module.

On the other hand, a pure parallel PV configuration has group of single solar cells tied up

Chapter 3

horizontally and several such strings are connected in parallel forming a parallel PV
module as shown in Figure 3-2. Several such configurations of PV arrays can be operated
in either a grid-connected mode or in a stand-alone mode charging a battery. Researchers
proved that in large scale installations where the panels spread over a vast area covering
up to hundreds of acres, the effect of shading from sources like shade oftress, and
building can be eliminated. Also, the shading effect would be minimal in such situations
with proper alignment of panels such that there is no shadow cast of adjacent panels on
one another. Even in such situations, partial shading effects can be seen due to uneven
collection of dust on the array, passing clouds, etc. But, this work looks into the PV
panels used for residential and commercial usage purposes, where the solar panels are
generally roof mounted and are subject to the varying weather and environmental
conditions. The performance of the solar panel depends on temperature, irradiance of the
sun, topology of solar array in addition to shading across the panel.

Page | 27
 Figure 3.12: Parallel connected PV module.

36
Chapter 3
Shading can occur due to several factors such as passing clouds, dust deposition, shade of
the trees or adjacent buildings, bird droppings, etc. and can be broadly classified into two
types;

a) Uniform Shading.

Page | 28
b) Non- uniform/ Partial Shading.

To better understand the effect of shading, let us consider a PV module with identical
cells connected in series as shown in Figure 3-3. In a series module, the voltage drop
across each individual cell adds up to give the module voltage with the current flow
through all the cells remaining the same irrespective of shaded cells producing reduced
photonic current. Thus the overall module parameters are given as;

𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑐 (3.1)

𝑉𝑚 = ∑Vc Ns c=1

𝐼𝑚 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝐼𝑐 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑉𝑚 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒

Vc = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

Ns = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒s

37
Chapter 3

3.3.1 Uniform Shading

This type of shading occurs during sun set times where there is reduced solar irradiance
on the panel. Figure 3-4 shows the effect of uniform shading on a series string of 4 solar

Page | 29
cells. Under uniform shading condition, all of the cells are exposed to a uniform but
reduced solar irradiance due to which there is a consistent decrease in the photonic
currents in all the cells. Thus there is a uniform reduction in the output voltage and
current of individual cells in the series string. The impact of uniform shading on the solar
panel is minimal, although it comes with a reduced output power.

Figure 3.13: Uniform shading on a series

38

Page | 30
 Chapter 3

3.3.2 Non-Uniform / Partial Shading

Unlike the case of uniform shading, partial shading occurs due to passing clouds, shadow
cast by the adjacent buildings, trees, bird droppings, dust deposition, etc. The effect of
partial shading on few cells is more detrimental to the solar panel operation when
compared to uniform shading case. As a result the operation of the PV systems is
severely affected with deterioration in the array characteristics. Partial shading is a vital
issue because:

a) The shaded cells can get reverse biased and start consuming power instead of
generating power resulting in a loss of total output power .

b) The power losses in the individual shaded cells would result in local heating and
increase the temperature affecting surrounding cells. The increase in temperature creates
thermal stress on the entire module and cause hot spots and local defects which
potentially result in the failure of the entire array .

c) The reverse bias on the solar cell, under extreme cases of shading, might exceed its
breakdown voltage. In such cases, the cell gets fully damaged, develops cracks and an
open circuit can occur at the serial branch where the cell is connected.

A single solar cell operating in isolation when totally shaded may cause significant
reduction in generated power. However the increase of irradiation and shadow rate in
interconnected array of solar cells causes the shaded cell to dissipate power generated by
other cells that would drastically reduce the peak power . Typically PV modules/arrays
comprise of several solar cells that are interconnected in one of the following forms to
attain realizable levels of output voltage and current: purely parallel connection, purely
series connection, parallel-series interconnections . The effects of partial shading on
series connected solar cells, and parallel connected solar cells are presented in the
following sub-sections. The behavior of solar cells under partial shading pattern has been
validated with the SPICE simulation results

39.

Page | 31
 Chapter 3

Fig 3.14 Block diagram of a series architecture subjected to partial shading

Figure represents a parallel PV system where the cells are connected in parallel across the
converter and load. The cells that are shaded are filled with a X mark.

3.4 Characteristics of the PV System under Partial Shading

In any outdoor environment, the whole or some parts of the PV system might be shaded
by trees, passing clouds, high building, etc., which result in non-uniform insolation
conditions as in Figure 3. During partial shading, a fraction of the PV cells which receive
uniform irradiance still operate at the optimum efficiency. Since current flow through
every cell in a series configuration is naturally constant, the shaded cells need to operate
with a reverse bias voltage to provide the same current as the illumined cells [6,24,27,28].
However; the resulting reverse power polarity leads to power consumption and a
reduction in the maximum output power of the partially-shaded PV module. Exposing the
shaded cells to an excessive reverse bias voltage could also cause “hotspots” to appear in
them, and creating an open circuit in the entire PV module. This is often resolved with
the inclusion of a bypass diode to a specific number of cells in the series circuit.

Page | 32
 40
Chapter 3

Fig 3.15. PV system under partially shaded conditions caused by passing clouds.

3.5 Partial Shading and Bypass Diodes

Uniform illumination intensity in a panel is not almost satisfied because of buildings or

trees shades, atmosphere fluctuation, existence of clouds and daily sun angle changes.
Shade impact depends on module type, fill factor, bypass diode placement severity of
shade and string configuration. Power loss occurs from shade, also current mismatch
within a PV string and voltage mismatch between parallel strings. Typically, a crystalline
silicon module will contain bypass diodes to prevent damage from reverse bias on
partially shaded cells. These diodes are placed across 12 - 18 cells in a group of cells. In
Figure 1 is shown a module with 36 cells connected in series like the ones used in this
research, each consisting of 2 groups of 18 cells. Each group of cells is connected to a
bypass diode that begins conducting if shading causes a cell to go far enough into reverse
bias. In this example, shade causes diode D2 to short out its group of cells, reducing
module 1’s voltage by 1/2. The bypass diode across this group of cells will begin
conducting when shading causes a cell to go far enough into reverse bias. The bypass
diode allows current from non-shaded parts of the module to pass by the shaded part and
limits the effect of shading to the only neighboring group of cells protected by the same

Page | 33
 41

Chapter 3

bypass diode. When a bypass diode begins conducting, the module voltage will drop by
an amount corresponding to the sum of cell voltages protected by the same bypass diode
plus the diode forward voltage, but current from surrounding un-shaded groups of cells
continues around the group of shaded cells. The effect of shade on power output of
typical PV installation is nonlinear in that a small amount of shade on a portion of an
array can cause a large reduction in outp

:Activated:·
.:::::::::.::::::::.::::::::::.:.BypassDiode::.

: ::::.j,:.

Fig 3.16 Single module with 36 cells in series.

3.5.1 Effect of bypass diode on PV characteristics

fig depicts n PV modules with their bypass diodes connected in series inside an array. It
is important to note that the characteristics of an array with bypass diodes differ from the
one without these diodes. Since the bypass diodes provide an alternate current path, cells
of a module no longer carry the same current when they are partially shaded. Therefore,
the power-voltage curve develops multiple maxima, . This figure shows how

Page | 34
 43

Chapter 3
the extractable maximum power point differs in PV array with and without bypass
diodes. However, presenting multiple maxima in the P-V characteristic is a crucial issue
and most of the conventional MPPT algorithms may not distinguish between the local
and global maxima.

Fig 3.17 Connection of Bypass Diode across the module.

3.6 spice simulation of a series module under partial shade effect

Figure 3-5 shows a series string subjected to partial shading scenario. It is observed that
there are irregularities in the shading patterns on the cells. Under normal operation of the
solar cell, a portion of the photonic current flows through the diode in the forward bias
mode to generate the voltage drop V c across the output terminals. In Figure 3-5, the
voltage drops across the shaded cells are shown as V/4 and V/6 which depend on the
level of shading on the cell.

Page | 35
43

Chapter 3

I=Ic

V/6

V/4

Vm

Page | 36
 V/6

Figure 3.18: Partial shading on a series module

The remainder of the current Ic will flow out of the terminals of the solar cell to be
delivered to the output load. Shading has been implemented across 4 solar cells in a series
string of 10 cells connected in SPICE analysis. The solar irradiance on the four solar cells
is varied from 0% to 100% in steps of 20%. The results present the conditions where the
load resistance is such that the maximum power is extracted out of the array. As shading
percentage increases, the photonic current generated within the cell reduces.

44

Page | 37
 Chapter 3
This result in a reduced current flowing into the p-n junction diode and the output voltage
generated across the solar cell terminals starts to reduce. At a given operating condition
when the individual cell current is less than the module current, the cell will not be able
to maintain the diode in forward bias mode. Therefore a portion of the module current
flows in the reverse mode through the p-n junction and/or the shunt resistance resulting in
a reverse-biased mode of operation. Under this condition, negative voltages develop
across the shaded cell terminals. Therefore the shaded cells start consuming power
generated by the illuminated cells reducing the overall power generated by the panel. The
deterioration of power from full illumination across all the cells to full illumination
across six cells and 100% shading across the remaining four cells is 99.97% for the given
load. As the load is adjusted the deterioration can be mitigated. The total power loss in
the shaded cell(s) causes an increase in the temperature creating thermal stress on the
entire panel, resulting in hot spots formation and local defects.

3.7 SPICE Simulations of a Parallel Module under Partial Shade Effect

In a parallel module, the voltage drops across the cells remain constant while the current
flowing through them accumulates to give the module current. Figure 3-6 shows a
module of 4 cells connected in parallel.
Im

Vm
1 2 3 4

Page | 38
 Fig 3.19 Partial shading on a parallel module

45

Chapter 3
The module parameters are as follows;

𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 (3.3) 𝐼𝑚 = ∑𝐼𝑐 𝑁𝑝 𝑐=1 (3.4)

Np = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒,
Theoretically, the effect of partial shading on a parallel module is less compared to a
series module, although there is a decrease in the output current of the parallel module.
The SPICE simulation results to study the shading effect on a parallel module. Shading
has been implemented across 4 solar cells out of the 10 cells in a parallel string by using
the DC point analysis in PSPICE. The solar irradiance on the four solar cells is varied
from 0% to 100% in steps of 20% and the changes in the output voltage, output current,
and power have been tabulated.
Under uniform full illumination across each cell, a portion of the photonic current flows
through the diode and maintains the required voltage to produce the output current. All
these individual currents add up to give the final current of the module while voltage
across each cell remains constant. The output power under full illumination is 1.594 W.
A voltage of 0.275 V appears across the cell terminals and a current of 5.77 A flows
through the load resistance.
When the shading on the 4 cells in parallel increase, the amount of voltage at the diode
required in producing the same output current is reduced. But in the case of parallel cells
this effect is very small. This is due to the fact that the other illuminated cells in the

Page | 39
parallel string contribute to some of the lost current of the shaded cell(s) to maintain the
diode in forward bias state. The reduced current results in a smaller output voltage
reduction due to nonlinear (logarithmic) relationship between the current and output
voltage of the solar cells in parallel. Thus the output voltage is still maintained constant
but at a slightly lower value. However the total output current reduces resulting in
reduced output power.Thus we come to a conclusion that the performance of a parallel
PV array is superior to a series PV array under partial shading condition. Many
researchers started outlining the parallel configured solar panels because of the
architectures uniqueness in efficiently delivering the peak power under various shading
scenarios even though with small fluctuations in output voltage. In the preceding section,
the behavior of the parameters of parallel solar cells under partial shading is presented.
46
Chapter
3

3.8 Partial Shading Simulation of a Single Module

In Table 1 are shown the electrical characteristics of the modules used in this research
under standard test conditions (STC) which means the irradiance G = 1000 W/m2,
temperature = 25°C and AM = 1.5. It can be seen that the module consists of two groups
series connected. Each group consists of 18 cells connected in series. A bypass diode is
connected in antiparallel with each group .In Figure 2 is shown the simulation of a single
module based on the single diode model equations implemented in Matlab/Simulink. The
simulation allows to modify the environmental data and the characteristic parameters of
the implemented photovoltaic module such as irradiance, temperature, short circuit
current, open circuit voltage, etc. Three cases has been simulated .The first case is under
STC without shading for Group 1 and Group 2. The simu lation resulting V-I
characteristic (red curve) is shown in Figure 3. The short circuit current is very closed to
8.68 A and the Voc is very closed to 22.1 V. The resulting P-V characteristic (red curve)
is shown for the same case in Figure 3. The maximum power is 140 W which is the
expected value. Vmp is very closed to the value 17.7 V and Imp is very closed to the
value 7.91 A. The second case is simulated for irradiance (G = 1000 W/m2) on Group 1

Page | 40
and shading on Group 2 (G = 500 W/m2) with two bypass diodes connected. In Figure 3
the resulting V-I characteristic is shown (green curve). In Figure 3 the resulting P-V
characteristic (green curve) is shown. As the two groups are not equally illuminated the
power contributed by each group is different and the maximum power is less than 140 W.
The presence of bypass diodes will allow the un-shaded cells in a group to conduct their
maximum current at a given irradiance and temperature (the green curve). Figures 3 and
4 reveal that, under partially shaded conditions, the bypass diodes introduce multiple
steps in the I-V characteristics and multiple peaks in the P-V characteristics.

47

Chapter 3

Table 1. Electrical characteristics data of the Kyocera solar KD140GH-2PU a 25°C,

1.5 AM, 1000 W/m2. (taken from the datasheet).

Maximum Power (Pmax) 140 W

Voltage at Pmax (Vmp) 17.7 V

Current at Pmax (Imp) 7.91 A

Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 22.1 V

hort-circuit current (Isc) 8.68 A

(KI) Temperature coefficient of Isc (0.06)%/K

(KV) Temperature coefficient of Voc –(0.36)% K

Page | 41
NOCT 45°C

Number of cells 36 in series

Number of bypass diodes One per 18 cell

Cells technology Polycrystalline

The third case is as in the second case but with the bypass diodes disconnected. In Figure
3 the resulting V-I characteristic is shown (blue curve). In Figure 4 is shown the resulting
P-V characteristics (blue curve). If the bypass diodes are not present, the shaded group
will limit the current output of the un-shaded group (blue curve). The following two cases
have been simulated to make comparison with the experimental measurements made for
the same conditions. In Figure 5 is shown the resultant I-V characteristic and in Figure 6
is shown the P-V characteristic for irradiance G = 922 W/m2 and T = 61°C without
shading. Voc value is 19.5 V, Isc is 8 A and Pmax is 108 W. In Figure 7 is shown the
resultant I-V characteristic and in Figure 8 is shown the P-V characteristic for ir radiance
G = 926 W/m2 for non-shaded group and G = 193 W/m2 for the shaded one, T = 61°C.
Voc value is 18.9 V, Isc is 8 A and Pmax is 48.4 W.

48

Chapter 3

Page | 42
 Fig 3.20 Simulation of a single module 36 cells with one bypass diode per 18 series
connected cells.

Fig 3.21 simulink subsystem of pv system psrtial shading

49

Page | 43
 chapter 4

RESULT & DISCUSSION

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The partial shading effect on PV modules in a PV string is analyzed by performing the

simulation for PV string which has 3 series connected PV modules. Simulation model of
PV string is shown in Figure . Different irradiation values are applied to each of the
modules by maintaining the temperature value as constant for all the 3 modules. The
irradiation values applied to the modules are G(PV1) = 1000 W/m2, G(PV2) = 600 W/m2
and G(PV3) 750 W/m2. Figure shows the V-P characteristics of PV string under uniform
irradiation and under partial shading conditions. For uniform irradiation of PV string G is
maintained as 1000W/m2 for all modules at the cell temperature of Tc = 25oC. At STC,
the open circuit voltage of MSX 60 PV module is 17.1 V and the maximum power is
60W. The PV string has 3 modules connected in series Therefore, Voc= 17.1 x 3 = 51.3
V and Pmax = 60 x 3 = 180W. The power obtained through simulation is 179.7 W. The
obtained results are well matched with the data sheet information. This confirms the
accuracy of the developed PV module. I-V characteristics of PV string under uniform
irradiation and the under partial shading conditions is shown in Figure . Modeling
simulation and analysis of PV modules under partial shading conditions is presented in
this paper. Development of Photovoltaic module model based on the mathematical
equations using MATLAB/Simulink is explained in detail. Simulation of PV module and
PV string under uniform irradiation and partial shading are carried out for various
conditions. The results obtained from the simulation are presented and discussed. The
simulation results confirm the accuracy of the developed module model and hence, the
model can be used to analyze the characteristics of any PV module, PV string or PV array
under uniform irradiation and partial shading conditions.

Page | 44
 50

Chapter
4

4.1 Simulation of a single module 36 cell without bypass diode

In shaded solar cells that are not protected by bypass diodes, the reverse voltage
developed across them can become very large. Due to these large reverse voltages the
cells dissipate power and develop hot spots. If this issue is not taken care of, the hot spot
problems can destroy the semiconductor structure of the shaded solar cell leading to
failure of the photovoltaic system in the long run. If the bypass diode are not present the
shaded modules will limit the current.

Fig 4.1 simulink model of 36 cell without bypass diode

Page | 45
 51

Ch
apter 4

4.1.1 P-V Graph of without Bypass Diode

The P-V characteristic curve of single module simulated without bypass diode shows that
power and voltage change for G= 922W/m2 and for T= 60°C.

Fig 4.2. P-V characteristics of single module simulated for G = 922 W/m2, T = 61°C.

4.1.2 I-V Graph of without Bypass Diode

The I-V characteristic of the single module series simulated without bypass diode for G =
922 W/m2, T = 61°C shows that when voltage is zero, current high. In this illustration
current and voltage vary and when current decreases, then voltage constant.

Page | 46
Fig 4.3. I-V characteristics of single module simulated for G = 922 W/m2, T = 61°C.

52

Chapter 4

4.2 Simulation of a single module cell with bypass diode

Most commercial PV modules are formed by association of solar cells serially connected
and use to include one or two bypass diodes. Some PV modules are offered without
bypass diodes. This can be understood because in stand-alone applications, where the PV
array is just formed by association of PV modules in parallel, charging a battery of 12 or
24 V, the inclusion of bypass diodes is not necessary at all. On the other hand, in large
PV modules, having for example 72 solar cells in series, some manufacturers include six
bypass diodes, one for each 12 solar cells. The use of bypass diode allow a series of
connected cell or pannel to continue supply power at a reduce voltage rather than no
power at all. It is important to note that the characteristics of an array with bypass diodes
differ from the one without these diodes. Since the bypass diodes provide an alternate
current path, cells of a module no longer carry the same current when theyare partially
shaded. Therefore, the power-voltage curve develops multiple maxima, . This figure
shows how the extractable maximum power point differs in PV array with and without
bypass diodes. The PV array design and the configuration of bypass diodes in the PV
modules forming part of the array has a big influence on the probability and severity of

Page | 47
hot spot apparition in any point of the PV array. The presented model and simulation
procedure can help to a better understanding of the PV module behaviour in function of
the configuration of bypass diodes included in the design. As example of study of bypass
diodes configuration on a PV module, using the above described method, some cases of
study are analysed below in the following section. The PV module chosen for these cases
of study is formed by 36 solar cells, each one of 126.6 cm2 , serially connected, having a
total power of 70 Wp, a short circuit current of 3.8 A and an open circuit voltage of 22.2
V. The temperature used as input parameter is the same for all simulations, T = 60 C, and
the solar cell parameters used in the simulations are the following: –Diode d1: m1 = 1,
Io1 = 1.26 1010 A; diode d2: m2 = 2, Io2 = ! 1.26 107 A, Rs =1mX, Rp =1kX; Bishop’s
term: Vb = 25 V, a = 2 103 and b = 4, and a short circuit current density of: Jsc = 30
mA/cm2 . When some solar cells are covered, at the same time, by more than one bypass
diode we call these cells overlapped solar cell.

53

Cha
pter 4

Page | 48
 Fig 4.4 simulink model of 36 cell without bypass diode

4.2.1 P-V Graph of with Bypass Diode

Figure 4.2 is shown the P-V characteristic of single module series simulated for
irradiance G = 926W/m2 for non-shaded group and G =193 W/m2 for the shaded one, T
= 61°C. Voc value is 18.9 V, Isc is 8 A and Pmax is 48.4 W.

Fig 4.5 P-V characteristics of single module simulated for G = 926 W/m2, G = 193
W/m2, T = 61°C.

54

Ch
apter 4

4.2.2 I-V Graph of with Bypass Diode

Some authors gave the idea that the number of bypass diodes in a PV module should not
be determined by the number of cells in the module, but by the bypassed power capacity
of the cells in the string protected by each bypass diode [16]. This conclusion results as
consequence of the extreme scatter observed on the reverse I–V characteristics of similar
solar cells, even solar cells fabricated in the same batch, where very different breakdown
voltage can be observed. Despite this fact, some guides can be observed to optimize the
number of bypass diodes included in a PV module. Each solar cell has a maximum power
that can be dissipated by the cell without irreversible damage. In reverse bias, the current

Page | 49
across the solar cell does not increase drastically until the breakdown voltage is achieved.
If we fix a safety factor of 80% of the breakdown voltage, Vb, as maximum reverse
voltage supported by a solar cell shaded in a PV module, the power dissipated at the cell
will be below the maximum allowed power.

Fig 4.5 I-V characteristics of single module simulated for G = 926 W/m2, G = 193
W/m2, T = 61°C.

It is seen from the I–V characteristics shown in Fig. 10(a) that the presence of bypass
diodes will allow the unshaded modules of all the series assemblies to conduct their
maximum current at a given insolation and temperature. The I-V characteristic of the
single module series simulated without bypass diode for G = 922 W/m2, T = 61°C shows
that when current is constant , voltage vary.

55

CHAPTER-5

CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE

5.1 Conclusions

The performance of the PV panels under partial shade conditions has been a topic of
considerable interest for the past few years. However, the detailed analysis of parallel
architecture of solar cells under partial shading was not performed in the literature till

Page | 50
date. This thesis demonstrates the unique properties of a parallel architecture as compared
to the existing architectures. The main contributions of this work are:

a) A small signal model is proposed to study the behavior of a parallel module when
subjected to partial shading conditions. The performance of the parallel array to deliver
the maximum output power is analyzed through SPICE simulations. These results are
also validated with the model implemented in MATLAB.

b) A basic dc-dc boost converter circuit is used to evaluate the performance of a parallel
architecture in comparison to series and series-parallel architectures. SPICE simulations
are used to analyze the architectures power conversion efficiency under partial shading
scenario.

The traditional architectures when exposed to extreme shading conditions can develop
hot spots which damage the whole system making it inoperative. On a brief note, when
compared to these existing traditional and most widely used series and series parallel
architecture, the parallel architecture is more advantageous,

a) In delivering the peak output power at a fixed load resistance value.

b) Simplifying the complex MPPT control algorithms.

c) Increasing the longevity resulting in minimal maintenance.

On the other hand, parallel architecture has a predominant limitation of a dc-dc converter
design which is capable of handling low input voltages and delivering higher output
voltages. A basic converter circuit was used in this research to evaluate the performance
of a parallel architecture by comparing with two other standard architectures. Additional
study of the converter circuits that help in effectively implementing the parallel PV
systems in large scale productions will be beneficial.

57

Page | 51
 Chapter
5

5.2 Future Work

The main drawback of implementing parallel architecture is the lack of an efficient dc-dc
converter that can operate with very low input voltages. Another issue will be large
currents that are generated in a parallel architecture. This can result in significant power
losses in the metal interconnect used in the solar panel. With the enhancements coming
from power semiconductor devices and ability to develop efficient micro-converters and
inverters, parallel architectures present a potential alternative for implementing the solar
arrays. To achieve maximum power out of a solar array, the core issue is the impedance
matching between the incremental internal resistance Rpv of solar panel and the input
resistance R in of dc-dc converter. This is easier to accomplish with parallel connected
architectures as shown in this work. Secondly, in case of grid connected parallel PV
systems micro-inverters/converters can be used at module level in a PV panel. The output
from several micro-inverters can be accumulated and fed to the grid. Each micro-inverter
harvests optimum power in normal or partial shaded operations on a small section of the
solar array. This principle can be used to limit the high current issues of the parallel
architecture as the local micro converters/inverters will reduce the resistance of parallel
array’s interconnections.

Page | 52
 57

REFERENCES

[1] R. M. Sullivan, “Shadow effects on a series-parallel array of solar cells,” NASA

Goddard Space Flight Center Technical Report, NASA-TM-X-55269, 1965.

[2] Abete, A., Barbisio, E., Cane, F., 1989. A study of shading effects in photovoltaic
generators. In: Proceedings of the 9th EC PV Solar Energy Conference, Freiburg, pp.
240–244.

[3]Kovach, A.M., 1995. Effect of Partial Shading on the Energy Performance of

Photovoltaic Arrays Integrated onto Buildings. VDI-Verlag, Dusseldorf¨.

[4] V.Quaschning and R.Hanitsch, “Numerical simulation of current–voltage

characteristics of photovoltaic systems with shaded solar cells,” Solar Energy, vol. 56,
no. 6, pp. 513–520, Feb. 1996.

[5] S. Bowden and A. Rohatgi, "Rapid and accurate determination of series resistance
and fill factor losses in industrial silicon solar cells," in 17th European Photovoltaic Solar
Energy Conference and Exhibition, Munich, Germany, October 2001.

[6] T. Shimizu, M. Hirakata, T. Kamezawa, and H. Watanabe, “Generation control circuit

for photovoltaic modules,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 293–300,
May 2001.

[8] Luis Castafier and Santiago Silvestre, Modelling Photovoltaic Systems using PSpice,
1st edition, Wiley, Chichester, England, 2002.

Page | 53
[9] M. G. Simoes and N. Franceschetti, "Fuzzy optimization based control of a solar
array system," in IEE-Proceedings, Electric Power Applications, vol.146, no. 5, pp. 552-
558, August 2002.

[10] A. Woyte, J. Nijs and R. Belmans, “Partial shading of photovoltaic arrays with
different system configurations : literature review and field test results,” Solar Energy,
Vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 217-233, March 2003.

58

[11] H. Kawamura, K. Naka, N. Yonekura, S. Yamanaka, H. Kawamura,H. Ohno, and

K. Naito, “Simulation of I–V characteristics of a PV module with shaded PV cells,” Solar
Energy Mater. Solar Cells, vol. 75, no. 3/4, pp. 613–621, Feb. 2003.

[12] A. Kajihara and T. Harakawa, “Model of Photovoltaic Cell Circuits under Partial
Shading,” IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology, Hong Kong, 14-17
December 2005, pp. 886-870.

[13] F. M. González-Longatt, "Model of photovoltaic module in Matlab," 2Do Congreso

Iberoamericano de Estudiantes de Ingeniería Eléctrica Electrónica Computación,
CIBELEC, pp. 1-5, 2005.

[14]M. C. Alonso-Gracia, J. M. Ruiz, and F. Chenlo, “Experimental study of mismatch

and shading effects in the,” Solar Energy Mater. Solar Cells,vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 329–340,
Feb. 2006.

[15]M. Alonso-Garcia and J. Ruiz, "Analysis and modelling the reverse characteristic of
photovoltaic cells," Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells , Vol. 90, no. 7-8, pp.1105-
1120, May 2006.

[16] C.Pica, R.Bojoi, G.Griva, A.Tenconi, “Series-connected DC-DC power converters

for low-voltage DC sources in distributed generation”, 9 th International Conference on
Electrical Power Quality and Utilization, pp. 1-6, October 2007.

Page | 54
[17] R. Ramaprabha and B. I. Mathur, “Impact of partial Shading on Solar pv Module
Containing Series Connected Cells,” International Journal of Recent Trends in
Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 7, 2007, pp. 56-60.

[18] D. Sera and Y. Baghzouz, “On the Impact of Partial Shading on PV Output Power,”
WSEAS/IASME International Conference on Renewable Energy Sources, 2008.

[19] S. Silvestre and A. Chouder, "Effects of shading on photovoltaic module

performance," Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, no. 16, p.141–149,
2008.

59

[20] H. Patel and V. Agarwal, “Matlab-Based Modelling to Study the Effects of Partial
Shading on pv Array Characteristics,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol.23,
No. 1, 2008, pp. 302-310.

[21] C. Deline, “Partially Shaded Operation of a Grid-Tied pv System,” 34th IEEE

Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Philadelphia, 7-12 June 2009.

[22] S. Krishnamurthy, “Solar and fuel cell circuit modeling, analysis and integration
with power conversion circuits for distributed generation” M.S. thesis, Department of
Electrical and Computer. Science and Engineering, University of. Central Florida, 2009.

[23] Y. J. Wang and P. C. Hsu, “Analysis of partially shaded PV modules using

piecewise linear parallel branches model,” World Academy of Science, Engineering and
Technology, pp. 783 789, 2009.

[24] D. Picault, B. Raison, S. Bacha, J. D. Casa and J. Aguilera, “Photovoltaic array

interconnections to reduce mismatch losses: a case study”, International Conference. On
Environment and Electrical Engineering, pp. 37-40, Prague, 2010.

[25] E. Diaz-Dorado, A. Suarez-Garcia, C. Carrillo and J. Cidras,“Influence of the

Shadows in Photovoltaic Systems with Different Configurations of Bypass Diodes,” 2010

Page | 55
International Symposium on Power Electronics Electrical Drives Automation and Motion
(SPEEDAM), Pisa, 14-16 June 2010, pp. 134-139.

[26] M. S. Ngan and C. W. Tan, “Multiple Peak Tracking Algorithm Using Particle
Swarm Optimization Incorporated with Artificial Neural Network,” World Academy of
Science, Engineering and Technology, 2011, pp. 379-385.

[27] P. O. Singh, “Modeling of photovoltaic arrays under shading patterns with

reconfigurable switching and bypass diodes” M.S. thesis, Department of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Toledo, 2011.

60

Page | 56
Page | 57