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Gandhi and the
Psychology
of Nonviolence,
Volume 1
Scientific Roots and Development
V. K. Kool · Rita Agrawal
 Gandhi and the Psychology of Nonviolence,
Volume 1

“Vinod Kool has once again provided us with groundbreaking new understand-
ings of sides of nonviolence in the Gandhian tradition few have paid attention to.
These two volumes cover an impressive wide range of topics and each of them
combines thorough studies of the sources with recent scientific discoveries in psy-
chology and medicine.
Both volumes of Gandhi and the Psychology of Nonviolence must be obligatory
reading for anyone who wants to understand how the Gandhian “experiments
with Truth” have developed into the most important force in societal conflicts
globally. All engaged citizens, activists, politicians, researchers, and students should
include these books in their curriculum.
Kool and Agrawal provide food for thought on most of the important questions
humanity is facing today, including the 2020 pandemic.
Reserve space in your book shelves for these books. When you have read them
you will achieve a more nuanced view on Gandhi and nonviolence than you can
imagine.”
—Jørgen Johansen, Deputy Editor, Journal of Resistance Studies, Sweden

“Those of us in peace psychology take pride in how our field covers almost all
approaches in psychology. In these two volumes, this is done with a focus on
Gandhian psychology. The wide range and depth of coverage offers a must read for
everyone who wants to be familiar with Gandhi or who wants to be well-versed in
peace psychology.”
—Rachel MacNair, Director of the Institute for Integrated Social Analysis
for Consistent Life, USA, President of the American Psychological
Association’s Division of Peace Psychology (2013), and author of Religions
and Nonviolence: The Rise of Effective Advocacy for Peace (2015)
 V. K. Kool • Rita Agrawal

Gandhi and the

Psychology of
Nonviolence,
Volume 1
Scientific Roots and Development
V. K. Kool Rita Agrawal
SUNY Polytechnic Institute Harish Chandra Postgraduate College
Utica, NY, USA Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

ISBN 978-3-030-56864-1    ISBN 978-3-030-56865-8 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56865-8

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
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 Preface

While the life and work of Gandhi impressed people ranging from scholars
like Albert Einstein to common human beings around the globe, films
such as Attenborough’s Oscar Award winning film, Gandhi, or veteran
Bollywood film producer Shyam Benegal’s The Making of Mahatma, visu-
ally recreated history to show that Gandhi taught us that there are no
limits to our capacities. On November 28, 1982, the New York Times, in
its review of Attenborough’s film, reported that it had been successful,
helping us to realize what to make of ourselves and to make others feel as
being a “long-lost friend.” Gandhi’s life and work must be understood in
terms of an indivisible whole, as Eswaran puts it, because it is not easy to
understand this super human being if we, simply and unnecessarily, focus
on some isolated event of his life. Fortunately, through our meetings with
Gandhi’s grandchildren and activists in India, now in their 80s or even
above, we were fortunate enough to be party to some of the intimate
moments that he spent with his family members and direct narrations of
events which revealed Gandhi’s philosophy and way of life. Additionally, it
brought us closer to the scenes captured for posterity by the celluloid
world and to the time frame of the yesteryears, helping us to experience it
with unbelievable reality.
Our contentions are that great human beings do not become par excel-
lence overnight. They learn from experiences as they navigate through
their lives, experimenting with and learning from the new challenges
thrown up at them, leading to both upward and downward spirals of
development. Sooner or later, some might even reach sainthood, bestowed
on them formally or not, unlike the clergy who are mostly confined to the

v
vi PREFACE

technical interpretations, traditionally stipulated, and who are supposed to

lead a socially desirable and prescribed life. Saints, in contrast, have been
known for their heroic efforts for and becoming catalysts of change in the
community. From the perspective of psychology, it would not be wrong to
profess that Gandhi displayed several qualities worthy of a saint. In fact,
according to Harvard University scholar Kolhberg, Gandhi had attained
the highest stage of moral development, namely, that of post-conventional
growth. Additionally, the people of India address him as Mahatma (the
great soul) and have declared him the Father of the nation.
Overall, an effort has been made in this manuscript to describe and
analyze the extent to which Gandhi helped us to not only realize our
potential but also to delineate what he had to offer to modern psychol-
ogy—the science of human behavior. Even more specifically, an attempt
has been made to demonstrate the ways in which many concepts of psy-
chology could be better understood with exemplification from his life
and work.
At the outset, our interest in tracing the applications of psychology to
the life and work of Gandhi was rooted in the findings of experiments
conducted by Professor Stanley Milgram, reported in almost every text-
book of psychology. While Milgram analyzed the obedient behavior of his
participating subjects in continuing to deliver electric shocks to the erring
learner, he completely ignored those who simply walked away from his
experiments at its inception or quit soon after. Why were they disobeying
the instructions of the experimenter, delivered in the context of promot-
ing knowledge in the prestigious setting of a laboratory at Yale University?
While Milgram’s quest was genuinely scientific, we wondered what Gandhi
could offer regarding our understanding of these subjects who disobeyed
and defied Milgram (Kool 2008, 2013; Kool and Agrawal 2013), in the
light of the fact that Gandhi taught millions of people around the globe
how to draw a fine line in choosing between when to obey or when not to
obey. In fact, scholars like Gene Sharp at Harvard University, Kenneth
Boulding known as half Mahatma Gandhi and half Milton Friedman,
Galtung as peace maker and many more spent almost their entire career in
seeking and applying the lessons learned from Gandhi’s quest for obey-
ing—and yet not obeying—behavior during his sustained effort to bring
home the elusive freedom for India or to seek justice in South Africa. The
key element in understanding this ability to obey or not is rooted in our
capacity to apply self-control, known as Satyagraha at the mass level.
 PREFACE vii

However, as far as modern psychology is concerned, it has remained a

relatively poorly studied concept.
Considerable has been written about the life and work of Gandhi,
encompassing as it does, almost 5000 books. Yet, after our survey of litera-
ture, we were disappointed to find that the psychological underpinnings of
his behavior have been viewed only scantily. No doubt that scholars such
as Gregg, Eswaran, Weber, Fischer and many others had analyzed Gandhi’s
life and work, but it was Erikson (1969), in his Pulitzer award winning
book Gandhi’s Truth, who first sought to aim directly at Gandhi’s identity
using a psychoanalytic framework. Ever since the publication of this book
about five decades ago, not much has been done to highlight the life and
behavior of Gandhi in developing the sub-field of psychology of nonvio-
lence, per se, or to augment our understanding of behaviors in the domains
of work, industry, education, human evolution and cognition, religion
and other areas using Gandhian ideas (Kool and Agrawal 2018).
Murray and coworkers (2014) were disappointed that while psychology
has paid considerable attention to the study of human aggression, little has
been done as far as exploring the psychology of nonviolence is concerned.
Both the American Psychological Association and the American
Psychological Society have been encouraging research in promoting this
positive feature of human behavior, but its history has been relatively very
short. When we looked at a recent book on 100 years of psychology in
India (Bhushan 2017), we noticed that even in the home country of
Gandhi, namely, India, research on Gandhi has been scant, both in quan-
tity and quality.
“While little has been written about Gandhi’s relevance to psychology
as an academic discipline,” wrote chancellor Rao of India’s GITAM
University, “there is an increasing awareness of the Gandhian model of
conflict resolution and its relevance. A recent issue of Gandhi Marg,
(2013) is devoted to highlight the psychological aspects of Gandhi’s
thought and practices” (p. 239). We are happy to inform the readers that
both of us contributed articles to this special issue of Gandhi Marg (Kool
and Agrawal 2013), and Kool was given the responsibility to be the Guest
Editor. Additionally, through her base in Varanasi, India, it was possible
for Rita Agrawal to keep contacting the members of Gandhi family and
fellow freedom fighters, with perseverance and diligence, to craft the psy-
chological inputs that were necessary in preparing the range and scope of
our project, consisting of two volumes. Together, we agreed and felt that
viii PREFACE

there was a need to prepare a book on the theoretical and applied aspects
of psychological significance with the life and work of Gandhi as the base.
Earlier, sensing such a lack of interest and research on Gandhi in par-
ticular and psychology of nonviolence in general, Kenneth Boulding, in
his keynote address at a conference on nonviolence at SUNY Institute of
Technology in 1992, had invited psychologists to do more and to engage
in publications. In addition to preparing this manuscript as a tribute to
Gandhi around his 150th birth anniversary, the present book also honors
Professor Boulding for his constant encouragement and extremely cogent
suggestions, helping us in reaching this stage of our work.
This book is developed on the central theme of Gandhi as a practical
psychologist, in spite of the fact that he was a barrister by profession and
had no credentials as a psychologist. The turning point in such an argu-
ment is based on a very succinct comment by Stricker (2000) that was
published in the American Psychologist, an official journal of the American
Psychological Association. Stricker wrote that Gandhi’s approach would
be helpful in understanding the controversial Boulder practitioner model
that required each clinical psychologist to be placed in a psychiatric center
for training to help him/her better understand the organic nature of dis-
eases. Further, when unarguably the most popular psychologist, Skinner,
mentioned Gandhi in the context of his reinforcement theory in his classic
article, “Whatever happened to the science of behavior,” published in the
American Psychologist in 1987, we felt that it had become imperative to
focus on the life and work of Gandhi and what it has to offer to modern
psychology.
Further and very importantly, we also believe that in line with our
understanding of two evolutions—biological and technological, Gandhi’s
life and work offers psychological underpinnings that fan across several
sciences in a most formidable manner.
For Gandhi, material worth was minimal, which, in turn, under cuts
both technological and biological evolutions. While Gandhi was not
against the development and use of technology, he cautioned against its
phenomenal growth and harmful impact. He also defied the basic tenets
of biological evolution rooted in the survival of the fittest and the selfish
nature of genes. With no bank balance for himself and his children and no
animosity even toward his adversary, he defied the tenets so typical of both
technological and biological forces that guide our behavior. Gandhi
offered a third evolution, namely, a cognitive evolution, which was not
solely rooted in the survival of mere organic material but which guides
 PREFACE ix

human behavior, instinctively, or in its absence, in conjunction with an

external prosthesis composed of artificial intelligence, gifted to us through
technological sources. He sought to disentangle human cognition and to
understand its role in seeking one’s identity, first, in the context of our
coexistence with the conglomeration of machines around us, including
our own body (which according to him was also a machine), and, second,
with the all-encompassing elements of nature surrounding us. He never
denied the existence of the myriad inherent ways in which we automati-
cally learn to satiate our needs. Yet, at the same time, he was also aware of
the perils such behavior creates for the existence of others, and cautioned
us not to overstretch ourselves in our use of technology.
Standing at the cross road, between our god-gifted biological heritage
and the man-made artifacts, is the youth of our time who is searching for
his or her identity, often displaced by its own personal narcissism. We
believe that while expanding the range of human cognition and depressing
or mending biological and technological forces surrounding human
beings, Gandhi, definitely, championed the cognitive revolution which
was established by the likes of luminaries such as Bruner, Miller and others
in changing the course of modern psychology and navigating it away from
the classic behaviorism that dominated most parts of the twentieth cen-
tury. Gandhi was relevant, then, and, is more so now, as we continue to
face the impact of the technological evolution vis-a-vis the biological evo-
lution that would challenge, and possibly reshape, our cognition to create
new realities with the advent of robots and spiritual machines around us
(we ask the reader to also refer to our book, Psychology of Technology by
Kool and Agrawal 2016).
Through this book, we seek to present to you a road map of psychology
that is based on psychology of nonviolence, in general, and Gandhi, in
particular. For scholars such as UC Berkeley professor, Nagler (1990), the
science of nonviolence has laws tougher than those of physics. For Gandhi,
his experiments with life were exercises in searching for the truth, which is
also the creed of a science. While basic sciences and technology focus on
some objectively demonstrated existence of material, for Gandhi the
understanding of human cognition, or the lack of such understanding, is
the ultimate goal for defining our survival. It invites us to evaluate what we
have been doing so far and to envision the course of civilization that
would, in conjunction with advances in both biological and technological
domains, need an “applied psychologist” like Gandhi, to whom distin-
guished psychologists like Skinner or Bandura were looking for support,
x PREFACE

as an exemplar, in understanding and explaining human behavior as well

as its management.
Our contention has been further reinforced by recent research and
comments of two leading psychologists, Robert Sternberg (2019) and
Howard Gardner (2018), both of whom are well known for their land-
mark work on human intelligence. They are of the firm belief that the
concept of intelligence, though important, is not sufficient for providing
solutions to problems of the twenty-first century and that psychology
would do well to look beyond. One such concept is wisdom, about which,
Sternberg and Gardner are of the view that psychology could learn much
from the life and work of Gandhi.
This book is a humble tribute to one of the wisest human beings of the
twentieth century, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who helped us to
understand our psychological strength in the context of our positive com-
munal relationships, and we appreciate the support of his grandchildren
and fellow coworkers who provided us material for this manuscript and
virtually, more than a film, placed us in a slice of time, enabling us to expe-
rience Gandhi in a manner, so lively, as we had neither known nor
imagined.
We would like to thank Gandhi’s family, including his grandchildren
whose interviews are narrated in Chap. 3, Volume 1 of this book: Ms.
Sumitra Kulkarni at Bangalore; Ms. Usha Gokani at Mani Bhavan,
Mumbai; and Nilam Parikh at Navsari. We are grateful to everyone who
provided valuable information to us during our meetings and specially to
Gandhi’s close coworker Justice Chandrashekhar Dharmadhikari at
Mumbai; Ms. Niranjana Kalarthi at Bardoli; Mr. Bhawani Patnaik, MP,
recipient of Padma Shree national award and nonviolent freedom fighter
of Gandhi era, at Bhubaneswar; veteran Gandhi scholar Nagin Das
Sanghavi; Chancellor Ela Bhatt of Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad
(founded by Gandhi); and Ms. Radha Bhatt for providing information on
Sarala Behn (original name Catherine Mary Heilemann), daughter of a
British Army officer, and who worked closely with Gandhi and settled in
India after his death. We are grateful to Dr. Pragna of Bardoli and
Professors Lodhi and Herbert Blumberg for their support.
Professor Kool also acknowledges and thanks the Fulbright program
for awarding him Fulbright Specialist status (2011–2015) and grants to
visit India; the American Psychological Association for providing financial
support by selecting this book proposal in a global competition (2015);
and to Andrew Russell, Dean of School of Arts and Sciences, SUNY
 PREFACE xi

Polytechnic Institute for the travel grant to interview Gandhi’s relatives

and coworkers. Last, but not the least, we would like to acknowledge the
continuous support of our families, especially our spouses (Aditi Kool,
wife of V. K. Kool and Rai Anil Kumar, husband of Rita Agrawal) for bear-
ing with us throughout this project.
While we were aiming to write only one volume, experts and our pub-
lisher suggested that we prepare the manuscript in two volumes. As a
result, our work stretched to more than what we had targeted for.
However, with the continuous and enthusiastic support from our pub-
lisher, and particularly from Madison Allums, Beth Farrow, Tikoji Rao and
the entire publication team, the process of publication became somewhat
smoother than we had projected. We are grateful to them for all their help.

Los Angeles, CA V. K. Kool

Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh  Rita Agrawal

References

Bhushan, B. (Ed.) (2017). Eminent psychologists of India: 100 years of psy-

chology in India. New Delhi: Sage.
Erikson, E. (1969). Gandhi’s Truth. New York: Norton.
Gardner, H. (2018). Interview with Harvard Gazette, May, 9th. www.
news.harvard.edu.
Kool, V. K. (2008). The psychology of nonviolence and aggression. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Kool, V. K. (2013). Applications of Gandhian concepts in psychology and
allied disciplines. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55, 235‑238.
Kool, V. K., & Agrawal, R. (2013). Whither Skinner’s science of behavior,
his assessment of Gandhi, and its aftermath? Gandhi Marg, 35, 487‑518.
Kool, V. K., & Agrawal, R. (2016). Psychology of Technology.
Switzerland: Springer.
Kool, V. K., & Agrawal, R. (2018). Gandhian philosophy for living in the
modern world: lessons from the psychology of satyagraha. In S. Fernando
& R. Moodley (Eds.), Global Psychologies: Mental health and the global
South. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Murray, H., Lyubansky, M., Miller, K., & Ortega, L. (2014). Toward a
psychology of nonviolence. In E. Mustakova-Possardt, m. Lyubanski,
xii PREFACE

et al, (Eds.), Toward socially responsible psychology for a global era,

151‑182. New York: Springer.
Nagler, M. N. (1990). Nonviolence as New Science. In V. K. Kool (Ed).
Perspectives on nonviolence. New York: Springer Verlag. 131‑139.
Rao, K. R. (2017). Foundations of yoga psychology. Singapore: Springer.
Skinner, B. F. (1987). Whatever happened to psychology as the science of
behavior? American Psychologist, 4, 780–786.
Sternberg, R. J., Nusbaum, H. C. & Gluck, J. (2019). Applying wisdom to
contemporary problems. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Stricker, G. (2000). The scientist practitioner model: Gandhi was right
again. American Psychologist, 55, 254.
 Contents

1 The Beginning: From Resisting Violence to Promoting

Nonviolence  1
Milgram’s Obedience to Authority Experiments   2
Recent Replications of Milgram’s Experiments   8
Disobedience to Authority  10
Personality Characteristics of the Disobedient, Nonviolent
Individual and the NVT  12
The Roots of Psychology of Nonviolence  15
Contributions of Other Social Scientists to the Science of
Nonviolence  20
Gene Sharp  20
Johan Galtung  22
Kenneth Boulding  23
Milgram’s Experiments, Disobedience and Gandhi  25
References  28

2 The Disobedient Gandhi 33

The Turning Point  35
The People Who Influenced Gandhi  35
Gandhi’s Parents  36
Leo Tolstoy  37
Raychand  40
John Ruskin  41
Henry David Thoreau  42
Gandhi and Religion  44

xiii
xiv Contents

The Length and Breadth of Gandhi’s Influence  46

David Cortright  47
Martin Luther King Jr.  49
Nelson Mandela  50
The Burma Gandhi: Aung San Suu Kyi  51
The Frontier Gandhi: Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan  53
Protesters from Around the World  55
References  59

3 Interviews with Survivors from the Gandhi Era 61

Interviews with Survivors from the Gandhi Era  62
Sumitra Kulkarni  64
Niranjana Kalarthi  67
Ela Ramesh Bhatt  71
Nilam Parikh  73
Bhawani Charan Patnaik  75
Justice Chandrashekhar Dharmadhikari  77
Nagin Das Sanghavi  79
Usha Gokani  82
Radha Bhatt  84
Conclusions  87
References  91

4 The Building Blocks of Gandhi’s Nonviolence 93

Gandhi’s Truth  95
Gandhi and the Relationship Between Means and Ends  96
Gandhi’s Ahimsa or Nonviolence  97
Cultivating Ahimsa 102
Tapasya 102
Vows 105
Attributes of the Nonviolent Individual 109
Anasakti and Aparigriha 111
Sarvodaya and Antodaya 112
The Dynamics of Nonviolence: A Moral Jiu-Jitsu 113
Satyagraha and Duragraha 115
Constructive Program 118
References 121
 Contents  xv

5 The Evolution of Nonviolence and Its Neurological Basis125

Cooperation Among Animals 127
Empathy: Its Evolutionary Roots 134
Genetic Underpinnings of Empathy 135
Altruistic Cooperation, Altruistic Punishment and Its Neural
Basis 135
Gandhi and Empathy 137
The Neurophysiological Basis of Empathy: The Role of Oxytocin 138
Oxytocin and Sociability 139
Techniques for Measuring the Effects of Oxytocin 142
The Neuroanatomical Basis of Empathy: The Role of Mirror
Neurons 145
The Social Brain and the Social Brain Hypothesis 148
Adversarialism-Mutualism and the Social Brain 153
The Scientific Basis of Gandhian Nonviolence: Some Conclusions 154
References 158

6 Measurement of Nonviolence167
The Construct of Nonviolence: Its Meaning and Definition 170
On Measuring Nonviolence 172
The Pacifism Scale (Elliott 1980) 174
The Nonviolence Test—NVT (Kool and Sen 1984) 175
The Teenage Nonviolence Test (Mayton et al. 1998) 180
Other Scales of Nonviolence and Related Concepts 183
Appendix: The NVT with Scoring Key 184
References 191

7 The Psychology of Nonviolence: Models and Their

Validation195
Need for a Comprehensive Model of Nonviolence 196
The Beginnings of Psychology of Nonviolence 198
Scientific Research on Attributes of Nonviolence 199
Love, Compassion and Nonviolence 199
Compassionate Love 202
Justice, Morality and Nonviolence 203
Justice and Care: The Nonviolent Approach 207
Self-Control and Nonviolence 210
xvi Contents

Areas of Self-Control 213
The Dynamics of Self-Control 213
Ego Depletion and Training 216
Ego Depletion and Shifting Priorities 217
The Neurological Basis of Self-Control 218
Self-Control and Self-Restraint by Gandhi 223
Tapasya, Self-Sacrifice and Nonviolence 225
The Evolutionary and Psychological Basis of Self-­Sacrifice 227
Measuring Self-Sacrifice 228
The Dynamics of Self-Sacrifice: The 3 N Theory 228
Identity Fusion and Its Role in Producing Self-Sacrifice 230
Self-Sacrifice as Counterfinality of Means 232
The Role of the Leader in Self-Sacrifice 233
Self-Control and Self-Restraint by Gandhi 234
Power and Nonviolence 235
Kenneth Boulding 237
Rollo May 238
Gene Sharp 239
Models of Nonviolence 241
The 4 P Theory (Summy 2009) 241
The Diamond Model of Nonviolence (Mayton 2014) 244
Three-Dimensional Model of Nonviolence (Kool 1993) 247
References 253

8 Cognition of Nonviolence265
The Psychology of Human Cognition 266
Prospect Theory 267
Framing 268
Framing Nonviolence 268
Framing and Psychological Numbing 270
Two Systems of Thinking: System I and System II 271
System I/System II and Nonviolence 271
System I/System II and Disobedience 272
Schemas and Scripts 273
Schemas, Scripts and Gandhi 274
Priming 277
Priming Nonviolence 278
 Contents  xvii

Nudges and Nudging 281

How Does a Nudge Work?  282
Nudges and Gandhi 284
Boosts 285
Social Identity Theory (SIT) 287
Functions of Social Identity 288
Social Identity and Framing 289
Social Identity and Social Categorization 291
SIT and Nonviolent Cultures 292
SIT and Gandhi 292
References 297

9 Epilogue: Summing Up on the Science of Gandhi’s

Psychology of Nonviolence303
Milgram and Gandhi: Obedience Versus Disobedience 304
The Neural Basis of Nonviolence 306
The Building Blocks of Nonviolence 310
The Science of Gandhi’s Nonviolence: A Vision for the Future 317
References 320

Author Index323

Subject Index331
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Graph showing obedience levels in variations of Milgram’s study 5

Fig. 2.1 Influences on Gandhi and Gandhian nonviolence 46
Fig. 4.1 How vows guard us against temptation 108
Fig. 6.1 Overlapping area between violence and nonviolence 170
Fig. 7.1 The 4 P Theory (Summy 2009) 242
Fig. 7.2 A simplified figure of the diamond model of nonviolence (based
on Mayton 2014) 245
Fig. 7.3 A three-dimensional model of nonviolence (Kool 1993) 248
Fig. 7.4 Aggression levels of nonviolent and violent subjects 250
Fig. 7.5 The three-dimensional model in terms of
obedience/disobedience251
Fig. 8.1 Process and content in two cognitive systems (Adapted from
Kahneman 2003) 272
Fig. 8.2 Difference between a nudge and a boost 285
Fig. 9.1 A protester from Tunisia at Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in the
year 2012 309

xix
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Percentage of subjects who delivered shocks of varying levels 4

Table 7.1 Stages of moral development according to Kohlberg (1976) 205
Table 8.1 Differences between nudge and boost (based on Hertwig and
Grüne-­Yanoff 2017) 286

xxi
 List of Boxes

Box 1.1 An Example from Prospect Theory 6

Box 1.2 Thoughts of a Protester 11
Box 2.1 Thoreau (1854), On the Duty of Civil Disobedience42
Box 4.1 Gandhi: A Law Student in England 99
Box 5.1 How Animals Engage in Cooperative Behavior 128
Box 5.2 The Biochemistry of Love: An Oxytocin Hypothesis 141
Box 5.3 The Trust Game 143
Box 5.4 Mirror Neurons: Understanding the Emotions and Actions of
Others145
Box 5.5 Welcome to Your Social Brain 148
Box 6.1 Attributions Made by High and Low Scorers on the NVT 178
Box 7.1 The Case of Heinz 204
Box 7.2 The Stanford Marshmallow Experiments 211
Box 7.3 Neurosocial Psychology of Nonviolence as a Correlate of
Self-Regulation and Self-Control 220
Box 7.4 On Boulding and the Three Faces of Power 237
Box 8.1 Aim for the fly 283

xxiii
 CHAPTER 1

The Beginning: From Resisting Violence

to Promoting Nonviolence

Opening Vignette
Can you believe that the following happened when a participant in
an experiment was asked to deliver electric shocks to another human
being? They agreed and continued to administer shocks, that too, at
dangerous levels. For details, please continue to read below.

75 volts Ugh!
90 volts Ugh!
105 volts Ugh! (louder)
150 volts Ugh!!! Experimenter! That’s all. Get me out of here. I
told you I had heart trouble. My heart’s starting to
bother me now. Get me out of here, please. My heart’s
starting to bother me. I refuse to go on. Let me out.
210 volts Ugh! Experimenter! Get me out of here. I’ve had
enough. I won’t be in the experiment any more.
270 volts (Agonized scream) Let me out of here. Let me out of
here. Let me out of here. Let me out of here. Do you
hear? Let me out of here.

(continued)

© The Author(s) 2020 1

V. K. Kool, R. Agrawal, Gandhi and the Psychology of Nonviolence,
Volume 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56865-8_1
2 V. K. KOOL AND R. AGRAWAL

(continued)
300 volts (Agonized scream) I absolutely refuse to answer any
more. Get me out of here. You can’t hold me here. Get
me out. Get me out of here.
315 volts (Intensely agonized scream) I told you I refuse to
answer. I’m no longer part of this experiment.
330 volts (Intense and prolonged agonized scream) Let me out of
here. Let me out of here. My heart’s bothering me. Let
me out. I tell you (hysterically). Let me out of here. Let
me out of here. You have no right to hold me here. Let
me out! Let me out! Let me out! Let me out!

(Abridged from Obedience to Authority by Stanley Milgram.

New York: Harper & Row, 1974, pp. 56–57.)

Most of us have often wondered what caused people, who are normally
morally correct, to follow the extreme orders delivered during the
Holocaust. Why is it that these soldiers from the German army were ready
to incinerate thousands of innocent Jews and that too, not only adult
males but also women and children? Did they show this compliance will-
ingly? Did they not face conflicts while obeying such shocking orders from
the Fuhrer?

Milgram’s Obedience to Authority Experiments

In the early 1960s, a University of Yale professor of psychology started
thinking deeply about questions such as the above. That professor was
none other than Stanley Milgram, whose classic experiments on what has
come to be known as the obedience to authority experiments “remain one
of the most inspired contributions to the field of social psychology”
(Russell 2011) and through which he attempted to find out what happens
when one faces a conflict between personal values and demands to be
obedient and why is it that people are ready to inflict pain to strangers. So
great can be said to be the impact of these studies that it has been written
that “few psychological studies can claim a legacy as imposing as the
obedience studies of Milgram. Their impact was of notable consequence
 1 THE BEGINNING: FROM RESISTING VIOLENCE TO PROMOTING… 3

in the separate spheres of research ethics, research design and theory in

psychology and they changed the ways in which psychologists conceptual-
ize and conduct their research” (Benjamin and Simpson 2009). They also
became one of the most controversial experiments and one of the most
talked of experiments in the field of social psychology. Or, as Lee Ross
(1988, cf. Myers 1999) puts it, “they have become part of our society’s
shared intellectual legacy.”
What was the experiment devised by Milgram (1974)? Creative artist
that he was, Milgram devised an extremely ingenious situation which he
presented to a group of 110 psychiatrists, college students and middle
class adults. The situation was as follows: two men walk into the psychol-
ogy laboratory where Milgram stands stern and forbearing, explaining to
them that he is undertaking an experiment on the effects of punishment
on learning. The two men draw lots, and one (who is a confederate of the
experimenter) pretends that his slip says “learner” and is taken into the
adjoining room. The other who is actually a subject having volunteered to
take part through a newspaper advertisement is told to act as “teacher,”
who sees the “learner” being strapped to a chair and an electrode attached
to his wrist. The “teacher” is then shown the “shock machine” that has
various switches to deliver electric shocks ranging from mild shock to 435
and 450 volts. He is also instructed that the “learner” has to learn a list of
words and that, whenever he makes a mistake, the “teacher” must press
one of the buttons on the shock machine to deliver a shock to the erring
learner. The experiment is then started. As soon as the “learner” makes a
mistake, a small shock is administered by the “teacher.” How does the
“learner” respond? The initial low-level shocks are responded to by grunts
from the “learner.” With more mistakes, the “teacher” has been told to
increase the amount of the shock. As the size of the shock increases, the
grunts soon change into a shout at 120 volts and cries to let him out at
150 volts. By 270 volts, the “teacher” hears screams of agony, while after
330 volts the “learner” becomes silent. The experimenter continues to
prod the “teacher” to continue delivering shocks, saying that “you have
no option; you must go on.”
When Milgram described the above “experiment” to 110 psychiatrists,
college students and middle class adults, people from all three groups said
that they would disobey by about 135 volts and that none would go
beyond 300 volts. When asked how they thought other people would go,
none expected that people would go to the 435–450-volt level. Yes, this is
what they felt they would do or others would do! But when Milgram
4 V. K. KOOL AND R. AGRAWAL

Table 1.1 Percentage

Level of shock Percentage of
of subjects who delivered subjects
shocks of varying levels
300 volts (intense shock) 12.5%
315 volts (extreme intensity shock) 10%
330 volts (extreme intensity shock) 5%
345 volts (extreme intensity shock) 2.5%
350 volts (extreme intensity shock) 2.5%
375 volts (danger: severe shock) 2.5%
450 volts (extremely dangerous) 65%

actually conducted the experiment on 40 men from varying vocations and

of the age group 20 to 50 years, he was surprised to find that actually 25
of them (a whopping 63%) delivered shocks to the extent of 450 volts to
the erring “learner” (see Opening Vignette). Though the “learner”
received no shock, Milgram and many other social psychologists were
upset and extremely perturbed. How could people electrocute innocent
people for almost no reason? Table 1.1 reveals the percentage of people
who showed obedience. The results seem to point to the same answer as
that given by officers, such as Eichmann, of the Holocaust: “we were sim-
ply following orders.” Should we call such people who comply with
destructive orders accomplices? The most surprising finding is that the
experiment has been repeated many times around the globe, with fairly
consistent results.
Milgram, vexed though he was, did not stop here. He went on next
with other variants of the experiment (results summarized in Fig. 1.1) in
order to discover the conditions under which such obedience to instruc-
tions is manifested. In his later experiments, he found four determining
factors: the victim’s emotional distance, the authority’s closeness and
legitimacy, the institutional authority of the experimenter and last but not
the least, the liberating effect of a disobedient fellow subject. These factors
were validated not only by a large body of empirical research but were also
brought to the fore by everyday experience in our ability to harm someone
or to be compassionate toward someone.
For the purpose of clarity, let us now look at the first four experimental
variations in which there were the least number of people who were ready
to administer 450-volt shocks, starting with the variation # 9, in which
there were the least number of subjects (refer to Fig. 1.1).
 1 THE BEGINNING: FROM RESISTING VIOLENCE TO PROMOTING… 5

100
Percentage administering shock (450 volts)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
9 11 12 8 14 10 5 4 3 7 2 1 6 13 10a 15
Experimental variations

S. No Experimental variations S. No Experimental variations

9. Learner demands to be shocked 3. Proximity

11. Authority as victim— 7. Institutional context

an ordinary man commanding

12. Two authorities—contradictory commands 2. Voice feedback

8. Subjects free to choose shock level 1. Remote victim

14. Two peers rebel 6. Women as subjects

10. An ordinary man gives orders 13. Two authorities—one as victim

5. Remote authority 10a. The subject as bystander

4. Touch proximity 15. A peer administers shocks

Fig. 1.1 Graph showing obedience levels in variations of Milgram’s study

1. # 9. Learner demands to be shocked

2. # 11. Authority as victim, an ordinary man commanding
3. # 12. When two authorities offer contradictory command
4. # 8. Subjects free to choose shock level
6 V. K. KOOL AND R. AGRAWAL

Looking at Fig. 1.1 in this way, one finds that as conditions changed,
the number of subjects, who were ready to administer high levels of shock,
declined considerably, with compliance levels dropping to less than 10%.
This data provides, in the process, interesting insights regarding ways of
reducing aggression. Unfortunately, Milgram had not paid much heed to
this aspect, preoccupied as he was, with the investigation of the dynamics
of obedience to authority in terms of aggressive behavior. However, we
see exciting possibilities in this part of Milgram’s data and take this oppor-
tunity to extend this monumental research on the psychology of aggres-
sion to understand more about nonviolence. Further, in this book and
elsewhere, we have emphasized that such a limited approach in under-
standing aggression or its counterpart, nonviolence, is detrimental to the
understanding of our own survival, in general, and to the applications of
psychology in real life, in particular (Kool 1993, 2008; Kool and Agrawal
2013, 2018).
Kool (2008) was, particularly, perturbed and concerned regarding the
reasons for Milgram’s not going beyond the experimental framework of
his hypotheses concerning obedience to authority. In particular, Kool and
his associates were of the view that the developments in prospect theory
(Kahneman 2011; Kahneman and Tversky 1979) offer a more scientific
explanation for the differences between the behavior of those who choose
violence vis-à-vis those who choose nonviolence.

Box 1.1   An Example from Prospect Theory

Please consider the following example based on prospect theory: A
bat and a ball cost $110. The cost of the bat is $100 more than the
ball. What is the cost of the ball? Did you answer $10? Wrong. You
are not alone; even elite students at Princeton made the same error.
The correct answer is $5 (the cost of the bat is $105; add $5 for the
ball and you get $110).
Source: Adapted from Kool 2008, p. 23

What is the learning from the example in Box 1.1? The ways in which
we have been primed to think color our perception and our ways of think-
ing. The same is true for all forms of behavior, including violence and
nonviolence. With violence being constantly primed by the mass media
 1 THE BEGINNING: FROM RESISTING VIOLENCE TO PROMOTING… 7

and the prevailing social order placing us in settings which have compli-
ance and obedience to authority as the standard norm, it is much easier to
toe the line of the prevailing paradigm even in scientific disciplines such as
psychology. But when the situation changes, as in the first four experimen-
tal variations in Fig. 1.1, the scenario is, apparently, different from those
that people are generally faced with.
Considering the above in terms of prospect theory, it is clear that in
each of the four conditions mentioned above, the subjects had to stop and
think, rather than simply obey orders and comply with them. They had to
delay their decision regarding whether they should comply or not. As far
as condition 9 is concerned, in which the learner demands to be given a
shock, the subject is forced to think, “why is this so?” How can a sane
person demand that she/he be given an electric shock? Similarly, in the
next condition, # 11, how can one deliver a shock to a Yale University
professor? In the same way, # 12 was a variation in which there were two
people giving contradictory commands, and in # 8, the subject had to
choose the level of shock to be administered. These last two are of especial
relevance as far as the psychology of nonviolence and Gandhi are con-
cerned. While #12 reveals the dilemma faced by people even during the
Holocaust and why many were ready to obey the dictum of the church
rather than that of the Fuhrer, # 8 reveals what Gandhi called the inner
voice, the conscience of the person.
In contrast to the above, when one considers the last six experimental
variations in Fig. 1.1, in terms of prospect theory, obeying the orders and
complying with the instructions would be comparatively easier than in the
first four variations discussed above.
We will come back to these and many more such situations in the course
of this book, but let it suffice to say, at this point, that Milgram’s experi-
ments had exciting lessons for not just the psychology of aggression and
violence but also for the psychology of nonviolence.
At the same time, the findings regarding subjects ready to deliver shocks
to another individual, in general, reveal that compliance to an authority
figure can take precedence over moral sense. They also sensitize us to the
moral dilemmas we face in our mundane lives and how we get entrapped
into situations, leading to disastrous behavior, forcing Staub to draw the
conclusion that, “human beings have the capacity to come to experience
killing other people as nothing extraordinary” (Staub 1989, p. 13).
However, this drift toward evil is usually incremental, starting with small
8 V. K. KOOL AND R. AGRAWAL

acts that are performed without any intention of being cruel leading to a
gradual lessening of cognitive dissonance as the individual moves on to
bigger and bigger acts of cruelty.

Recent Replications of Milgram’s Experiments

Following these experiments and the controversy that ensued regarding
the ethicality of subjecting human beings to a high degree of stress and
moral conflict, such experiments came to be banned. However, some rep-
lications have been conducted with certain variations. Probably the most
well-known is that conducted by Jeremy Burger in 2009 which revealed
that participants were ready to go beyond a low level of electric shock
(150 volts, a legally permissible level) forcing Burger to conclude that
even 45 years after Milgram, people reacted to the instructions in much
the same way as those in Milgram’s study in 1965 and 1974. Another
interesting replication was conducted in France by Beauvois and his col-
leagues (2012) in which the experimental paradigm of Milgram was pre-
sented as a TV game show in an attempt to see the power (authority)
wielded by the TV host. This was the first time an attempt was made to
demonstrate that the TV host has considerable prescriptive power for
ordering people’s behavior, including cruel and immoral acts, and the
results show a compliance rate of 81%. More recently, the experiments
have been replicated in the Eastern European country of Poland, and the
authors note that even “half a century after Milgram’s original research
into obedience to authority, a striking majority of subjects are still willing
to electrocute a helpless individual” (Dolinski et al. 2017). Over the years,
results such as the above are being used to help explain why people become
ready to torture prisoners (Fiske et al. 2004) or even become a suicide
bomber (Atran 2003). Do these results demonstrate that humans have a
universal propensity to destructive obedience?
So perturbed were social psychologists by results such as those obtained
by Milgram that efforts continue unabated to explain the reasons for this
seemingly unnatural behavior. So powerful are the effects that similar
results have been obtained even when the “learner” was a virtual one
(Slater et al. 2006). The explanations range from what has been called the
good follower effect to more recently to that of the engaged follower
effect, wherein the behavior of the perpetrators is said to ensue from
“identification with and commitment to the in group cause that is
 1 THE BEGINNING: FROM RESISTING VIOLENCE TO PROMOTING… 9

supposed to be noble and worthwhile” (Haslam et al. 2016). Moreover,

Milgram’s results seem to reveal much more than a blind obedience.
Rather, the participants seem to go through deep moral conflict. As
Shermer (2012) writes,

Contrary to Milgram’s conclusion that people obey blindly because of envi-

ronmental conditions, I saw in our subjects a great behavioral reluctance
and moral disquietude. While one subject quit on merely hearing the proto-
col, a second quit at 75 volts and the third also quit soon after. Human
moral nature includes a propensity to be empathetic, kind and good to our
fellow kin and group members plus an inclination to be xenophobic, cruel
and evil to tribal others. The shock experiments reveal these conflicting
moral tendencies that lie deep within.

Thus, one cannot say that all humankind is of the type who is ready to
deliver 450-volt shocks to others. Even in Milgram’s experiment, only a
total of 63% complied with the instructions. As Fig. 1.1 above clarifies, the
remaining dropped out at various intermediate levels of shock. That there
are many who will listen to their conscience and disobey authority of even
the highest level is borne out by the countless who were saved by common
people from being tortured during the Holocaust. These were people who
had been taught to “resist whenever our adversaries will demand of us
obedience contrary to the orders of the Gospel” (Rochat and Modigliani
2010). These resistors made an initial commitment and then supported by
their own belief and by the acts of others, remained defiant till the end.
Akin to destructive acts, such acts of compassion are also incremental, with
escalation of commitment after initial acts of compassion, leading to acts
that show even greater compassion. This was true with one of Milgram’s
experiments, too, wherein he attempted to study the force of the noncom-
pliant peer. When two confederates defied the experimenter, 90% of the
subjects liberated themselves by conforming to the disobedient confeder-
ate. Thus, if authority is overpowering and can cause one to comply with
demands of violence, one also stands witness to the fact that group influ-
ence can make people resist such destructive demands. Such is the power
wielded not only by authority but also by an in-group.
The experiments threw up a number of issues, one being that while the
majority conceded to act according to the instructions, there were some
who refused, on the ground that they simply could not administer electric
shocks to individuals, as punishment for failure in a simple act of learning.
Another random document with
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 influence of, on Wagner, 360;
and Brahms, 418, 419;
“the oratorio for Boston,” 462
Beggar’s Opera, Gay’s, 338
Belasco, David, 384
Belgium, modern music in, 541
Bellini, Vincenzo, 337–8
Bennett, Sir William Sterndale, 340, 438
Berg, Alban, 533–4
Berkshire chamber music competition, 440
Berlin, Irving, 503
Berlioz, Hector, 386;
account of his life and his musical innovations, 398–403
Berners, Lord, 544–5
Bethlehem, Pa., yearly Bach Festival at, 252
Bible, the, mention of music in, 25 ff.
Bible stories, acting of, 171–3
Billings, William, 460–2
Birmingham Festivals, 339–40
Bispham, David, 469, 495
Bizet, Georges, 386, 388–9
Bliss, Arthur, 545
Bloch, Ernest, 510, 542
Blondel de Nesle, rescue of Richard the Lion-Hearted by, 99
Blow, Dr. John, 204–5
Bohemia, composers of, 446–8
Bohemian folk songs and dances, 135.
Bohemian Girl, The, Balfe’s, 341
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Boise, O. B., 495, 496
Boito, Arrigo, 381–2
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Borodin, Alexander, 444
Boston Handel and Haydn Society, 462
Boston Symphony Orchestra, the, founding of, 467
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Bravura pianists, the, 322
Brenet, Michel, quoted on development of composition, 146–7
Brescia, violins made in, 215
Bridge, Frank, 543
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Bristow, George, 466
Britain, the Druids and bards in ancient, 89–91;
early invasions of, 92–3
Brittany, cromlechs and menhirs in, 90;
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C
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Caruso, 334, 382, 384
Casella, Alfredo, 318, 539
Castanets, use of, by the Assyrians, 25;
 by the Hindus, 66
Cavalleria Rusticana, Mascagni’s, 382
Cavos, Catterino, 442
Caxton, William, 191
Cecilia, St., 71
Chabrier, Alexis Emanuel, 389, 415–16, 433
Chadwick, George, 476–7
Chaliapin, 381
Chamber music, the beginning of, 149, 209–10;
rise of, 323
Chanson de Roland, the, 94–5, 127
Chansons de Geste, 93
Chant, the, ancestor of hymns, 70;
the Gregorian, 72, 75, 76;
plain, 73
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Cherubini, Luigi, 331–2, 399, 403, 431
Chicago Orchestra, the, 468
Chickering, Jonas, invents complete iron frame for the piano, 314
Chimes of Normandy, Planquette’s, 336
Chinese, music of the, 46–9;
scales of, 47–8;
instruments of, 48–9
Chopin, Frédéric, 321, 354–7, 448
Christians, early, 68 ff.
Christmas carols, 113–14, 139–40
Church music, 67 ff.;
antiphony and polyphony in, 70–1;
St. Cecilia, 71;
St. Ambrose, 71, 72;
Greek modes as models, 71–3;
St. Gregory, 72, 73;
the Venerable Bede, 75–6;
early use of instruments in, 76;
organs in, 85;
influence of the Renaissance on, 164 ff.;
Martin Luther and, 165–6;
action of Council of Trent regarding, 167;
Palestrina and, 167–70;
of Monteverde, 183;
composers of cathedral music in England, 340–1;
American composers, 475 ff.
Cibber, Colley, 260, 262
Civil War songs, 142–3
Clarke, Rebecca, 440
Clavecin, the, 210
Clavichord, the, 309–10
Clefs, development of, 80
Clementi, Muzio, 319–20
Clifton, Chalmers, 507
Cole, Rosseter Gleason, 490
Color and sound, study of, in India, 62–3
Columbus, Christopher, 165
Concerts, public, the first, 272–3
Conried, Heinrich, 373
Constantine, Emperor, 69, 70
Converse, Frederick, 479
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Coolidge, Mrs. F. S., 440
Coq d’Or, Rimsky-Korsakov’s, 445
Corelli, Arcangelo, 218
Counterpoint, meaning of the term, 85
Couperin, François, 231, 232–3
Couperin family, the, 232
Cow-boy songs, 142
Cowen, Sir Frederick Hymen, 439
Cradle songs, 109–10
Cramer, John B., 320
Creation, The, Haydn’s, 281, 282
Cremona, the violin makers of, 214–17
Cristofori, Bartolomeo, maker of the first pianoforte, 312
Cromwell, Oliver, 203
Crowest, Frederick J., quoted on music in England in the 16th
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Crusades, the, 57, 95–6
“Cryes of London,” the, 200–1
Cui, César, 445
Curtis, Natalie, 485
Cushion dance, the, 124
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Czecho-Slovakia, composers of, 446–8, 538
Czerny, Carl, 299, 321
D
D’Albert, Eugene, 395
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Damrosch, Dr. Frank, 470
Damrosch, Dr. Leopold, 468, 469
Damrosch, Walter, 468, 469, 470
Dancing, of primitive man, 4, 6;
of American Indians, 14–15;
of the ancient Egyptians, 23;
of the Japanese Geisha girls, 51;
of the gypsies, 134
Dancing songs and folk dances, 120–6, 134, 135, 144
Dark Ages, the, 68 ff.
Daughter of the Regiment, Donizetti’s, 337
David, King, as a musician, 27–8
David, Félicien, 386
Dean Paul, Lady, 439–40, 531
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De Koven, Reginald, 336, 488–9
Delage, Maurice, 523
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Delius, Frederick, 542
Denmark, composers of, 451
Der Freischütz, Weber’s 328, 329, 333
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Devrient, Wilhelmine Schroeder-, 363, 366
Dibden, Charles, 339
Die Fledermaus, Strauss’s, 336
D’Indy, Vincent, 393, 435–6
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Ditson, Oliver, 513
Dohnányi, Ernest von, 537–8
Don Giovanni, Mozart’s, 288, 290, 291
Donizetti, Gaetano, 337
Drinking songs, 119, 136
Druids and bards, 89–91
Drums, the first, 5;
use of, by American Indians, 11–12;
use of, by the negro, 18;
sending of messages by, 18;
use of, by the Assyrians, 24, 25;
by the Chinese, 48;
by the Burmese, 52;
by the Arabs, 60
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Dulcimer, the, use of, by the Assyrians and others, 25, 308
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Duschek, Franz, 319
Dussek, Johann L., 320
Dvorak, Antonin, 447–8
E
Edwards, Julian, 486
Egyptians, ancient, the music of, 20–3;
their musical scale not unlike ours, 23
Eisteddfod, revival of, in Wales, 91
Elgar, Edward William, 439
Elijah, Mendelssohn’s oratorio, 347, 350
Eliot, President, of Harvard, 475
Elizabeth, Queen, 192, 194, 196
Elkus, Albert, 491
Enesco, Georges, 448
Engel, Carl, 511
England, folk music in, 113, 114, 118, 139–40;
the “round” in, 123;
the morris dance, 123–4;
ballads in, in 15th and 16th centuries, 124–5;
masques in, 173;
music in, in the 16th and 17th centuries, 187–207;
founding of Anglican church, 188;
chained libraries in, 190;
famous old music collections of, 193, 196–7, 198;
“chests of viols” in, 198–9;
“Cryes of London,” 200–1;
some famous composers, 201 ff.;
the opera ballad in, 338–41;
English composers in classical forms, 438–40;
recent composers, 542–5
Erard, Sebastian, piano maker, 313, 314
Erdmann, Edward, 536
Ernani, Verdi’s, 379
Eschenbach, Wolfram von, the minnesinger, 103
Esterhazy, Prince Paul Anton, 279
Evans, Edwin, 318
F
Falla, Manuel de, 540–1
Farrar, Geraldine, 384, 395, 396, 514
Farwell, Arthur, 484
Fauré, Gabriel, 437–8
Faust, Gounod’s, 387
Feinberg, Samuel, 531
Festa, Constanza, 170
Feudalism, the age of, 95
Fidelio, Beethoven’s opera, 302, 305, 306, 326
Field, John, 320, 343–4
Finland, composers of, 452–3
Finnish folk songs, 131;
instruments, 131
Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, the, 196–7
Florence, the “Camerata” of, and beginnings of opera, 174 ff.
Flotow, Friedrich von, 212
Flute, use of, by American Indians, 12–13;
use of, by the Assyrians and Egyptians, 25;
Jubal invents a, 26;
use of, by the Greeks, 36, 42–3;
by the Romans, 45;
by the Chinese, 48, 49;
by the Arabs, 61;
by the Hindus, 66
Flying Dutchman, The, Wagner’s, 365
Folk dances, 120–6, 134, 135, 144
Folk music, 107 ff.;
classes of, 108;
songs of childhood, games and cradle songs, 109–11;
songs for religious ceremonies, holidays and Christmas carols,
May songs and spring festivals, 111–14;
love songs, 114–15;
patriotic songs, 115–17;
songs of work and labor and trades, 117–19;
drinking songs, 119;
dancing songs and dancing, 120–6;
 funeral songs and songs for mourning, 126;
narratives, ballads and legends, 126–7;
national portraits in, 128 ff.;
Russian folk music, 129–30;
Finnish songs, 131;
Poland’s music, 131;
gypsies, 132–5;
Bohemian folk song, 135;
Spanish and Portuguese folk music, 135;
French folk music, 135–6;
German folk music, 136–7;
Irish folk songs, 137;
Scotch and Welsh tunes, 137–9;
Canadian folk songs, 139;
English folk songs, 139–40;
American folk music, 140–5
Foote, Arthur, 477–8
Forsyth, Cecil, History of Music by, 38–9, 236
Foster, Stephen Collins, 140–1, 472–4
Fra Diavolo, Auber’s, 333
France, troubadours, trouvères and jongleurs in, 97 ff.;
folk music in, 112, 114, 125, 135–6;
Baif’s club of poets and musicians in, 177;
ballets at court of, 178;
the coming of Italian opera to, 178;
opera in, 15th to 18th centuries, 222–31;
French composers for clavecin and harpsichord, 17th and 18th
centuries, 231–3;
the French school of opera, 330 ff.;
modern composers of, 386–95
Franck, César, 386, 389, 393;
life and works of, 429–34
Franco-Flemish school of music, the, 152–5
Franklin, Benjamin, 463, 464
Franz, Robert, 424
Frederick the Great, 249, 253, 255
Frescobaldi, Girolamo, 237–8
Froberger, Johann Jacob, 239
Fry, William H., 466
Funeral songs, 126
G
Gabrieli, 209
Gade, Niels Wilhelm, 450
Galileo, 180
Garcia, Manuel, 338, 465
Gédalge, André, 392
George I of England, 258, 259
German, Edward, 439
Germany, minnesingers and mastersingers in, 102 ff.;
folk music in, 111–12, 114, 136–7;
organists in, 238 ff.;
the Mannheim School and the symphony, 273–4;
opera composers in, 327–9, 335;
Wagner, 359–76;
opera composers since Wagner, 395–6;
recent composers, 534–6
Gershwin, George, 503
Gibbons, Orlando, 196–7, 201–2
Gilbert, Henry F., 484
Gilbert, W. S., 336, 341
Gilchrist, William Wallace, 489
Gilmore, Patrick, 486
Giordano, Umberto, 383
Girl of the Golden West, Puccini’s, 384–5
Gleason, Frederic Grant, 489
Gleemen, 92–3
Glinka, Michael, 442
Gluck, Christoph Willibald, 213;
account of his life, and works of, 263–72;
Orpheus and Euridice, 268;
Iphigenia in Aulis, 269;
Iphigenia in Tauris, 270;
his orchestration, 272;
influence of, on Wagner, 360;
invention of musical glasses by, 463
Glyn, Margaret, Evolution of Musical Form by, quoted, 65–6
Godard, Benjamin, 386–7
Godowsky, Leopold, 512
Goethe, 298
Goldmark, Rubin, 496
Goldsmith, Oliver, Vicar of Wakefield by, quoted, 463
Gombert, Nicolas, 155
Gonzaga, Vicenzo di, Duke of Mantua, patron of Monteverde, 180–3
Goossens, Eugene, 545
Götterdämmerung, Die, Wagner’s, 367, 372
Gottschalk, Louis Moreau, 322, 471–2
Goudimel, Claude, 157, 160
Gounod, Charles François, 386, 387
Gourd, the, as an early musical instrument, 5
Grainger, Percy Aldridge, 318, 510–11
Gramophone, the, 319
Granados, Enrique, 454–5
Graupner, Gottlieb, 466
Greeks, the, music of, 31 ff.;
the nine Muses of, 32;
myths and legends, 32–3;
Pan’s pipes, 33;
Apollo, 33–4;
Orpheus, 34–5;
music in their daily life, 35;
harvest songs, 35–6;
the liturgies, 36–7;
festivals, 37;
scales of, 37–40;
Pythagoras, 40–2;
musical instruments of, 42–3;
modes of, as models for church music, 71–3;
spring festival of, 111;
folk music of, 118
Gregorian chant, 72, 75, 76
Gregory, Pope, 72, 73
Grétry, André Ernest Modeste, 330
Grieg, Edvard Hagerup, 449–50
Griffes, Charles Tomlinson, 504–5
Gruenberg, Louis, 502–3
Grunn, Homer, 488
Guido, D’Arezzo, additions to music by, 79–83
Guilmant, Alexandre, 392, 393
Gutenberg, invention of printing by, 163
Gypsies, music of, 132–5;
their instruments, 132–3, 134
H
Haba, Alois, 538–9
Hadley, Henry K., 496–7
Halévy, Jacques François, 334
Hallen, Anders, 452
Hamilton, Clarence G., Outlines of Music History, by, 155
Hampton Singers, the, 501
Handel, George Frederick, 220–1, 244;
comparison with Bach, 255–6;
account of his life, and works of, 256 ff.;
The Messiah, 262
Hansel and Gretel, Humperdinck’s, 395
Hargrave, Mary, The Earlier French Musicians, by, 230
Harmati, Sandor, 507
“Harmonica,” Franklin’s, 463
Harmony, beginnings of, by Hucbald, 77–9;
use of chords by Willaert, 156;
Zarlino’s books on, 157;
harmonization of hymns, 166–7;
experiments of Monteverde in, 179 ff.
Harp, the, use of, by the ancient Egyptians, 22;
by the Assyrians, 25;
the Hebrew Kinnor, 26;
use of, by the Greeks, 43
Harpers and gleemen, 92–3
Harpsichord, the, 310–11
Hartmann, J., 451
Harvard Musical Association, the, 467
Hastings, battle of, 93, 94
Haubiel, Charles, 507
Haydn, Franz Joseph, 213, 253, 254;
account of his life, 275–82;
The Creation and The Seasons, 281, 282;
his gift to music, 283–4;
Haydn and Mozart, 284–5;
Beethoven meets him, 297–8
Heart music, of Monteverde, 180 ff.;
disappearance of, 530
Hebrew music, 25–30
Heine, Heinrich, 346
Heller, Stephen, 358
Henry IV of France, 176, 222
Henry VIII of England, 188–9
Herbert, Victor, 336, 486
Hereford, England, chained library at, 190
Hérold, Louis Joseph Ferdinand, 334
Hertz, Alfred, 373
Hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptians, 20, 23
Higginson, Colonel Henry L., 467
Hill, Edward Burlingame, 480
Hindemith, Paul, 535–6
Hindu, music, 61 ff.;
the Hindu rags, 62–3;
orchestra, 64–5;
notation, 65–6;
instruments of, 66
Holland, modern music in, 541
Holst, Gustave, 543–4
Home, Sweet Home, 465
Homer, 89
Honegger, Arthur, 525, 542
Hook, James, 339
Hooker, Brian, 479
Hopkinson, Francis, 463–4
Horsley, William, 340
Hucbald, starting of science of harmony by, 77–9
Huguenots, The, Meyerbeer’s, 335
Humiston, W. H., 494–5
Hummel, Johann, 319, 320
Humperdinck, Engelbert, 395–6
Humphrey, Pelham, 204, 205
Hungarian gypsies, music of, 133–5
Hungary, modern music in, 536–8
Hurdy-gurdy, or vielle, the, 106
Huss, Henry Holden, 495
Hutcheson, Ernest, 495–6
Hymns, early, 71–3; harmonization of, 166–7
Hymns, national, 115–117
I
Iarecki, Tadeusz, 531
Ignatius, St., 70
Il Trovatore, Verdi’s, 378, 379
Incas, music of the, 53–4
India, music of, 61 ff.
Indians, American, the music of, 9 ff.;
musical instruments of, 11–13;
Indian societies, 13–15;
songs and dances of, 14–15;
the medicine man, 15–16;
picture language of, 16;
lullabies of, 110;
recent study of their music, 484–6, 487–8
Instruments, musical, the earliest, 5;
of the American Indians, 11–13;
 of the ancient Egyptians, 22;
of the Assyrians, 24–5;
of the Hebrews, 26–9;
of the Greeks, 42–3;
of the Romans, 44, 45;
of the Chinese, 48–9;
of the Japanese, 50;
of Siamese, Burmese, and Javanese, 52;
of the Incas and Aztecs, 53–4;
of the Arabs, 59–61;
of the Hindus, 66;
early use of, in church music, 76;
Russian stringed instruments, 130;
of Finland and Poland, 131;
of the gypsies, 132–3, 134;
the violin makers of Cremona, 214–17;
the origin of stringed instruments, 307–8;
the pianoforte, 307 ff.
Iolanthe, Sullivan’s, 341
I Pagliacci, Leoncavallo’s, 382
Iphigenia in Aulis, Gluck’s, 269
Iphigenia in Tauris, Gluck’s, 270
I Puritani, Bellini’s, 337
Ireland, John, 544
Irish folk songs, 137
Italian language, musical terms derived from, 206–7
Italy, beginnings of the opera in, 173 ff.;
opera writers of, in 17th and 18th centuries, 212;
violinists and composers of, in 17th and 18th centuries, 217 ff.;
Rossini, Bellini, and Donizetti, 337–8;
modern composers of, 377–86;
and the new order, 539–41
J
Janequin, Clement, 154–5, 160
Japanese music, 50–1
Javanese, music of the, 52
Jazz music, rhythm of, borrowed from the negro, 143–4;
and negro spirituals, 500–1
Jews, music of the, 25–30
Joachim, 420
Jomelli, 213
Jongleurs, the, 97–9
Jonson, Ben, 173
Josephus, cited, on Solomon’s singers and musicians, 28
Jubal, first musician mentioned in the Bible, 25–6
Julius III, Pope, 168
K
Kalkbrenner, Frederick, 320
Kangaroo, dance in imitation of, 6
Kelley, Edgar Stillman, 489
Kerl, Johann Kaspar, 240
Keyboard, the, development of, 309
Kinnor, harp of the Hebrews, 26
Kithara, Greek musical instrument, 39, 42, 44
Kjerulf, Halfdan, 449
Kneisel Quartet, the, 480
Kobbé, Gustave, 318
Kodály, Soltan, 536–7
Korngold, Erich Wolfgang, 534
Kramer, A. Walter, 506
Krehbiel, H. E., quoted on folk music, 107–8;
on negro slave songs, 143;
 on Stephen Foster, 474
Kreisler, Fritz, 448, 512
Kreutzer, Rudolph, 324
Kreutzer Sonata, Beethoven’s, 324
Kuhnau, Johann, 241–2
L
La Bohème, Puccini’s, 383
L’Africaine, Meyerbeer’s, 335
La Juive, Halévy’s, 334
Lalo, Edouard Victor Antoine, 391
Landormy, Paul, History of Music, by, 259, 273, 390–1
Landowska, Wanda, 252, 311
Lang, Benjamin J., 475
Lang, Margaret Ruthven, 481
La Sonnambula, Bellini’s, 337–8
Lassus, Orlandus, 158–60, 161
La Traviata, Verdi’s, 379
Lawes, Henry, 202–3
Lecocq, 336
Lehman, Liza, 439
Lehmann, Lilli, 469
Leit-motif, first use of, by Wagner, 364, 374;
use of, by Berlioz, 402;
use of, by Strauss, 414
Le Jeune, Claude, 177–8
Le Jongleur de Notre Dame, Massenet’s, 392
Leonardo da Vinci, 456
Leoncavallo, Ruggiero, 382