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 Heidi Krömker (Ed.)

HCI in Mobility,
LNCS 11596

Transport, and
Automotive Systems
First International Conference, MobiTAS 2019
Held as Part of the 21st HCI International Conference, HCII 2019
Orlando, FL, USA, July 26–31, 2019, Proceedings
Lecture Notes in Computer Science 11596
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Heidi Krömker (Ed.)

HCI in Mobility,
Transport, and
Automotive Systems
First International Conference, MobiTAS 2019
Held as Part of the 21st HCI International Conference, HCII 2019
Orlando, FL, USA, July 26–31, 2019
Proceedings

123
Editor
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Technische Universität Ilmenau
Ilmenau, Germany

ISSN 0302-9743 ISSN 1611-3349 (electronic)

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 Foreword

The 21st International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, HCI International

2019, was held in Orlando, FL, USA, during July 26–31, 2019. The event incorporated
the 18 thematic areas and affiliated conferences listed on the following page.
A total of 5,029 individuals from academia, research institutes, industry, and
governmental agencies from 73 countries submitted contributions, and 1,274 papers
and 209 posters were included in the pre-conference proceedings. These contributions
address the latest research and development efforts and highlight the human aspects of
design and use of computing systems. The contributions thoroughly cover the entire
field of human-computer interaction, addressing major advances in knowledge and
effective use of computers in a variety of application areas. The volumes constituting
the full set of the pre-conference proceedings are listed in the following pages.
This year the HCI International (HCII) conference introduced the new option of
“late-breaking work.” This applies both for papers and posters and the corresponding
volume(s) of the proceedings will be published just after the conference. Full papers
will be included in the HCII 2019 Late-Breaking Work Papers Proceedings volume
of the proceedings to be published in the Springer LNCS series, while poster extended
abstracts will be included as short papers in the HCII 2019 Late-Breaking Work Poster
Extended Abstracts volume to be published in the Springer CCIS series.
I would like to thank the program board chairs and the members of the program
boards of all thematic areas and affiliated conferences for their contribution to the
highest scientific quality and the overall success of the HCI International 2019
conference.
This conference would not have been possible without the continuous and unwa-
vering support and advice of the founder, Conference General Chair Emeritus and
Conference Scientific Advisor Prof. Gavriel Salvendy. For his outstanding efforts,
I would like to express my appreciation to the communications chair and editor of
HCI International News, Dr. Abbas Moallem.

July 2019 Constantine Stephanidis

 HCI International 2019 Thematic Areas
and Affiliated Conferences

Thematic areas:
• HCI 2019: Human-Computer Interaction
• HIMI 2019: Human Interface and the Management of Information
Affiliated conferences:
• EPCE 2019: 16th International Conference on Engineering Psychology and
Cognitive Ergonomics
• UAHCI 2019: 13th International Conference on Universal Access in
Human-Computer Interaction
• VAMR 2019: 11th International Conference on Virtual, Augmented and Mixed
Reality
• CCD 2019: 11th International Conference on Cross-Cultural Design
• SCSM 2019: 11th International Conference on Social Computing and Social Media
• AC 2019: 13th International Conference on Augmented Cognition
• DHM 2019: 10th International Conference on Digital Human Modeling and
Applications in Health, Safety, Ergonomics and Risk Management
• DUXU 2019: 8th International Conference on Design, User Experience, and
Usability
• DAPI 2019: 7th International Conference on Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive
Interactions
• HCIBGO 2019: 6th International Conference on HCI in Business, Government and
Organizations
• LCT 2019: 6th International Conference on Learning and Collaboration
Technologies
• ITAP 2019: 5th International Conference on Human Aspects of IT for the Aged
Population
• HCI-CPT 2019: First International Conference on HCI for Cybersecurity, Privacy
and Trust
• HCI-Games 2019: First International Conference on HCI in Games
• MobiTAS 2019: First International Conference on HCI in Mobility, Transport, and
Automotive Systems
• AIS 2019: First International Conference on Adaptive Instructional Systems
 Pre-conference Proceedings Volumes Full List

1. LNCS 11566, Human-Computer Interaction: Perspectives on Design (Part I),

edited by Masaaki Kurosu
2. LNCS 11567, Human-Computer Interaction: Recognition and Interaction
Technologies (Part II), edited by Masaaki Kurosu
3. LNCS 11568, Human-Computer Interaction: Design Practice in Contemporary
Societies (Part III), edited by Masaaki Kurosu
4. LNCS 11569, Human Interface and the Management of Information: Visual
Information and Knowledge Management (Part I), edited by Sakae Yamamoto and
Hirohiko Mori
5. LNCS 11570, Human Interface and the Management of Information: Information
in Intelligent Systems (Part II), edited by Sakae Yamamoto and Hirohiko Mori
6. LNAI 11571, Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics, edited by Don
Harris
7. LNCS 11572, Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction: Theory, Methods
and Tools (Part I), edited by Margherita Antona and Constantine Stephanidis
8. LNCS 11573, Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction: Multimodality
and Assistive Environments (Part II), edited by Margherita Antona and Constantine
Stephanidis
9. LNCS 11574, Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality: Multimodal Interaction
(Part I), edited by Jessie Y. C. Chen and Gino Fragomeni
10. LNCS 11575, Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality: Applications and Case
Studies (Part II), edited by Jessie Y. C. Chen and Gino Fragomeni
11. LNCS 11576, Cross-Cultural Design: Methods, Tools and User Experience
(Part I), edited by P. L. Patrick Rau
12. LNCS 11577, Cross-Cultural Design: Culture and Society (Part II), edited by
P. L. Patrick Rau
13. LNCS 11578, Social Computing and Social Media: Design, Human Behavior and
Analytics (Part I), edited by Gabriele Meiselwitz
14. LNCS 11579, Social Computing and Social Media: Communication and Social
Communities (Part II), edited by Gabriele Meiselwitz
15. LNAI 11580, Augmented Cognition, edited by Dylan D. Schmorrow and Cali M.
Fidopiastis
16. LNCS 11581, Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety,
Ergonomics and Risk Management: Human Body and Motion (Part I), edited by
Vincent G. Duffy
x Pre-conference Proceedings Volumes Full List

17. LNCS 11582, Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety,
Ergonomics and Risk Management: Healthcare Applications (Part II), edited by
Vincent G. Duffy
18. LNCS 11583, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Design Philosophy and
Theory (Part I), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
19. LNCS 11584, Design, User Experience, and Usability: User Experience in
Advanced Technological Environments (Part II), edited by Aaron Marcus and
Wentao Wang
20. LNCS 11585, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Application Domains
(Part III), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
21. LNCS 11586, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Practice and Case Studies
(Part IV), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
22. LNCS 11587, Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions, edited by Norbert
Streitz and Shin’ichi Konomi
23. LNCS 11588, HCI in Business, Government and Organizations: eCommerce and
Consumer Behavior (Part I), edited by Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah and Keng Siau
24. LNCS 11589, HCI in Business, Government and Organizations: Information
Systems and Analytics (Part II), edited by Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah and Keng Siau
25. LNCS 11590, Learning and Collaboration Technologies: Designing Learning
Experiences (Part I), edited by Panayiotis Zaphiris and Andri Ioannou
26. LNCS 11591, Learning and Collaboration Technologies: Ubiquitous and Virtual
Environments for Learning and Collaboration (Part II), edited by Panayiotis
Zaphiris and Andri Ioannou
27. LNCS 11592, Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population: Design for the
Elderly and Technology Acceptance (Part I), edited by Jia Zhou and Gavriel
Salvendy
28. LNCS 11593, Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population: Social Media, Games
and Assistive Environments (Part II), edited by Jia Zhou and Gavriel Salvendy
29. LNCS 11594, HCI for Cybersecurity, Privacy and Trust, edited by Abbas Moallem
30. LNCS 11595, HCI in Games, edited by Xiaowen Fang
31. LNCS 11596, HCI in Mobility, Transport, and Automotive Systems, edited by
Heidi Krömker
32. LNCS 11597, Adaptive Instructional Systems, edited by Robert Sottilare and
Jessica Schwarz
33. CCIS 1032, HCI International 2019 - Posters (Part I), edited by Constantine
Stephanidis
 Pre-conference Proceedings Volumes Full List xi

34. CCIS 1033, HCI International 2019 - Posters (Part II), edited by Constantine
Stephanidis
35. CCIS 1034, HCI International 2019 - Posters (Part III), edited by Constantine
Stephanidis

http://2019.hci.international/proceedings
 First International Conference on HCI in Mobility,
Transport, and Automotive Systems (MobiTAS 2019)

Program Board Chair(s): Heidi Krömker, Germany

• Angelika C. Bullinger-Hoffmann, • Gerrit Meixner, Germany

Germany
• Bertrand David, France
• Marco Diana, Italy
• Cyriel Diels, UK
• Riender Happee, The Netherlands
• Christophe Kolski, France
• Lutz Krauss, Germany
• Josef Krems, Germany
• Lena Levin, Sweden
• Peter Mörtl, Austria
• Philipp Rode, Germany
• Matthias Roetting, Germany
• Thomas Schlegel, Germany
• Ulrike Stopka, Germany
• Jacques Terken, The Netherlands
• Alejandro Tirachini, Chile
• Andree Woodcock, UK
• Fang You, P.R. China
• Xiaowei Yuan, P.R. China

The full list with the Program Board Chairs and the members of the Program Boards of
all thematic areas and affiliated conferences is available online at:

http://www.hci.international/board-members-2019.php
 HCI International 2020
The 22nd International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, HCI International
2020, will be held jointly with the affiliated conferences in Copenhagen, Denmark, at
the Bella Center Copenhagen, July 19–24, 2020. It will cover a broad spectrum
of themes related to HCI, including theoretical issues, methods, tools, processes, and
case studies in HCI design, as well as novel interaction techniques, interfaces, and
applications. The proceedings will be published by Springer. More information will be
available on the conference website: http://2020.hci.international/.

General Chair
Prof. Constantine Stephanidis
University of Crete and ICS-FORTH
Heraklion, Crete, Greece
E-mail: general_chair@hcii2020.org

http://2020.hci.international/
 Contents

Interaction in Autonomous and Semiautonomous Vehicles

Turmoil Behind the Automated Wheel: An Embodied Perspective

on Current HMI Developments in Partially Automated Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . 3
Anika Boelhouwer, Jelle van Dijk, and Marieke H. Martens

Self-driving Vehicles: Do Their Risks Outweigh Their Benefits?. . . . . . . . . . 26

Peng Liu and Zhigang Xu

Methodologies to Understand the Road User Needs When Interacting

with Automated Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Evangelia Portouli, Dimitris Nathanael, Angelos Amditis, Yee Mun Lee,
Natasha Merat, Jim Uttley, Oscar Giles, Gustav Markkula,
André Dietrich, Anna Schieben, and James Jenness

Multi-methods Research to Examine External HMI for Highly

Automated Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Melissa Cefkin, Jingyi Zhang, Erik Stayton, and Erik Vinkhuyzen

The Hexagonal Spindle Model for Human Situation Awareness

While Autonomous Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Daehee Park and Wanchul Yoon

Future Personalized Autonomous Shared Car Design Based

on User Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Yufei Xie and Ting Han

HMI Design for Autonomous Cars: Investigating on Driver’s

Attention Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Weizhe Chen and Wei Liu

Investigating Temporal Changes of Behavioral Adaptation

and User Experience During Highly Automated Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Dominique Stimm, Arnd Engeln, Julia Schäfer, and Holger Schmidt

Exploratory Study into Designing Enhanced Commute Experiences

in Autonomous Vehicles with Connected Sensors and Actuators . . . . . . . . . . 115
Zheng Sun, Hugues Vigner, Shreyas Bhayana, Changhao Zheng,
Ziwei Zhang, Euiyoung Kim, and Alice M. Agogino

Attentional Dynamics After Take-Over Requests: The Need for Handover

Assistance Systems in Highly Automated Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Tobias Vogelpohl and Mark Vollrath
xviii Contents

Driving Experience

Combining Virtual Reality (VR) Technology with Physical

Models – A New Way for Human-Vehicle Interaction Simulation
and Usability Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Chao Ma and Ting Han

Designing Augmented Reality Navigation Visualizations for the Vehicle:

A Question of Real World Object Coverage? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Nikolai Pärsch, Clemens Harnischmacher, Martin Baumann,
Arnd Engeln, and Lutz Krauß

A Method to Assess the Effect of Vertical Dynamics on Driving

Performance in Driving Simulators: A Behavioural Validation Study . . . . . . . 176
Arben Parduzi, Joost Venrooij, and Stefanie Marker

Trust Is Good, Control Is Better? – The Influence of Head-Up Display

on Customer Experience of Automated Lateral Vehicle Control . . . . . . . . . . 190
Seda Aydogdu, Corinna Seidler, and Bernhard Schick

Do Drivers Prefer Female Voice for Guidance? An Interaction

Design About Information Type and Speaker Gender for Autonomous
Driving Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Wang Ji, Ruijie Liu, and SeungHee Lee

Development of Immersive Vehicle Simulator for Aircraft Ground

Support Equipment Training as a Vocational Training Program . . . . . . . . . . 225
Yongjae Park, Yonghyun Park, and Hyungsook Kim

Proposal of Driving Support Agent Which Speak Based

on Politeness Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Tomoki Miyamoto, Daisuke Katagami, Yuka Shigemitsu,
Mayumi Usami, Takahiro Tanaka, Hitoshi Kanamori, Yuki Yoshihara,
and Kazuhiro Fujikake

Do You Shift or Not? Influence of Trajectory Behaviour

on Perceived Safety During Automated Driving on Rural Roads . . . . . . . . . . 245
Patrick Rossner and Angelika C. Bullinger

Automobile Auditory Experience: A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Yang Zhao and Hua Dong

User Experience in Real Test Drives with a Camera Based Mirror –

Influence of New Technologies on Equipping Rate for Future Vehicles . . . . . 270
Corinna Seidler, Seda Aydogdu, and Bernhard Schick
 Contents xix

Mobility and Transport

Improving Mobility in University Communities Using

a Collaborative Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Erick López-Ornelas

A Comprehensive Persona Template to Understand Citizens’

Mobility Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Svenja Polst and Phil Stüpfert

Understanding the Usefulness and Acceptance of Adaptivity

in Smart Public Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Christine Keller, Susann Struwe, Waldemar Titov, and Thomas Schlegel

Challenges for Local Authorities in Planning and Implementing Sustainable

and User-Oriented Mobility Measures and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Sebastian Spundflasch and Heidi Krömker

Monitoring Road Surface Conditions for Bicycles – Using Mobile Device

Sensor Data from Crowd Sourcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Waldemar Titov and Thomas Schlegel

Spatial Features and Elements Affecting Indoor Wayfinding—A Case

Study in a Transit Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Dadi An, Junnan Ye, and Wei Ding

Smart Biking as Gendered Innovations? The Case of Mobike in China . . . . . 368

Hilda Rømer Christensen

Gender Issues in the Digitalized ‘Smart’ Mobility World –

Conceptualization and Empirical Findings Applying a Mixed
Methods Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Barbara Lenz, Viktoriya Kolarova, and Kerstin Stark

How to Integrate Gender Equality in the Future of “Smart” Mobility:

A Matter for a Changing Planning Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Lena Levin

User Centred Design of a Knowledge Repository to Support Gender

Smart Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Cathleen Schöne, Sebastian Spundflasch, and Heidi Krömker

Towards an Integrated Mobility Service Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

Cindy Mayas, Tobias Steinert, and Heidi Krömker

Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) Testbed as an Integrated Approach

for New Mobility - A Living Lab Case Study in Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Zhanhe Ryan Jin and Anna Zhi Qiu
xx Contents

Business and Billing Models for Mobile Services Using Secure Identities . . . 459
Ulrike Stopka, Gertraud Schäfer, and Andreas Kreisel

Study on Evaluation of Subway Passenger Wayfinding Systems

Based on SEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Chuan-yu Zou, Guangxin Wang, and Yongquan Chen

User Journey with Intelligent Public Transportation System in Shanghai . . . . 487

Yuqian Ni, Fan Yi, Shaolin Ma, and Yanjuan Sun

Investigating Users’ Responses to Context-Aware Presentations

on Large Displays in Public Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Romina Kühn, Diana Lemme, Juliane Pfeffer, and Thomas Schlegel

Crossing the Street Across the Globe: A Study on the Effects

of eHMI on Pedestrians in the US, Germany and China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Florian Weber, Ronee Chadowitz, Kathrin Schmidt,
Julia Messerschmidt, and Tanja Fuest

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

Interaction in Autonomous and
Semiautonomous Vehicles
 Turmoil Behind the Automated Wheel
An Embodied Perspective on Current HMI
Developments in Partially Automated Vehicles

Anika Boelhouwer1(&), Jelle van Dijk2, and Marieke H. Martens1,3

1
Centre for Transport Studies, University of Twente,
Drienerlolaan 5, 7522 Enschede, NB, The Netherlands
a.boelhouwer@utwente.nl
2
Department of Design, Production and Management, University of Twente,
Drienerlolaan 5, 7522 Enschede, NB, The Netherlands
3
TNO Traffic and Transport,
Anna van Buerenplein 1, 2595 The Hague, DA, The Netherlands

Abstract. Cars that include combinations of automated functions, such as

Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) and Lane Keeping (LK), are becoming more
and more available to consumers, and higher levels of automation are under
development. In the use of these systems, the role of the driver is changing. This
new interaction between the driver and the vehicle may result in several human
factors problems if not sufficiently supported. These issues include driver dis-
traction, loss of situational awareness and high workload during mode transi-
tions. A large conceptual gap exists on how we can create safe, efficient and
fluent interactions between the car and driver both during automation and mode
transitions. This study looks at different HMIs from a new perspective:
Embodied Interaction. The results of this study identify design spaces that are
currently underutilized and may contribute to safe and fluent driver support
systems in partially automated cars.

Keywords: Embodied interaction
Human computer interaction

Human Machine Interface
Review
Self-driving vehicles

Automated vehicles

1 Introduction

While cars with basic automated functions, such as Adaptive Cruise Control
(ACC) and Lane Keeping (LK), are becoming more widely available to consumers,
higher levels of automation such as level 3 and 4 [1] are under development. These
highly automated systems take over the longitudinal and lateral control of the car. In
case of a level 2 system, drivers still need to monitor the driving situation continuously.
With a level 3 system, drivers no longer need to continuously monitor the driving
situation, but still have to be able to take back control when requested within a given
time frame. A level 4 system includes a minimal risk maneuver in case the driver does
not take back control after a request. As the systems have an Operational Design
Domain (ODD) and do not function in all possible situations, drivers still need to take

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

H. Krömker (Ed.): HCII 2019, LNCS 11596, pp. 3–25, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22666-4_1
4 A. Boelhouwer et al.

back control occasionally. In this interaction, the HMI plays a crucial role to help
drivers understand their automated vehicle (Carsten and Martens 2018).
Automated cars can provide multiple benefits for both the driver and society as a
whole. These include improved traffic safety, potentially reduced fuel consumption and
accompanying costs reductions, co2 emission reductions, and improved driver comfort
[2–4]. In case drivers still have to monitor the situation continuously, they are at least
relieved from some of the physical efforts in driving. When they do not need to monitor
the situation, they can engage in non-driving tasks while traveling. Studies like those of
[5] have already shown that drivers engage in tasks ranging from reading to playing
games on a tablet.
However, recent studies show that besides the potential benefits, automated cars may
create safety issues in the driver-car interaction [6–8]. Expected issues are driver dis-
traction, automation surprise, loss of situational awareness and high workload [6, 9–11]
when the driver needs to take over. The role of drivers shifts from operator to supervisor.
This new role of supervisor, that is required with level 2 systems, is shown to be difficult
for humans [12, 13]. Distraction towards non-driving activities with loss of situational
awareness is in this case expected. Even more so, shifting from the distraction back to the
driving task can be challenging. Especially in level 3 or 4 vehicles when the driver is
temporarily not required to monitor the driving situation and is immersed in a non-driving
task. Drivers have to disengage both physically and mentally from the non-driving task
before resuming manual control.
Studies have shown lowered situational awareness in drivers that were engaged in
non-driving tasks for long periods of time [14]. Using the commonly used definition by
[15], the situational awareness of drivers can be described as: perceiving the driving
situation, understanding this situation, and projecting the status of this situation in the
future. When drivers are requested to take-back control, they first need to be able to
regain their situational awareness to a level on which they are capable of safely
resuming control. To avoid negative effects on safety, acceptance and driver comfort,
the car Human Machine Interface (HMI) should be taking these human factors into
consideration. In case of distraction or emersion in non-driving activities, the HMI
should be able to support the driver in smoothly returning to the driving task and
regaining situational awareness efficiently. It can also support during the automated
phase to, for example, retain a certain level of situational awareness in the driver. The
interesting thing here is that very often, solutions are found in improving system
reliability. The more reliable the system will be, the less human factors issues will arise.
However, as Carsten and Martens (2018) already indicated, this is not correct. With
improving system reliability, comfort and trust will increase, but automation surprise
and response times will also increase, and situational awareness, attention and trust
calibration will decrease. Therefore, instead of focusing on improving system relia-
bility, we believe that the primary focus should be on a proper interaction between the
vehicle and the user, irrespective of the ODD or the system level.
Until now, the development and research on driver support through in-car HMIs has
been mainly addressed from a traditional cognitive psychology perspective and human
centered design. In this traditional perspective, cognition is considered to be “the mental
action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experi-
ence, and the senses” [16]. Although specific perspectives of course differ from each
 Turmoil Behind the Automated Wheel 5

other, the mode transition from automation to manual control is commonly described as
a sequence of consecutive mental processes and physical actions.
This study investigates driver support in partially automated vehicles from a dif-
ferent perspective: embodied interaction [17–19]. This may allow us to identify unused
design spaces. Embodied interaction proposes that all knowledge and sense-making of
the world emerges from a continuous and simultaneous interaction with the world [20].
In this perspective, cognition is not strictly designated as sequential processes of the
brain. Rather, cognition is the entire system of interaction between mind, body and
world. As [19] stated “cognition is a highly embodied or situated activity […] thinking
beings ought be considered first and foremost as acting beings”. Furthermore,
embodied cognition states that all abstract symbols (including words) only gain
meaning through embodied experiences and physical aspects. In this embodied per-
spective, the emphasis of gaining knowledge is thus more focused on the physical
acting of a person in a specific situation. By discarding the idea that cognition only
occurs in the mind, new design spaces may be discovered. More emphasis can be put
on the combination of mind ánd body making sense of situations in ongoing interac-
tions with the environment.
This study reviews current HMI feedback systems of partially automated cars
during two phases. One phase consists of the Take-Over Request (TOR) by the car.
This includes messages from the car that the driver needs to take back control from the
automation. The second phase that is reviewed is the general HMIs during automation.
This phase also includes any Hands on Wheel Warnings (HOWW). These warnings
indicate that the drivers have to put their hands on the wheel (or ideally eyes on the
road). In most systems, the automation disengages if the driver does not comply with
the HOWW. Since this is not a formal request to take over and is not linked to system
limitations, this will be described as feedback during automation.
The HMI systems are reviewed in the light of three important characteristics of
embodied interaction: suppleness [21], bodily experience [18] and situatedness [19].
These characteristics include for example: the fluency with which TORs are introduced,
in- and output modalities, and whether the feedback systems are adaptive to the situ-
ation. Further details of the review protocol are discussed in the methodology section.
While most review papers only discuss academic papers and patents, this review
includes currently commercially available systems and systems that are being studied in
experiments but are not yet on the market.
The goal of this review is to identify the current state of HMI support during the
TOR phase and the automation phase in both literature and commercially available
systems. We want to examine how they consider the main characteristics of embodied
interaction in their design. This will allow us to identify unexplored design spaces, and
new opportunities for the design of HMI systems of partially automated cars. Con-
cluding, this study investigates two main research questions: (1) What embodied design
elements are currently used in driver support during TORs and automated driving?
(2) What are the unused embodied design spaces for designing HMI support for TORs
and automated driving in partially automated cars?
6 A. Boelhouwer et al.

2 Methods
2.1 Data Collection
The materials gathered for this literature review consisted of the following types:
journal papers, conference papers, work-in-progress papers, technical reports and
product documentation of commercial cars. It was decided to include technical reports
and product documentation of commercial cars as the current development of HMI in
automated car systems is proceeding fast. Including these material types allowed the
study to review the latest developments in both industry and academia. Both the
commercial car systems as the concepts in literature were reviewed on (1) the HMI
during TORs, and (2) the HMI during automated mode. As the majority of the gathered
materials does not specify the level of automation nor the exact Operational Design
Domain (ODD), it was decided that the requirement for inclusion was that the system
automated both lateral and longitudinal control simultaneously.
The literature papers and reports had to be written in English, and published after
2008. Although other studies have conducted reviews on shorter periods, we believe
that it is necessary to include sources of a 10 year period. Condensing this work into a
short snapshot would undermine the continuous progress within the field. Literature
reviews and meta-analysis studies were excluded. The following leading research
databases were used to collect the journal- and conference papers: Web of Science,
IEEE, Scopus, Google Scholar.
For the TOR reviews, we solely considered systems that indicate a take-over
request due to system limitations. Therefore Hands on Wheel Warnings (HOWWs),
which prompt the driver to keep their hands on the wheel without the need to disengage
automation, were not reviewed among the TORs. However, the HOWWs were
included in the review of the general HMI during automation. These warnings are often
included in car systems both for legal reasons and with the intention to keep the driver
ready to take back control instantly.
Literature Concepts – TOR. For the TOR review on literature concepts, the literature
papers had to be specifically focusing on the design or testing of HMI support during
TOR. Studies that only used HMI as a means to perform their experiment on a different
topic were excluded. The following keywords were used in the research databases:
((“Autonomous” OR “Self-driving” OR “Automated”) AND (“HMI” OR “Human
machine interaction”) AND (“Design” OR “Feedback”) AND (“Take-over” OR “Take
over” OR “Transition” OR “Warning” OR “Request”) AND (“Car”)).
Literature Concepts – HMI During Automation. For the review on general HMI
feedback during automated mode, only studies that specifically address the develop-
ment and testing of an HMI design were included. Studies that use an HMI purely as a
means to perform their experiment on a different topic were excluded. The search entry
for materials on HMI systems during automated mode contained the following key-
words. ((“Autonomous” OR “Self-driving” OR “Automated”) AND (“HMI” OR
“Human machine interaction”) AND (“Interface” OR “Feedback”) AND (“Car”)).
 Turmoil Behind the Automated Wheel 7

Commercial Cars – TOR and HMI During Automation. The selection of com-
mercial car brands was done based on their official user manuals and websites. The car
system had to be available for purchase at the time of this review. To avoid an
incomplete review, only systems that included all necessary information for the cate-
gorization were considered. Of the current available systems, only two formally include
a TORs [22, 23]. Therefore the TOR review included just these two commercial car
systems. (As mentioned before, the systems do include HOWWs. These are reviewed
in the ‘general HMI during automation’ section.)

2.2 Data Coding

The materials gathered were labelled on three main use qualities of embodied inter-
action: suppleness [21, 24, 25], bodily experience [18, 20] and situatedness [19].
Although not exhaustive, these are discussed frequently within the embodied interac-
tion domain and are generally excepted to portrait (some of) the core elements. Each
quality will be discussed briefly with their respective measures. Some of the specific
variables were used from the study by [26] who created a categorization framework for
control transition interfaces. Tables 1 and 2 show all variables that were examined,
respectively for the TORs and general HMI during automation.
Suppleness. [24, 25] introduced the use quality of suppleness. They stressed
designing for supple back and forth interaction between a user and system, which can
be seen as a fluent ‘dance’ [25]. The Webster dictionary definition of supple is con-
sidered the base for this use quality: “easy and fluent without stiffness or awkward-
ness”. In this study, we categorized the TORs on three supple qualities. The first was
whether the transfer is introduced abrupt or gradually: Temporal Output Mode [26].
The TORs could be categorized as being shown once, several times, or incremental. It
was specified whether the support was given: before/during deactivation of the system,
or before a hazard. It was important to take this into account as the time to take-over
would be either the time before a collision or deactivation of the system. The second
variable was the amount of time the driver has to take back control: Time to take over.
More specifically, how much time does the driver have after the TOR until the system
disengages or the car crashes? The third item entailed the use of Social cues. The
research and design area of embodied interaction is increasingly focusing on incor-
poration of natural social interactions in artificial intelligent systems [27]. As we are
social beings, we engage in continuous social interactions to understand and act on the
world [28]. Therefore we investigated whether there is any use of social cues that we
use daily in human to human communication in the HMI systems. These could for
example facial expressions and gestures.
Bodily experience. Inclusion of the body in making sense of the situation is at the
core of embodied interaction [18, 20]. Our entire body and all our senses are included
in learning, and creating an understanding of the world. By including multiple senses in
a feedback system, overload may be reduced or prevented. Therefore, the way the
driver has to disengage automation (Input) was included in this review as well as the
modality of the TOR itself (Output). For the input, we used a similar classification as
[26] which included physical, touchscreen, gesture and speech. However, touchscreen
was made into a sub classification of physical and we additionally included the options
8 A. Boelhouwer et al.

for activity recognition and ‘other’ input. Activity recognition includes all forms of
system initiated recognition such as eye movement recognition or posture recognition.
The physical class contains input through buttons, the steering wheel, the pedals and
touchscreen. For the output modalities, we included all five basic modalities: visual,
auditory, haptic, smell, taste. As directional forces such as acceleration and deceleration
are a large part of the driving experience, the vestibular sense is also included.
Situatedness. As the name would make one suspect, the situatedness [19] describes
how the meaning of interactions with technology cannot be seen in isolation from the
context in which it occurs: interaction is always situated. Cognition relies on embodied
interactions that take place within a specific situation. For example, a symbol or gesture
can have a very different meaning in different contexts and for different people. In this
study, TORs were investigated on whether or not they are Adaptive to the driver and
driving situation. Is the feedback the same for all drivers and all their driver states?
Also, is the feedback the same in all driving situations?

Table 1. Data coding scheme for TOR feedback.

TOR
Suppleness Bodily experience Situatedness
Temporal output Time to take Social Output of Input to Adaptive Adaptive
mode over cues TOR disengage to driver to driving
automation situation
(O)nce, before Seconds before (Y)es (V) Visual (P) Physical (Y)es (Y)es
deactivation deactivation (N)o (A) Auditory (S) Speech (N)o (N)o
(O)nce, during (C) taCtile (G) Gesture
deactivation (S) Smell (A) Activity
(O)nce, before hazard (T) Taste recognition
(S)everal (E) vEstibular (O) Other
(I)ncremental

Table 2. Data coding scheme for HMI during automation.

HMI during automation
Suppleness Bodily experience Situatedness
Social cues Output of HMI system Adaptive to driver Adaptive to driving situation
(Y)es, .. (V) Visual (Y)es, .. (Y)es, ..
(N)o (A) Auditory (N)o (N)o
(H) Haptic
(S) Smell
(T) Taste
(E) vEstibular

3 Results

3.1 Reviewed Materials

An overview of the results can be found in Table 3 until 6 in Appendix A. Seven
different commercial car brands were selected for this review. All systems have the
 Turmoil Behind the Automated Wheel 9

option to simultaneously activate the automation of lateral and longitudinal control. As

the systems have different names across brands (and sometimes even within the brand)
they will be addressed by their company assigned name on their official websites and or
user manuals. The included brands and systems are: (1) Audi – AI Traffic Jam Pilot
[22, 29], (2) Tesla – Autopilot [30], (3) Cadillac - Super Cruise [23], (4) BMW –
Steering and Lane Guidance Assistant [31], (5) Volvo – Pilot Assist, (6) Mercedes –
Drive Pilot [32, 33]. All commercial systems will be reviewed on their general HMI
during automation (including HOWW). However only two of these systems included a
formal TOR since they allow the driver to be temporarily out of the loop due to a traffic
jam assist. Therefore only these two system could be reviewed on its TOR [22, 23].
A total of 20 literature papers were reviewed on their TOR concepts in this analysis.
Some papers discussed multiple concepts within the same paper. These were consid-
ered as individual concepts, resulting in a total of 31 concepts that were reviewed.
15 papers were selected for the general HMIs during automation. Again, as some
papers presented multiple concepts, a final total of 17 concepts were reviewed. None of
the literature concepts contained HOWWs, therefore these could not be included in the
general HMI review.

3.2 Take-Over Request (TOR)

The result tables are situated in appendix A. Table 3 shows the results for TORs in
commercial cars. Table 4 shows the results for TORs in literature concepts.
Commercial Cars. Formally, only two of the assessed systems issue a TOR [22, 23].
Therefore only these two commercial systems will be reviewed here. The remaining
systems all require the driver to continuously keep their hands or eyes on the road.
Suppleness. Audi AI traffic jam pilot provides multiple TORs before the system
disengages due to system limitations. Cadillac Super Cruise provides one TOR before
deactivation. During the second warning, at the end of the take-over period, the system
already deactivates. Both systems provide a social cue in the form of a symbol in which
hands are holding a steering wheel (or an animation that the hand grab the steering wheel).
Bodily Experience. The TORs are in both cases visually displayed on a screen.
Cadillac Super Cruise uses additional use of color and illumination in the steering
wheel. The visual cues are complemented in both systems with auditory beep(s) and/or
a spoken take-over message. Cadillac Super Cruise includes vibrations in the seat as a
TOR. Audi includes a short brake jerk and tightens the safety belt three times during
the second warning. Drivers can disengage the automation in both systems by turning
the steering wheel, pressing one of the pedals or pushing a button.
Situatedness. The reviewed systems are not adapted to the driver. This means that
the same message is given regardless of the current driver (state) or activity he is
currently performing. None are adapted to the driving situation. The feedback does not
change according to, for example, the reason that the car needs to transfers back control.
In conclusion, we found that the two reviewed commercial car TORs are very
similar on the reviewed embodiment aspects. The Audi system is slightly more supple
as it provides multiple TORs before the system disengages. Both TOR systems provide
visual and auditory cues. These are complemented with vibrations (Cadillac), seatbelt
10 A. Boelhouwer et al.

tightening or vestibular feedback through braking (Audi). The situatedness of the TOR
feedback is lacking as they did not change their form to the driver, nor to the specific
driving situation.
Literature Concepts. Suppleness. The majority of the concepts (N = 20) consist of a
single TOR before a detected hazard (without the automation deactivating). Two con-
cepts are similar to the commercial car systems as they provide one take-over request
during which the system is immediately deactivated [34, 35]. Eight of the reviewed
concepts give several warnings before deactivation. Five of these warnings increase in
intensity and cue modalities over time. The time that drivers have to take back control
before deactivation or impact ranges widely from 10 s to ‘a few minutes’. Two studies
only report that the drivers had ‘sufficient’ time to take back control [36, 37]. It is not
stated how much this specifically is. As a social cue, a few of the concepts (N = 5)
include a symbol with hands on the steering as is also seen in the commercial car
systems (Fig. 1). One concept uses a distressed voice in a verbal message in order to
portrait urgency [38].
Bodily Experience. 23 of the TOR concepts give auditory feedback. This feedback
is divided into abstract beeps (N = 16), and verbal messages (N = 2), while the rest of
the concepts combines both (N = 5). The majority of the concepts (N = 17) use a
display. These include standardized symbols, text and use of color or flashers. The
color red is used in all cases to indicate an immediate required take-over. Of the display
messages, thirteen are complimented with auditory or haptic feedback. Four of the
concepts include lighting. While two concepts have a simple LED on the dashboard,
the concept by [39] has a LED strip on the steering wheel that can light in directional
patterns. This way, it hints towards the required steering direction after take-over. Two
studies included mechanical transformations in their concepts. In the concept by [40],
part of the steering wheel was replaced with grips that change direction during the TOR
depending on the required steering direction. In the concept by [41], the upper part of
the steering wheel moves backwards during automation and is shifted back during the
TOR. This is mainly done to emphasize the need to take back control. Eight of the
concepts include vibration feedback. This is mainly applied in either the driver seat or
steering wheel. However, the concept in [38] gives vibration feedback in a wristband.
The vibration feedback in the driver seat is either static or dynamic. In case of dynamic
feedback, the vibration shifts along rows, creating the ‘illusion’ of motion or direction.
Besides three papers, drivers can take back control in all concepts by engaging with the
steering wheel or pedals.

Fig. 1. Examples of TORs that include a ‘hands on wheel’ symbol in literature. Left by [36] and
right by [42].
 Turmoil Behind the Automated Wheel 11

Situatedness. One of the literature TORs is adaptive to the driver. The concept by
[35] shows the TOR on the driver’s mobile device if he is using this. More than half of
the concepts (N = 16) adapt to the driving situation. Most of these concepts contain a
suggested (steering) action based on the situation. The way in which this is done ranges
widely. Some provide a suggested steering direction through vibration or lighting
direction while others adapt the color or symbol accordingly. [40] even adapts the
shape of the steering wheel according to the suggested steering direction. Some con-
cepts do suggest a direct action but rather provide boundaries in which the driver can
operate. For example, the concept by [37] shows the intent and expected actions of
other road users, while the concept by [43] shows an overlay on the driving lane
whether it is safe to continue driving there. Two concepts show the upcoming situation
visually and why the driver needs to take-over, for example dense fog or roadworks.
Concluding, the majority of the literature concepts present one or multiple TORs
before deactivation of the automation. This is expected as it is easier to implement
warnings before deactivation of automation as a pre-set in an experimental setting,
compared to in a car driving on the road. The variety of social cues is scarce. More
variety is found in the bodily experience but only in the output. The variety consists of
physical shape changes, verbal messages, dynamic vibrations and lighting. However,
the main outputs are still displays and auditory beeps. Only one of the concepts adapts
to the driver. However, more concepts adapt to the specific driving situation. In these
cases they mainly provide a suggested action, boundaries after the transfer of control,
or reasons for the TOR.

3.3 HMI During Automation

The result tables are situated in Appendix A. Table 5 shows the results for general HMI
during automation in commercial cars. Table 6 shows the results for general HMI
during automation in literature concepts.
Commercial Cars. Suppleness. Most of the commercial systems (N = 5) include a
Hands on Wheel Warning. While it is not indicated exactly how long these warnings
continue before the system disengages or stops the car, all systems provide these
warnings several time while increasing the intensity (in any form). All systems use a
‘hands on wheel’ symbol as a social cue to indicate that the driver needs to keep their
hands on the wheel.
Bodily experience. All systems use a visual display on a screen with illustrations,
symbols, text and changing colors to provide feedback. If drivers keep their hands or
eyes to long of the road they will receive auditory beeps as a warning and vibrations in
the steering wheel or seat. Cadillac Super Cruise includes illumination and changing
colors in the steering wheel as additional feedback on the automation state. Drivers get
visual feedback of the current car actions as they see the turning of the steering wheel.
Besides the visual feedback, drivers can feel the car’s actions through the turning of the
wheel.
Situatedness. All HMI systems during automation are partially adapted to the driver
as they sense whether the driver has their hands on the wheel, or their eyes on the road,
and prompts a HOWW accordingly. There is some variation to the extend in which the
systems are adapted to the driving situation. However, all of them show a combination
of automation mode, detected vehicles, lane markings and speed limit.
12 A. Boelhouwer et al.

Conclusion. The general HMI during automation of commercial cars is very much
the same across the systems on the investigated aspects. The suppleness with regard to
social cues is limited to ‘Hands on the wheel’ symbols. The output is mainly given
through displays, auditory beeps and vibrations in the steering wheel. The feedback is
partially adaptive to the driver as it issues a ‘hands on wheel’ (or eyes on road) message
in case the car detects that the hands are not on the wheel (or the eyes are not on the
road). The feedback is adaptive to the driving scenario as all systems present the
detected vehicles, obstacles, speed limit and/or lane markings. Figure 2 shows exam-
ples of HMI during automation in the Audi (A8) and Tesla systems.

Fig. 2. Examples of HMI during automation. The left dashboard is by Audi for their A8 [44],
the right dashboard is by Tesla [45] (copyright Tesla.com).

Literature Concepts. Suppleness. Two concepts [36, 46] use the social cue of
showing ‘hands on a steering wheel’. While the concept by [36] uses this to indicate
manual driving mode, [46] uses it as a soft warning in case of potential hazards. Two
concepts [47, 48] use facial expressions in emoticons as social cues to indicate the
confidence of the automated system. [49] uses the tendency to engage in joint
attention/gaze to redirect the driver’s attention. Their concept contains three physical
mini robots on the dashboard that turn their head from and towards the road ahead. The
concept by [50] uses small talk to engage with the driver, which consisted of sentences
that were either driving related or not.
Bodily experience. Six of the concepts provide multimodal feedback. These are
combinations of auditory, visual and/or haptic stimuli. Eleven of the concepts include
visual feedback, most of which are on displays (N = 9). Two concepts use lighting in
their feedback [46, 49]. In [49] this is used to intensify the movement of the physical
dashboard robots (as described above). [46] uses light in the windscreen as a soft
warning to direct the driver’s attention towards potential hazards in the driving envi-
ronment. [49] is the only concept to use movement of mechanical objects in their HMI.
Two concepts use tactile stimuli. [51] uses vibrations in different parts of the driver seat
to indicate approaching vehicles. The concept by [52] consists of a high resolution
haptic surface the driver can touch with his fingers. The authors report that the concept
may be used for visually impaired passengers of automated cars, but an exact function
of the device is not specified. The use of auditory feedback is split evenly between
beeps and verbal statements. The study by [53] uses auditory icon sounds. They
describe these sounds as “non-speech sounds that bear some ecological relationship to
their referent processes”. An example is a water gurgle sound to represent the message
that fuel is running low.
 Turmoil Behind the Automated Wheel 13

Situatedness. Four of the reviewed concepts are adaptive to the driver in some form.
The concept by [49] tries to engage the driver in looking at the road by personification
(small robot looking at the driver and then looking at the road) when the driver is
inattentive. Similarly, the concept by [51] only starts the vibration feedback if the
driver is not looking at the road, to provide information about the surrounding traffic.
The concept by [54] shows adaptive information on the driver’s condition during
automation. What this information exactly entails is not specified. While the study by
[52] (15) is directed specifically at visually impaired drivers, the feedback is not
dynamically adapted to the driver during automation. Almost all concepts are adapted
to some degree to the driving situation (N = 13). They use a variety of combined
methods to show adaptive feedback about the driving situation. Five of the concepts
show the currently detected elements of the driving situation through a display, such as
road users, lane markings and traffic signs. All of these five concepts also include the
planned next action of the car, such as an upcoming turn or brake. [22] and [32] change
the location of their feedback, which are respectively vibration and illumination,
according to the detected hazards. While [50] uses casual remarks and questions about
the driving situation to engage the driver, [55] adapts the verbal level of information
according to the situation. For example, in some situations the system only mentions
the current action “the car is braking”, while in other situations it gives the reason why
it is performing this action “the car is braking because a traffic jam is coming up
ahead”. [43] uses a direct overlay on the windscreen to show whether it is safe to
continue in that lane after deactivation of the automation. Thee of the concepts display
the confidence of the system to continue in automated mode [47, 48, 56].
Conclusion. The general HMI during automation in literature concepts shows a
variety of supple social cues. These cues mainly include facial expressions, shared gaze,
a ‘hands on wheel’ symbol and small talk. The bodily experience of literature HMI
concepts is shows some variation. Only a small part of the literature concepts is adaptive
to the driver. The ones that are, mainly show the driver condition or provide feedback if
the driver is not paying attention. The feedback is adaptive to the driving situation in
most concepts. In these concepts the feedback show the confidence of the automated
system, the detected environment and detected hazards. Some concepts change the
location of their feedback according to the environment and next actions of the car.

4 Discussion

The goal of this study was firstly to identify the current state of embodied design
elements in driver support in partially automated cars. This way, new design spaces
may be discovered to guide the design of innovative driver support in automated
vehicles. To achieve this, partially automated car systems from literature and industry
were reviewed from an embodied perspective. More specifically, we reviewed TOR
feedback and the general HMI during automation on suppleness, bodily experience and
situatedness.
Several opportunities for new designs were found in the current TOR feedback
systems. Firstly, most commercial car systems do not provide a formal TOR since the
driver is considered to continuously monitor the road. Rather the system disengages
14 A. Boelhouwer et al.

when it can no longer function with only a simple visual or auditory cue. While we
recognize that this is most likely a technical limitation, implementing multiple incre-
mental TORs before system disengagement may greatly improve the suppleness [57].
Especially as it can be very difficult for drivers to recognize themselves when the
system reaches its limits, the system should indicate its limits as clearly as possible
[11, 58]. Second, the use and variety of social cues was very limited in both com-
mercial cars and literature concepts. Social cues may create more easily understood,
fluent and accepted car-driver interactions. These may for example include social
behaviour such as facial expressions, or gestures such as pointing or turning towards a
joint interest [59]. Third, while literature showed an increasing variety of TOR output
methods, TORs of commercial cars mainly kept to displays, beeps and steering wheel
vibrations. It is important to transfer this development into commercial cars as dividing
feedback to different senses may prevent overloading of the driver during take-over.
Alternative output modes may be useful as drivers are engaged in non-driving tasks and
not holding the steering wheel or looking at the dashboard. Lastly, both literature and
commercial cars lacked situated feedback to the driver. This leaves a large opportunity
to design driver adaptive feedback systems. The request may for example take the
current activity of the driver into consideration. This is especially relevant in higher
level automated cars where the driver may be immersed in different activities such as
work. In order to create a safe mode transition the system should take the driver into
consideration and adapt the feedback accordingly. This can be done not only by timing,
but also by changing the location, intensity or modality of the information according to
the driver’s activity.
Design opportunities for general HMI during automation were also identified. First,
although a few concepts with social cues were presented in literature, only ‘hands on
wheel’ symbols were present in the commercial cars. Again, there is an opportunity to
transfer more variety of social cues to commercial cars. The literature concepts already
included facial expressions, small talk and mutual gaze. It is encouraged to expand the
development of these and new cues to aid the driver in understanding the car through
continuous fluent interactions [60, 61]. Second, the bodily experience in general HMI
during automation mainly consists of visuals, audio and vibrations. This holds for both
the commercial cars and literature concepts. An opportunity is found to include other
senses that may be less obvious at a first sight such as smell [62, 63], taste and the
vestibular sense [64, 65]. Although a few concepts use braking as vestibular feedback,
it can be explored further as the lateral and longitudinal forces make up such a large
part of the driving experience, and seems to be a natural cue for passengers of vehicles
to respond so. Developing other forms of vestibular feedback may improve the situ-
ational awareness of drivers in automated mode while they perform non-driving
activities [64]. Third, with regard to the situatedness, the HMI in commercial cars and
literature are mainly adapting the timing of their message to the driver state. The form
or message content however does not change. As previously stated, it may be necessary
to design driver dependent feedback due to the different activities the driver may be
engaged in during automation.
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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Geological
facts; or, the crust of the earth, what it is, and
what are its uses
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
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eBook.

Title: Geological facts; or, the crust of the earth, what it is, and
what are its uses

Author: W. G. Barrett

Release date: November 12, 2023 [eBook #72100]

Language: English

Original publication: United Kingdom: Arthur Hall, Virtue, & co,

1855

Credits: Richard Tonsing, Charlene Taylor, Bryan Ness, and the

Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from
scanned images of public domain material from the
Google Books project.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK

GEOLOGICAL FACTS; OR, THE CRUST OF THE EARTH, WHAT
IT IS, AND WHAT ARE ITS USES ***
Transcriber’s Note:
New original cover art included with this eBook is
granted to the public domain.

BASALTIC COLUMNS AT REGIA, IN

MEXICO
GEOLOGICAL FACTS;

OR,

THE CRUST OF THE EARTH,

WHAT IT IS,

AND WHAT ARE ITS USES.

BY

THE REV. W. G. BARRETT,

ROYSTON.

“There is in this universe a stair, or manifest

scale of creatures, rising not disorderly nor in

confusion, but with a comely method and

proportion.”—Sir Thomas Browne, Religio

Medici, 1642.
 LONDON:
ARTHUR HALL, VIRTUE, & CO.
25, PATERNOSTER ROW.
1855.
 LONDON:
R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL
 PREFACE.

Last written, and generally last read, a Preface has nevertheless

become so integral a part of every book, that I may presume, I trust,
upon the attention of my readers while I ask them to indulge me with
a little prefatory egotism.
This book of mine goes forth into the world with many misgivings
on the part of its author. How he came to write it was thus-wise. He
was settled in a quiet country town in Cambridgeshire, Royston to
wit, as a Dissenting Minister; around him he found a number of
young persons, who did not believe they had “finished their
education” because they had left school, and who were anxious to
avoid the usual littleness and small talk of such towns, by earnest
attention to actual study. And so it came to pass that a Geological
class was formed, which, meeting every week, afforded real stimulus
for private work, and led to the consultation of the best standard
works, happily available through the well-conditioned library of the
town.
The result of those classes is this little book. What is written here
was mostly, if not all, said there; and, urged to publish, the author
feels a pleasure in dedicating this book to the class, composed almost
entirely of young ladies, who found in these studies one of their chief
delights, and whose private collections have been greatly assisted by
the hints thus obtained.
I do not pretend to teach the Science of Geology; I aspire simply to
give a taste for this noble and elevating physical study; and,
imperfect as this little manual, written in the few hours of capricious
leisure snatched from an incessant strain of engagements, must be, I
shall only be too happy, if one and another lay aside my book, and go
up higher to Lyell, Sedgwick, Buckland, Murchison, Ansted, Miller,
and others.
 Possibly my stand-point as a minister of religion may have given
unconsciously a too theological tone to some of the chapters,
especially the last; if such is the case, I beg leave to apologise for such
an error by the candid statement, that I have come into contact
frequently with minds who have not hesitated to express the doubts I
have endeavoured to resolve.
I am quite sure that if we, whose calling is with the greatest and
the deepest truths that can touch the heart of the real world in which
we live and move and have our being, encourage those whom we
meet in the free intercourse of social life, to express their doubts,
however painful the form of that expression may sometimes be, we
shall be far better prepared to meet the wants of our age than if we
shut ourselves up in our studies, and exclude ourselves by
conventional devices from God’s great world of thought and action
that is vibrating so palpably around us, many of whose most painful
throbs are occasioned by a supposed contradiction between Science
and Scripture.
At the feet of the Master I desire to serve, I lay this little book,
beseeching Him to regard it as a labour of love, and to use it as an aid
to the faith of others in the inspired books of Nature and of
Revelation.
Removed from the happy town where this book was written, it only
remains to add, that for many of the fossils figured in the following
pages I am indebted to the kindness of the Rev. Mr. Meeke, at that
time the Unitarian Minister of Royston, whose cabinet was always
open to my use, and whose courtesy and catholic kindness I thus
desire to record; while to Miss Butler, one of my Geological class, I
am indebted for all the drawings and devices which will doubtless
make this book more attractive than it could otherwise have been.
In the words of Archdeacon Hare, I close this brief prelection: “So
imperfectly do we yet understand the redemption wrought for us by
Christ; and so obstinate are we in separating what God has united, as
though it were impossible for the Tree of Knowledge to stand beside
the Tree of Life. Yet in the redeemed world they do stand side by
side, and their arms intermingle and intertwine, so that no one can
walk under the shade of the one, but he will also be under the shade
of the other.”
W. G. B.

Manchester,
July, 1855.
CONTENTS.
 CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Introductory 1

CHAPTER II.

Preliminaries 15

CHAPTER III.

The Ancient Epoch 33

CHAPTER IV.

The Palæozoic Period 50

CHAPTER V.

The Old Red Sandstone 67

CHAPTER VI.

The Carboniferous System 83

CHAPTER VII.

Secondary Formations. 1. The New Red Sandstone 106

CHAPTER VIII.

Secondary Rocks. 2. The Oolitic System 123

CHAPTER IX.

Secondary Rocks. 3. The Oolite proper 145

 CHAPTER X.

Secondary Rocks. 4. The Wealden 175

CHAPTER XI.

Secondary Rocks. 5. The Chalk. The Cretaceous System 198

CHAPTER XII.

The Tertiary System 224

CHAPTER XIII.

Scripture and Geology; or, apparent Contradictions reconciled 255

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

BY S. & G. NICHOLLS.
 PAGE
Basaltic Columns, Regia, Mexico Frontispiece.
Section of the Earth’s Crust 16
Ditto 21
London Basin 25
Section of ditto 25
Artesian Well 27
Mining District 41
Section of a Mine 43
Trilobite 56
Ditto 57
Eyes of ditto 58
Crystallization on Cornish Slate 60
Bellerophon 61
Silurian Remains 61
Ditto 62
Coralline 62
Land’s End 66
Fish Scales 74
Fish Tails 75
Cephalaspis 76
Coccosteus 77
Pterichthys 78
Osteolepis 79
Extinct and existing Ferns 87
Flora of the Carboniferous System 95
Asterophyllite and Sphenopteris 97
Pecopteris, Odontopteris, and Neuropteris 98
Calamites 100
Stigmaria Ficoides 101
Miner at Work, and Lamp 105
Casts of Rain drops 111
Footprints of Bird 113
Ditto 114
Footprints of Labyrinthodon 116
Ammonites 130
Ditto and Nautilus 131
Ditto 132
Ichthyosaurus 137
Plesiosaurus 140
Dirt-Bed, Portland 150
Oolite Coral 151
Ditto 152
Pear Encrinites 164
Ditto 165
Ditto, with Coral 166
Ammonites Jason 166
Oolite Shells 169
Discovering the Pterodactyle 170
The Philosopher and Ditto 171
Pterodactyle Skeleton 173
Ditto, restored 174
Fauna of the Oolitic Period 195
Royston Heath 206
Fossil Teeth (Greensand) 209
Fossils from the Gault (Folkstone) 210
Ditto 211
Fossils from the Chalk 212
Fossil Fish 214
Ditto 215
Waltonian and Mantellian Fishermen 223
Fossils from the London Clay 238
Wood perforated by the Teredina 241
Septaria 242
Fossils from Red Crag 245
Megatherium 248
Mastodon 250
Fossil Man 251
Cliff, Guadaloupe 252
The Geologist’s Dream 254
The Reconciliation 288
GEOLOGY.
 CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.

“In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.”
Moses.

Geology is the history of the crust of this planet. This history we

compile, not from old records or moth-eaten state papers, not from
antiquarian research or the study of ancient coins, but from actual
and painstaking examination of the materials composing this crust.
How suitable is this word crust, will be seen at once, when it is
considered that its thickness in all probability does not exceed eighty
miles, a mere fraction of the distance to the earth’s centre. Of this
eighty miles we know pretty accurately the character and
arrangement of some seven or eight miles; not that we have ever
penetrated so far beneath the surface in a straight line, the deepest
mines not exceeding 1800 or 1900 feet; but, by putting together the
thicknesses of the various strata, with which we are well acquainted,
we reach this conclusion without much hesitation. Professor
Whewell has well observed, that “an earth greater or smaller, denser
or rarer, than the one on which we live, would require a change in the
structure and strength of all the little flowers that hang their heads
under our hedges. There is something curious in thus considering
the whole mass from pole to pole and from circumference to centre,
as employed in keeping a snowdrop in the position most suited to its
vegetable health.”[1] When we come to examine this crust, several
appearances of a striking character reward our toil. At first, and
before we proceed in our investigations more minutely, we find that
there are only two varieties of rocks in all the vast arrangements
spread out before us. Some rocks we find to be unstratified, and
others we find to be stratified: from the absence of all fossils in the
former of these, and from their crystalline character, we conclude
that these were formed by the action of fire, and therefore we call
them Igneous or Plutonic rocks. From the sedimentary character and
from the numerous fossils of the stratified rocks, we conclude these
to have been formed by the action of water, and we therefore call
these Aqueous or Neptunian rocks. Following out these
investigations, we meet with other facts equally interesting: we find
that the Plutonic or unstratified rocks lie generally at the base of all
the others, and that where they come up to the surface and crop out
from other rocks, or rise in towering mountain heights above them,
this has been the result of igneous action from beneath, and that this
elevation has disturbed the surrounding strata from the horizontal
position in which we imagine them to have been first arranged. The
extent of the Plutonic rocks is immense; in Europe, the Scandinavian
mountains, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Carpathians; in Asia, the
Himalayan, the Caucasian, and the Altai mountains; in Africa, the
Atlas mountains and the Cape of Good Hope; in America, nearly the
whole of the two continents, and in Australia, its southern part;—all
these wide regions of the globe are composed of those igneous or
Plutonic rocks to which we give the names of granite, basalt,
porphyry, trap, &c. &c. Finding the surrounding strata disturbed by
depression, or upheaval in consequence of the giant claims of these
older rocks that appear to have risen out of the centre of the earth in
a red-hot or semifluid condition, and then suddenly to have cooled
down, we begin to examine this upper and sedimentary strata, and
here the most delightful and romantic results are obtained. We find
no two courses or formations in these sedimentary rocks alike.
Rising up from the granite, we meet in the clay strata corals and
trilobites, the first fossil forms of ancient life with which we are
acquainted: we rise higher still, for our imaginary start is from the
bottom of the earth’s crust, and we meet in other rocks fossil fishes of
an extraordinary shape, and once, doubtless, possessed of
extraordinary functions; higher yet, and touching the coal measures,
we come to vast forests of palms and ferns, that by chemical changes
and mechanical pressure have been converted into our mineral coal,
the vast fields of which constitute the real diamond mines of Great
Britain; higher yet, exploring the Lias and Oolitic groups, the huge
remains of ancient saurians (animals of the lizard species) fill us with
awe and wonder, and make us rejoice that they had no successors in
the next strata; higher yet, and we reach the last period of the earth’s
history, previous to the introduction of man, and enormous “four-
footed beasts,” the mastodon, the megatherium and others, astonish
us by their gigantic proportions, and evidently herbivorous habits;
and last of all we rise to the surface and breathe freely in company