Knowledge Organiser: Elements and Compounds Development of The Model of The Atom

Chapter 1: Atomic structure
Knowledge organiser
Development of the model of the atom Elements and compounds Drawing atoms
Elements are substances made of one Electrons in an atom are placed in fixed
Dalton’s model The plum pudding model + – +
electron type of atom. Each atom of an element shells. You can put
John Dalton thought Scientists’ experiments resulted in the discovery of – + –
+
will have the same number of protons. • up to two electrons in the first shell
–
of the atom as a solid sub‑atomic charged particles. The first to be discovered + + –
Compounds are made of different types • eight electrons each in the second
– + –
sphere that could not were electrons – tiny, negatively charged particles. –
– +
of atoms chemically bonded together. and third shells.
+ lithium chlorine
be divided into smaller + +
–
The atoms in a compound have different
The discovery of electrons led to the plum pudding model of – – + + You must fill up a shell before moving on
parts. His model did –
numbers of protons.
the atom – a cloud of positive charge, with negative electrons +
+ to the next one.
not include protons, – –
embedded in it. Protons and neutrons had not yet been
neutrons, or electrons.
discovered. cloud of positive charge
Mixtures
• A mixture consists of two or more Separating mixtures
Alpha scattering experiment scientists predicted: actually observed: elements or compounds that are not • filtration – insoluble solids and a liquid
1 Scientists fired small, positively charged particles gold atoms gold atoms
chemically combined together.
• crystallisation – soluble solid from a solution
(called alpha particles) at a piece of gold foil only – • The substances in a mixture can be
a few atoms thick.
– • simple distillation – solvent from a solution
– + – separated using physical processes.
– + • fractional distillation – two liquids with similar boiling points
2 They expected the alpha particles to travel – + • These processes do not use
+ – • paper chromatography – identify substances from a mixture
straight through the gold. – chemical reactions.
–
3 They were surprised that some of the alpha – in solution
particles bounced back and many were deflected – + – –
+ +
(alpha scattering). –
–
4 To explain why the alpha particles were repelled +
– –
– Atoms and particles
the scientists suggested that the positive charge – + – + –
and mass of an atom must be concentrated in a + Relative charge Relative mass
alpha particle –
–
small space at its centre. They called this space – Proton +1 1 = atomic number
the nucleus.
Neutron 0 1 = mass number – atomic number
Electron −1 0 (very small) = same as the number of protons
Nuclear model Electron shell (Bohr) model The proton All atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons, meaning they have no overall charge:
Scientists replaced the – Niels Bohr calculated Further experiments provided total negative charge from electrons = total positive charge from protons
plum pudding model –
that electrons must –
evidence that the nucleus
with the nuclear + orbit the nucleus –
contained smaller particles
+ called protons. A proton has an
model and suggested – at fixed distances. – Isotopes
that the electrons – These orbits are opposite charge to an electron.
orbit the nucleus, but called shells or – Atoms of the same element can have a different number of neutrons, giving them a different overall mass number.
not at set distances. energy levels. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.
The relative atomic mass is the average mass of all the atoms of an element:
(abundance of isotope 1 × mass of isotope 1 ) + (abundance of isotope 2 × mass of isotope 2)...
relative atomic mass =
100
Size Relative mass The neutron
The atom has a One property of protons, neutrons, and James Chadwick carried out
radius of 1×10−10 m. electrons is relative mass – their masses experiments that gave evidence
Nuclei (plural of compared to each other. Protons and for a particle with no charge. Key terms
nucleus) are around neutrons have the same mass, so are given Scientists called this the neutron Make sure you can write a definition for these key terms.
10 000 times smaller a relative mass of 1. It takes almost 2000 and concluded that the protons and
than atoms and electrons to equal the mass of a single neutrons are in the nucleus, and the abundance atom atomic number aqueous compound electron
have a radius of proton – their relative mass is so small that electrons orbit the nucleus in shells. element energy level isotope neutron nucleus orbit
around 1×10−14 m. we can consider it as 0. product proton reactant relative atomic mass
relative charge relative mass shell
Chapter 1: Atomic structure
Retrieval questions
Learn the answers to the questions below then cover the answers column
with a piece of paper and write as many as you can. Check and repeat.
C1 questions Answers
1 What is an atom? smallest part of an element that can exist
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atoms as solid spheres that could not be divided into
2 What is Dalton’s model of the atom?
smaller parts
sphere of positive charge with negative electrons
3 What is the plum pudding model of the atom?
embedded in it
some alpha particles were deflected by the gold foil –
What did scientists discover in the alpha scattering
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4 this showed that an atom’s mass and positive charge
experiment?
must be concentrated in one small space (the nucleus)
5 Describe the nuclear model of the atom. dense nucleus with electrons orbiting it
6 What did Niels Bohr discover? electrons orbit in fixed energy levels (shells)
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7 What did James Chadwick discover? uncharged particle called the neutron
8 Where are protons and neutrons? in the nucleus
What is the relative mass of each sub-atomic
9 proton: 1, neutron: 1, electron: 0 (very small)
particle?
What is the relative charge of each sub-atomic
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10 proton: +1, neutron: 0, electron: −1

particle?
How can you find out the number of protons in an
11 the atomic number on the Periodic Table
atom?
How can you calculate the number of neutrons in
12 mass number – atomic number
an atom?
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equal numbers of positive protons and negative

13 Why do atoms have no overall charge?
electrons
How many electrons would you place in the first, up to 2 in the first shell and up to 8 in the second and
14
second, and third shells? third shells
15 What is an element? substance made of one type of atom
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substance made of more than one type of atom

16 What is a compound?
chemically joined together
17 What is a mixture? two or more substances not chemically combined
atoms of the same element (same number of protons)
18 What are isotopes?
with different numbers of neutrons
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What are the four physical processes that can be filtration, crystallisation, distillation, fractional
19
used to separate mixtures? distillation, chromatography
20 What is relative mass? the average mass of all the atoms of an element
Chapter 2: The Periodic Table
Knowledge organiser
Development of the Periodic Table Group 1 elements

The Periodic Table has changed over time as scientists have organised it differently. Mendeleev was Group 1 elements react with oxygen, chlorine, Group 1
the alkali metals
able to accurately predict the properties of undiscovered elements based on the gaps in the table. and water, for example:
H He
lithium + oxygen ➞ lithium oxide
First lists of elements Mendeleev’s Periodic Table Modern Periodic Table Li Be B C N O F Ne
lithium + chlorine ➞ lithium chloride
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
lithium + water ➞ lithium hydroxide + hydrogen
How are elements normally by atomic mass but some K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
by atomic mass by atomic number
ordered? elements were swapped around Group 1 elements are called alkali metals
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
because they react with water to form an alkali
(a solution of their metal hydroxide). Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
no gaps – all elements up to a certain Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg

Are there gaps? no gaps gaps left for undiscovered elements
atomic number have been discovered
How are elements

not grouped grouped by chemical properties
grouped by the number of electrons in Group 1 properties
grouped? the outer shells
Group 1 elements all have one electron in their outer shell.
Reactivity increases down Group 1 because as you move down
metals to the left, non‑metals to the group:
Metals and non-metals no clear distinction no clear distinction • the atoms increase in size
the right K Na Li
• the outer electron is further away from the nucleus, and there
are more shells shielding the outer electron from the nucleus
incomplete, with no explanation for why
some elements grouped • the electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and the outer
Problems some elements had to be swapped to —
inappropriately electron is weaker so it is easier to lose the one outer electron
fit in the appropriate groups reactivity
• the melting point and boiling point decreases down Group 1.
Group 7 elements
Group 0 Group 7 elements are called the halogens. They are non‑metals that exist as molecules made up of pairs of atoms.
Elements in Group 0 are called the noble gases. Noble gases have the
Name Formula State at room temperature Melting point and boiling point Reactivity
following properties:
fluorine F2 gas
full outer shells with eight electrons, so do not need to lose or gain
• chlorine Cl2 gas
electrons increases down the group decreases down the group
bromine Br2 liquid
are very unreactive (inert) so exist as single atoms as they do not bond
• iodine I2 solid
to form molecules
boiling points that increase down the group.
• helium neon
Group 7 reactivity
Reactivity decreases down Group 7 because as you move down the group:
• the atoms increase in size
• the outer shell is further away from the nucleus, and there are more shells
between the nucleus and the outer shell Cl F
• the electrostatic attraction from the nucleus to the outer shell is weaker so it is
argon harder to gain one electron to fill the outer shell.
Key terms Group 7 displacement reactivity
Make sure you can write a definition for these key terms.
More reactive Group 7 elements can take the place of less reactive ones
alkali metals chemical properties displacement groups halogens inert isotopes in a compound. This is called displacement.
For example, fluorine displaces chlorine as it is more reactive:
noble gas organised Periodic Table reactivity undiscovered unreactive fluorine + potassium chloride ➞ potassium fluoride + chlorine
Chapter 2: The Periodic Table
Retrieval questions
1 How is the modern Periodic Table ordered? by atomic number
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2 How were the early lists of elements ordered? by atomic mass
3 Why did Mendeleev swap the order of some elements? to group them by their chemical properties
leave room for elements that had not yet been
4 Why did Mendeleev leave gaps in his Periodic Table?
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discovered
Why do elements in a group have similar chemical
5 have the same number of electrons in their outer shell
properties?
Where are metals and non-metals located on the
6 metals to the left, non-metals to the right
Periodic Table?
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7 What name is given to the Group 1 elements? alkali metals
8 Why are the alkali metals named this? they are metals that react with water to form an alkali
metal + oxygen ➞ metal oxide
Give the general equations for the reactions of alkali
9 metal + chlorine ➞ metal chloride
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metals with oxygen, chlorine, and water.

metal + water ➞ metal hydroxide + hydrogen
How does the reactivity of the alkali metals change
10 increases (more reactive)
down the group?
they are larger atoms, so the outermost electron is
further from the nucleus, meaning there are weaker
Why does the reactivity of the alkali metals increase
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11 electrostatic forces of attraction and more shielding

down the group?
between the nucleus and outer electron, and it is easier
to lose the electron
12 What name is given to the Group 7 elements? halogens
13 Give the formulae of the first four halogens. F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
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How do the melting points of the halogens change

14 increase (higher melting point)
down the group?
How does the reactivity of the halogens change down
15 decrease (less reactive)
the group?
they are larger atoms, so the outermost shell is
Put paper here
further from the nucleus, meaning there are weaker

Why does the reactivity of the halogens decrease
16 electrostatic forces of attraction and more shielding
down the group?
between the nucleus and outer shell, and it is harder to
gain an electron
when a more reactive element takes the place of a less
17 What is a displacement reaction?
reactive one in a compound
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18 What name is given to the Group 0 elements? noble gases

they have full outer shells so do not need to lose or gain
19 Why are the noble gases inert?
electrons
How do the melting points of the noble gases change
20 increase (higher melting point)
down the group?
Chapter 3: Bonding 1
Knowledge organiser
Particle model Ions Ionic bonding Giant ionic lattice

The three states of matter can be represented in the particle model. Atoms can gain or lose electrons to give them a full outer When metal atoms react with non-metal atoms they transfer When metal atoms sodium ion Na+
chloride ion Cl–
melting point boiling point
shell. The number of protons is then different from the electrons to the non-metal atom. transfer electrons to
- + -
number of electrons. The resulting particle has a charge non-metal atoms you + - +
and is called an ion. needs to has one more end up with positive - + -
melting boiling lose 1 proton than electrons
and negative ions. + - +
+ - + -
These are attracted to + - +
+ each other by the strong - + -
electron 23 23
Li Li electrostatic force + - +
Na Na - -
of attraction. This is
+
freezing condensing lost 11 11

called ionic bonding.
–
solid liquid gas The electrostatic force of attraction works in
F F
sodium atom, Na sodium ion, Na+ all directions, so many billions of ions can be bonded
(HT only) This model assumes that: 11 protons 11 protons together in a 3D structure.
11 electrons 10 electrons needs to has one more
there are no forces between the particles
•
overall charge = 0 overall charge = 1+ gain 1 electron than protons
that all particles in a substance are spherical
•
that the spheres are solid.
•
has two more Formulae
The amount of energy needed to change the state of a substance depends Conductivity needs to lose 2 protons than electrons
on the forces between the particles. The stronger the forces between the The formula of an ionic substance can be worked out
Solid ionic substances do not conduct electricity because 2+
1 from its bonding diagram:
particles, the higher the melting or boiling point of the substance.
the ions are fixed in position and not free to carry charge. Mg Mg for every one magnesium ion there are two fluoride
When melted or dissolved in water, ionic substances do ions – so the formula for magnesium fluoride is
Covalent bonding conduct electricity because the ions are free to move and MgF2
Atoms can share or transfer electrons to form strong chemical bonds. carry charge. – –
2 from a lattice diagram:
there are nine Fe2+ S– ion Fe2+ ion
A covalent bond is when electrons are shared between non‑metal atoms. F F F F ions and 18 S– ions –
The number of electrons shared depends on how many extra electrons Melting points simplifying this ratio
an atom needs to make a full outer shell. Ionic substances have high melting points because the needs to needs to gives a formula of FeS2
gain 1 gain 1
If you include electrons that are electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely
shared between atoms, each charged ions is strong and so requires lots of energy Metal atoms lose electrons to become positive ions. Non-
O
atom has a full outer shell. to break. metal atoms gain electrons to become negative ions.
O
Single bond = each atom
C
shares one pair of electrons. H H
Double bond = each atom Metals: structure and properties

O
shares two pairs of electrons.
Covalent structures
The atoms that make up metals form layers. The electrons in the outer shells of
There are three main types of covalent structure: the atoms are delocalised – this means they are free to move through the whole
structure. positive ions
Giant covalent Small molecules Large molecules
Structure and bonding
–
The positive metal ions are then attracted to these delocalised electrons by the –
+ –
–
+–
Many billions of atoms, each Each molecule contains only a few atoms Many repeating units joined by covalent bonds – – – –
electrostatic force of attraction. – –
+ –
– – +
one with a strong covalent with strong covalent bonds between to form a chain. + – –+
bond to a number of others. these atoms. Different molecules are held The small section is bonded to many identical Some important properties of metals are: –
– + – –
–+
+ – + –
together by weak intermolecular forces. sections to the left and right. The ‘n’ represents a – –
An example of a giant pure metals are malleable because the layers can slide over each other
•
covalent structure is diamond. For example, water is made of small large number. they are good conductors of electricity and of thermal energy because
• ‘sea’ of delocalised
electrons
molecules. Separate chains are held together delocalised electrons are free to move through the whole structure
H H
by intermolecular forces that are they have high melting and boiling points because the electrostatic force of
•
stronger than in small molecules. C C attraction between metal ions and delocalised electrons is strong so lots of
energy is needed to break it.
Polymers are examples of long H H n
molecules.
Chapter 3: Bonding 2
Knowledge organiser
High melting and boiling Low melting and boiling points Melting and boiling points are low Alloys
points because the strong because only the intermolecular compared to giant covalent substances
covalent bonds between the forces need to be overcome to melt but higher than for small molecules.
Properties
atoms must be broken to or boil the substances, not the

Large molecules have stronger
melt or boil the substances. bonds between the atoms.
intermolecular forces than small
This requires a lot of energy. This does not require a lot of energy molecules, which require more energy Pure metals are often too soft to use as they are. Adding atoms of a different element
as the intermolecular forces are to overcome. can make the resulting mixture harder because the new atoms will be a different size pure iron
Solid at room temperature. to the pure metal’s atoms. This will disturb the regular arrangement of the layers,
weak.
Normally solid at room temperature. preventing them from sliding over each other.
Normally gaseous or liquid at room
The harder mixture is called an alloy.
temperature.
Most covalent structures do not conduct electricity because they do not have delocalised electrons or ions that are free
to move to carry charge. iron alloy
Graphite Fullerenes Measuring particles

Graphite is a giant covalent structure, but is different to hollow cages of carbon atoms bonded together
• We use different units and scales to measure the size of particles.
other giant covalent substances. in one molecule
can be arranged as a sphere or a tube (called a
• Particle Particulate matter Size Standard form Full form
Structure nanotube) grain of sand N/A 0.1 mm 1×10−4 m 0.0001 m
Made only of carbon – each molecules held together by weak intermolecular
•
carbon atom bonds to three forces, so can slide over each other coarse particles (e.g., dust) PM10 10 μm 1×10−5 m 0.00001 m
others, and forms hexagonal • conduct electricity fine particles PM2.5 100 nm 1×10−7 m 0.0000001 m
rings in layers. Each carbon atom
0.000000001 m
has one spare electron, which is delocalised and Spheres nanoparticles < PM2.5 1 to 100 nm 1×10−9 to 1×10−7 m
to 0.0000001 m
therefore free to move around the structure. Buckminsterfullerene was the
first fullerene to be discovered, PM stands for particulate matter and is another way of measuring very small particles.
Hardness and has 60 carbon atoms.
The layers can slide over each other because they are Other fullerenes exist with
not covalently bonded. Graphite is therefore softer different numbers of carbon
than diamond, even though both are made only of Uses of nanoparticles
atoms arranged in rings that
carbon, as each atom in diamond has four strong form hollow shapes. Nanoparticles often have very different properties to bulk materials of the same substance, caused by their high surface
covalent bonds. area-to-volume-ratio.
Fullerenes like this can be used as lubricants and in
Conductivity drug delivery. Overset Nanoparticles have many uses and are an important area of research. They are used in healthcare, electronics,
The delocalised electrons are free to move through cosmetics, and as catalysts.
Nanotubes
graphite, so can carry charges and allow an electrical However, nanoparticles have the potential to be hazardous to health and to ecosystems, so it is important that they
current to flow. Graphite is therefore a conductor are researched further.
of electricity.
The carbon atoms in nanotubes are arranged in Key terms

Graphene Make sure you can write a definition for these key terms.
cylindrical tubes.
Graphene consists of only a single layer of graphite. Its Their high tensile strength (they are difficult to break conductivity conductor delocalised electron electrostatic force of attraction
strong covalent bonds make it a strong material that can when pulled) makes them useful in electronics.
also conduct electricity. It could be used in composites ion lattice layer malleable nanoparticle particulate matter
and high-tech electronics. surface area to volume ratio transfer
Chapter 3: Bonding
Retrieval questions
C3 questions Answers 19 What is an ion? atom that has lost or gained electrons
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20 Which kinds of elements form ionic bonds? metals and non-metals
1 How are covalent bonds formed? by atoms sharing electrons
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21 What charges do ions from Groups 1 and 2 form? Group 1 forms 1+, Group 2 forms 2+
Which type of atoms form covalent bonds between
2 non-metals
them? 22 What charges do ions from Groups 6 and 7 form? Group 6 forms 2−, Group 7 forms 1−
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Describe the structure and bonding of a giant billions of atoms bonded together by strong covalent Name the force that holds oppositely charged ions
3 23 electrostatic force of attraction
covalent substance. bonds together.
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regular structure of alternating positive and negative
small numbers of atoms group together into molecules 24 Describe the structure of a giant ionic lattice. ions, held together by the electrostatic force of
Describe the structure and bonding of small
4 with strong covalent bonds between the atoms and attraction
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molecules.
weak intermolecular forces between the molecules electrostatic force of attraction between positive and
25 Why do ionic substances have high melting points? negative ions is strong and requires lots of energy to
many identical molecules joined together by break
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5 Describe the structure and bonding of polymers. strong covalent bonds in a long chain, with weak Why don’t ionic substances conduct electricity when ions are fixed in position so cannot move, and there
26
intermolecular forces between the chains solid? are no delocalised electrons
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Why do giant covalent substances have high it takes a lot of energy to break the strong covalent 27 When can ionic substances conduct electricity? when melted or dissolved
6
melting points? bonds between the atoms
Why do ionic substances conduct electricity when
28 ions are free to move and carry charge
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only a small amount of energy is needed to break the melted or dissolved?

7 Why do small molecules have low melting points?
weak intermolecular forces layers of positive metal ions surrounded by delocalised
29 Describe the structure of a pure metal.
electrons
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Why do large molecules have higher melting and
8 the intermolecular forces are stronger in large molecules strong electrostatic forces of attraction between metal
boiling points than small molecules? 30 Describe the bonding in a pure metal.
ions and delocalised electrons
Why do most covalent substances not conduct
9 do not have delocalised electrons or ions malleable, high melting/boiling points, good conductors
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electricity? 31 What are four properties of pure metals?

of electricity, good conductors of thermal energy
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each carbon atom is bonded to three others in
10 Describe the structure and bonding in graphite. hexagonal rings arranged in layers – it has delocalised 32 Explain why pure metals are malleable. layers can slide over each other easily
electrons and weak forces between the layers
electrostatic force of attraction between positive metal
Explain why metals have high melting and boiling
33 ions and delocalised electrons is strong and requires a
points.
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11 Why can graphite conduct electricity? the delocalised electrons can move through the graphite lot of energy to break
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Why are metals good conductors of electricity and
34 delocalised electrons are free to move through the metal
12 Explain why graphite is soft. layers are not bonded so can slide over each other of thermal energy?
35 What is an alloy? mixture of a metal with atoms of another element
13 What is graphene? one layer of graphite
different sized atoms disturb the layers, preventing
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36 Explain why alloys are harder than pure metals.

14 Give two properties of graphene. them from sliding over each other
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strong, conducts electricity
37 How big are nanoparticles? 1–100 nm
hollow cage of carbon atoms arranged as a sphere or a
15 What is a fullerene?
tube nanomaterials have a much higher surface area-to-
38 How are nanomaterials different from bulk materials?
volume ratio
16 What is a nanotube? hollow cylinder of carbon atoms
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What is the relationship between side length and as side length decreases by a factor of ten, the surface-
39
17 Give two properties of nanotubes. high tensile strength, conduct electricity surface area-to-volume ratio? area-to-volume ratio increases by a factor of ten
18 Give three uses of fullerenes. used in healthcare, electronics, cosmetics,

lubricants, drug delivery (spheres), high-tech electronics 40 What are nanoparticles used for?
and catalysts
Chapter 4: Calculations
Knowledge organiser
Formula mass Using balanced equations (HT only) Excess and limiting reactants (HT only)
Every substance has a formula mass, Mr . In a balanced symbol equation the sum of the Mr of the reactants equals the sum of the Mr of the products. In a chemical reaction between two or more reactants, often
formula mass Mr = sum (relative atomic mass of all the atoms in the formula) one of the reactants will run out before the others. You then
If you are asked what mass of a product will be If you are asked to balance an equation, you can have some of the other reactants left over. The reactant
formed from a given mass of a specific reactant, use the steps below to work out the answer. that is left over is in excess. The reactant that runs out is the
you can use the steps below to calculate the result. 1 work out Mr of all the substances
Avogadro’s constant (HT only) limiting reactant.
1 balance the symbol equation 2 calculate the number of moles of each substance
One mole of a substance contains 6.02 × 1023 atoms, ions, or molecules. 2 calculate moles of the substance with a known in the reaction using moles = mass
This is Avogadro’s constant. mass Mr To work out which reactants are in excess and which is the
mass using moles = limiting reactant, you need to:
One mole of a substance has the same mass as the Mr of the substance. Mr 3 convert to a whole number ratio
For example, the Mr (H2O) = 18, so 18 g of water molecules contains 3 using the balanced symbol equation, work out 4 balance the symbol equation 1 write the balanced symbol equation for the reaction
6.02 × 1023 molecules, and is called one mole of water. the number of moles of the unknown substance 2 pick one of the reactants and its quantity as given in the
4 calculate the mass of the unknown substance question
You can write this as: moles = mass using mass = moles × Mr Concentration
Mr 3 use the ratio of the reactants in the balanced equation to
see how much of the other reactant you need
4 compare this value to the quantity given in the question
Theoretical Concentration Concentration in mol/dm3 mol is a
5 determine which reactant is in excess and which
the unit
yield Concentration is the amount of solute in a Concentration can also be measured in
of moles
is limiting.
volume of solvent. mol/dm3.
The theoretical
yield of a chemical The unit of concentration is g/dm3. concentration of solution (mol/dm3) =
reaction is the mass Percentage yield Concentration can be calculated using:
=
number of moles of solute Titration
of a product that you mass (g) volume of solution (dm3)
The yield is the amount of product that concentration (g/dm3) = Titration is an experimental technique to work out the
expect to be produced. volume (dm3) You can use this formula and mass =
you actually get in a chemical reaction. concentration of an unknown solution in the reaction between an
moles × Mr to calculate the mass of solute
Even though no atoms Sometimes volume is measured in cm3: acid and an alkali.
Percentage yield is the actual yield as a dissolved in a solution.
are gained or lost volume (cm3) 1 U se a pipette to extract a known volume of the solution with an
proportion of the theoretical yield: volume (dm3) = • The greater the mass of solute in
during a chemical 1000 unknown concentration. A pipette measures a fixed volume only.
actual yield solution, the greater the number of
reaction, it is not always percentage yield = × 100 lots of solute in little solution = high
• 2 Add the solution of unknown concentration to a conical flask and put
possible to obtain
theoretical yield moles of solute, and therefore the
concentration the conical flask on a white tile.
the theoretical yield greater the concentration.
little solute in lots of solution = low
• 3 Add a few drops of a suitable indicator to the conical flask.
because Atom economy • If the same number moles of solute is
concentration 4 Add the other solution with a known concentration to the burette.
• some of the dissolved in a smaller volume of solution,
The atom economy of a reaction tells you the concentration will be greater. 5 Carry out a rough titration to find out approximately what volume of
product can be
the proportion of atoms that you started solution in the burette needs to be added to the solution in the conical
lost when it is
with that are part of useful products. flask. Add the solution from the burette to the solution in the conical
separated from the Moles of gases (HT only) Calculating concentration flask 1 cm3 at a time until
reaction mixture High atom economies are more sustainable,
At any given temperature and pressure, the same To calculate the concentration of the the end point is reached. Use a beaker and funnel
• there can be as they mean fewer atoms are being wasted to fill burette.
number of moles of a gas will occupy the same unknown solution (the solution in the 6 The end point is when
unexpected side in products that are not useful.
volume. conical flask): the indicator just
reactions between The percentage atom economy is
1 Write a balanced symbol equation changes colour.
reactants that At room temperature (25 °C) and pressure (1 atm),
calculated by: 7 Record the volume of
produce different one mole of any gas will occupy 24 dm3. for the reaction.
Mr of useful product 2 Calculate the moles used from the the end point as your
products atom economy = × 100 0
Mr of all products known solution using: rough value.
• the reaction may
moles = c oncentration (mol/dm3) × 8 Now repeat steps 1–7,
be reversible. The burette reading is
volume (dm3) but as you approach taken from the bottom
To calculate the number of moles of a gas: the end point add the of the meniscus.
3 Use the ratio from the balanced solution from the burette Use one
Key terms volume (dm3) symbol equation to deduce the
Make sure you can write a definition for these key terms. moles of a gas = drop-by-drop. Swirl the hand to Swirl the flask with the
24 dm3 number of moles present in the conical flask in between control the other hand whilst the
or flow rate. drops are being added.
atom economy burette concordant end point volume (cm3) unknown solution. drops.
moles of a gas =
24 000 cm3 4 Calculate the concentration of the 9 Record the volume of
excess reactant formula mass limiting reactant
unknown solution using: the end point.
percentage yield pipette room temperature and pressure moles
concentration (mol/dm3) =
theoretical yield titration titre useful yield volume (dm3)
Chapter 4: Calculations
Retrieval questions
C4 questions Answers moles of solute
Put paper here

21 How can concentration in mol/dm3 be calculated?
volume (dm3)
1 method used to calculate the concentration of an

What is a mole? mass of a substance that contains 6.02×1023 particles 22 What is a titration?
unknown solution
Put paper here

2 Give the value for Avogadro's constant. 6.02×1023 the point at which the reaction is complete (when the
23 What is the end-point?
Put paper here

indicator changes colour) and no substance is in excess
Which formula is used to calculate the number of mass
3 moles = How should solution be added from the burette close
moles from mass and Mr ? Mr 24 drop by drop, swirling in between
to the end point?
Which formula is used to calculate the mass of a
4
Put paper here

mass = moles × Mr 25 Why is a white tile used in titration? to see the colour change better
substance from number of moles and Mr ?
Put paper here

the reactant that is completely used up in a
5 What is a limiting reactant? 26 What is a titre? volume of solution added from the burette
chemical reaction
6 What volume does one mole of any gas occupy at

What is a unit for concentration? g/dm3 or mol/dm3 27 24 dm3 or 24 000 cm3
room temperature and pressure?
Put paper here
Which formula is used to calculate concentration mass (g)

7 concentration (g/dm3) =
from mass and volume? volume (dm3)
Which formula is used to calculate volume from mass (g)
8 volume (dm3) =
concentration and mass? concentration (g/dm3)
Which formula is used to calculate mass from
9 mass (g) = concentration (g/dm3) × volume (dm3)
Put paper here
concentration in g/dm3 and volume?
10 How can you convert a volume reading in cm3 to dm3? divide by 1000
If the amount of solute in a solution is increased,

11 increases
what happens to its concentration?
If the volume of water in a solution is increased,
Put paper here
12 decreases
what happens to its concentration?
13 What is the yield of a reaction? mass of product obtained from the reaction
maximum mass of the product that could have been

14 What is the theoretical yield of a reaction?
produced
Put paper here
reaction may be reversible

Why is the actual yield always less than the
15 some of the product can be lost on separation
theoretical yield?
unexpected side reactions between reactants
16 What is the percentage yield? actual yield as a proportion of theoretical yield

Put paper here
actual yield
17 How is percentage yield calculated? × 100
theoretical yield
measure of how many atoms of the reactants end up as
18 What is atom economy?
useful products
19 Why is a high atom economy desirable?

Put paper here
results in less waste/is more sustainable
Mr of useful product
20 How is percentage atom economy calculated? × 100
Mr of all products
Chapter 5: Chemical changes 1
Knowledge organiser
Reactions of metals Reactivity series Displacement reactions Reactivity and ions

The reactivity of a metal is how chemically reactive The reactivity series places metals in order of their reactivity. In a displacement reaction a more reactive element takes the A metal’s reactivity depends on how readily it
it is. When added to water, some metals react very place of a less reactive element in a compound. forms an ion by losing electrons.
Sometimes, for example in the table below, hydrogen and
vigorously – these metals have high reactivity. Other For example: In the displacement reaction of copper sulfate
carbon are included in the series, even though they are
metals will barely react with water or acid, or won’t and iron, iron forms an ion more easily than
non‑metals. copper sulfate + iron ➞ iron sulfate + copper
react at all – these metals have low reactivity. copper.
CuSO4(aq) + Fe(s) ➞ FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Iron is more reactive than copper, so iron displaces the copper in At the end of the reaction you are left with iron
Reactivity series copper sulfate. ions, not copper ions.
Reaction with water Reaction with acid Extraction method
Metal Reactivity
potassium high Ionic equations (HT only) Steps for writing an ionic
fizzes, gives off explodes sodium reactivity
When an ionic compound is dissolved in a solution, we can write equation (HT only)
hydrogen gas lithium
electrolysis the compound as its separate ions. For example, CuSO4(aq) can 1 check symbol equation is balanced
calcium be written as Cu2+(aq) and SO42−(aq).
2 identify all aqueous ionic compounds
magnesium
Decreasing reactivity
fizzes, gives off The displacement reaction of copper sulfate and iron can be 3 write those compounds out as ions
aluminium written as:
reacts very slowly hydrogen gas (carbon) 4 remove spectator ions.
zinc Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) ➞ Fe2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) +
iron Cu(s) Reduction and oxidation:
reacts slowly with tin reduction with carbon The SO42− is unchanged in the reaction – it is a spectator ion. electrons (HT only)
warm acid lead Spectator ions are removed from the equation to give an ionic
(hydrogen) Oxidation and reduction (redox reactions) can
copper equation:
no reaction be defined in terms of oxygen, but can also be
no reaction silver Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) ➞ Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s) defined as the loss or gain of electrons.
low mined from the Earth’s
crust Metals, covalent substances, and solid ionic substances do not Oxidation is the loss of electrons, and reduction is
gold reactivity
split into ions in the ionic equation. the gain of electrons.
In the example displacement reaction:
• iron atoms have been oxidised
Metal extraction Reduction and oxidation Half equations (HT only)
• copper ions have been reduced.
Some metals, like gold, are so unreactive that they are found as pure If a substance gains oxygen in a reaction, In the displacement reaction, an iron atom loses two electrons
metals in the Earth’s crust and can be mined. it has been oxidised. to form a iron ion:
Most metals exist as compounds in rock and have to be extracted If a substance loses oxygen in a reaction, Acids and alkalis
Fe(s) ➞ Fe2+(aq) + 2e−
from the rock. If there is enough metal compound in the rock to be it has been reduced. cids are compounds that, when dissolved in
A
worth extracting it is called an ore. A copper ion gains two electrons to form a copper atom:
For example: water, release H+ ions. There are three main
Metals that are less reactive than carbon can be extracted by Cu2+(aq) + 2e− ➞ Cu(s) acids: sulfuric acid H2SO4, nitric acid HNO3, and
iron + oxygen ➞ iron oxide
reduction with carbon. For example: hydrochloric acid HCl.
iron has been oxidised These two equations are called half equations – they each show
iron oxide + carbon ➞ iron + carbon dioxide
half of the ionic equation.
Alkalis are compounds that, when dissolved in
Metals that are more reactive than carbon can be extracted using a iron oxide + carbon ➞ iron + carbon dioxide water, release OH− ions.
process called electrolysis. iron oxide has been reduced The pH scale is a measure of acidity and alkalinity.
It runs from 1 to 14.
• Aqueous solutions with pH < 7 are acidic.
Salts • Aqueous solutions with pH > 7 are alkaline.
• Aqueous solutions with pH = 7 are neutral.
When acids react with metals or
metal compounds, they form salts. Acid hydrochloric acid sulfuric acid nitric acid
A salt is a compound where the
Indicators
Formula HCl H2SO4 HNO3
hydrogen from an acid has been Indicators can show if something is an acid or an alkali.
replaced by a metal. For example Ions formed in solution H+ and Cl− 2H+ and SO42− H+ and NO3−
• Universal indicator can also tell us the approximate pH of a solution.
nitric acid, HNO3, reacts with sodium Type of salt formed metal chloride metal sulfate metal nitrate
to form NaNO3. The H in nitric acid • Electronic pH probes can give us the exact pH of a solution.
is replaced with Na. sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate,
Sodium salt example
NaCl Na2SO4 NaNO3
The table shows how to name salts.
Chapter 5: Chemical changes 2
Knowledge organiser
Reactions of acids Alkalis and bases Strong and weak acids

Reactions of acids with metals Bases neutralise acids to form Sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric acid, are all strong Ethanoic acid, citric acid, and carbonic acid are weak acids.
Acids react with some metals to form salts and hydrogen gas. water in neutralisation reactions. acids. This means that, when dissolved in water, every This means that only a percentage of their molecules split up
Some metal hydroxides dissolve molecule splits up into ions – they are completely ionised: into ions when dissolved in water – they are partially ionised.
magnesium + hydrochloric acid ➞ sodium chloride + hydrogen in water to form alkaline
• H2SO4(aq) ➞ 2H+(aq) + SO42−(aq) For a given concentration, the stronger the acid, the lower
Neutralisation reactions solutions, called alkalis.
• HNO3(aq) ➞ H (aq) + NO (aq)
+ − the pH.
3
Reactions of acids with metal hydroxides Some metal oxides and metal
• HCl(aq) ➞ H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
hydroxide do not dissolve in
Acids react with metal hydroxides to form salts and water.
water. They are bases, but are
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide ➞ sodium chloride + water not alkalis.
The ionic equation for this reaction is always: Concentrated and dilute acids
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) ➞ H2O(l) Concentration tells us how much
concentrated concentrated
Reactions of acids with metal oxides of a substance there is dissolved in dilute strong acid strong acid dilute weak acid weak acid
water:
Acids react with metal oxides to form salts and water. H+ Cl– H+ E– H+
more concentrated acids have
• Cl–
Cl– E– H+
hydrochloric acid + sodium oxide ➞ sodium chloride + water lots of acid in a small volume of H+ H+ Cl– –
H+ H+ H+ E
water E–
Reactions of acids with metal carbonates H+ Cl–
less concentrated acids (dilute
• Cl–
Acids react with metal carbonates to form a salt, water, and carbon dioxide. H+ Cl– H+ E– E–
acids) have little acid in a large H+
H+ H+
hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate ➞ sodium chloride + water volume Cl– H+
Cl– E–
+ carbon dioxide of water.
There are a few acid There are lots of acid There are a few acid There are lots of acid
ions. ions. ions. ions.
Balancing symbol equations State symbols They are completely
ionised.
They are completely
ionised.
They are partially
ionised.
They are partially
ionised.
When writing symbol equations you need to ensure that the number of each A balanced symbol equation
atom on each side is equal. should also include state
H2 + O2 ➞ H2O 2H2 + O2 ➞ 2H2O symbols.
unbalanced balanced
State Symbol Crystallisation
there are 2 hydrogen atoms on each there are 4 hydrogen atoms on
side, but 2 oxygen atoms in the each side, and 2 oxygen atoms solid (s)
You can produce a solid salt from an insoluble base by crystallisation.
reactants and 1 in the product on each side liquid (l)
The experimental method is:
gas (g)
O 1 Choose the correct acid and base to produce the salt.
O H H H H aqueous or (aq)
O O H H H H O O 2
Put some of the dilute acid into a flask. Heat gently with a
H H H
O
H
dissolved in water water
Bunsen burner.
3 Add a small amount of the base and stir. wire gauze
4
Keep adding the base until no more reacts – the base is
tripod
now in excess.
Key terms crystals form
Make sure you can write a definition for these key terms. 5 Filter to remove the unreacted base.
in the solution
6 Add the remaining solution to an evaporating dish.
displacement electrolysis extraction half equation ion ionic equation 7
Use a water bath or electric heater to evaporate the water.
metal ore oxidation reactivity reactivity series redox reduction The salt crystals will be left behind.
spectator ion state symbols
Chapter 5: Chemical changes
Retrieval questions
with a piece of paper and write as many as you can. Check and repeat. 19 In terms of pH, what is an acid? a solution with a pH of less than 7
Put paper here

C5 questions Answers 20 In terms of pH, what is a neutral solution? a solution with a pH of 7
a substance that releases H+ ions when dissolved

21 In terms of H+ ions, what is an acid?
1 What does reactivity mean? how vigorously a substance chemically reacts in water
How is the amount of H+ ions in a solution
Put paper here

22
Put paper here

by comparing their reactions with water, acid, the more H+ ions, the lower the pH
2 How can metals be ordered by their reactivity? related to its pH?
or oxygen
What are the names and formulae of three hydrochloric acid, HCl; sulfuric acid, H2SO4 ;
23
What name is given to a list of metals ordered by main acids? nitric acid, HNO3
3 reactivity series
their reactivity?
24 How do you measure the pH of a substance? universal indicator or pH probe
Put paper here

Put paper here
In terms of electrons, what makes some metals more
4 they lose their outer shell electron(s) more easily an acid where the molecules or ions completely ionise
reactive than others? 25 What is a strong acid?
in water
Why are gold and silver found naturally as elements an acid where the molecules or ions partially ionise
5 they are very unreactive 26 What is a weak acid?
in the Earth’s crust? in water
Put paper here

rock containing enough of a metal compound to be compound formed when a metal ion takes the place
27 What is a salt?
Put paper here
6 What is an ore? of a hydrogen ion in an acid

economically worth extracting
Which type of salts do sulfuric acid, hydrochloric
How are metals less reactive than carbon extracted 28 sulfates, chlorides, nitrates
7 reduction with carbon acid, and nitric acid form?
from their ores?
What are the products of a reaction between
29
Put paper here

salt + hydrogen
8 In terms of oxygen, what is oxidation? addition of oxygen a metal and an acid?
Put paper here

30 salt + water
9 In terms of oxygen, what is reduction? removal of oxygen a metal hydroxide and an acid?
Why can metals like potassium and aluminium 31 salt + water
10 they are more reactive than carbon a metal oxide and an acid?
Put paper here

not be extracted by reduction with carbon?
32 salt + water + carbon dioxide
How are metals more reactive than carbon a metal carbonate and an acid?
Put paper here
11 electrolysis
extracted from their ores?
substance that reacts with acids in neutralisation
33 What is a base?
a more reactive substance takes the place of a less reactions
12 What is a displacement reaction?
Put paper here

reactive substance in a compound substance that dissolves in water to form a solution
34 What is an alkali?
above pH 7
equation which gives some substances as ions and has
13 What is an ionic equation?
Put paper here
spectator ions removed 35 What is a neutralisation reaction? a reaction between an acid and a base to produce water
What type of substance is given as ions in an ionic What is the ionic equation for a reaction between
14 ionic compounds in solution (or liquid) 36
Put paper here

equation? H+(aq) + OH−(aq) ➞ H2O(l)
an acid and an alkali?
15 What is a spectator ion? ion that is unchanged in a reaction 37 How can you obtain a solid salt from a solution? crystallisation
Put paper here
equation that shows whether a substance is losing or When an acid reacts with a metal, which species
16 What is a half equation? 38 the metal
gaining electrons is oxidised?
Put paper here

When an acid reacts with a metal, which species
17 In terms of electrons, what is oxidation? loss of electrons 39 hydrogen
is reduced?
What are the four state symbols and what do they (s) solid, (l) liquid, (g) gas, (aq) aqueous or dissolved
18 In terms of electrons, what is reduction? gain of electrons 40
stand for? in water
Chapter 6: Electrolysis
Knowledge organiser
Electrolysis Electrolysis of molten compounds Electrolysis of aluminium oxide

In the process of electrolysis, an electric current Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity as the ions Electrolysis can be used to extract metals from their ionic compounds.
is passed through an electrolyte. An electrolyte is cannot move. To undergo electrolysis they must be molten
Electrolysis is used if the metal is more reactive than carbon.
a liquid or solution that contains ions and so can or dissolved, so the ions are free to move.
conduct electricity. This causes the ions to move to When an ionic compound is molten: Aluminium is extracted from aluminium oxide by electrolysis.
the electrodes, where they form pure elements. 1 The aluminium oxide is mixed with a substance called cryolite, which lowers the melting point.
● The positive metal ions are attracted to the cathode,

where they will gain electrons to form the pure metal 2 The mixture is then heated until it is molten.
● The negative non-metal ions are attracted to the anode, 3 The resulting molten mixture undergoes electrolysis.
where they will lose electrons and become the pure non- aluminium oxide ➞ aluminium + oxygen
+ – metal. 2Al2O3(l) ➞ 4Al(l) + 3O2(g)
For example, molten sodium chloride, NaCl, can undergo
electrolysis to form sodium at the cathode cathode: pure aluminium is formed
and chlorine at the anode. Al3+(l) + 3e− ➞ Al(l)
anode cathode anode: o
xygen is formed
(positive (negative 2O2−(l) ➞ O2(g) + 4e−
electrode)
electrode) Half equations (HT only) In the electrolysis of aluminium, the anode is made of graphite.
electrolyte sodium chloride ➞ sodium + chlorine
The graphite reacts with the oxygen to form carbon dioxide and so slowly wears away. It therefore needs to be replaced
2NaCl(l) ➞ 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) frequently.
● at the cathode:

2Na+(l) + 2e− ➞ 2Na(s) positive electrode

made from carbon
● at the anode:

oxygen is produced at
2Cl−(l) ➞ Cl2(g) + 2e− the positive electrode –
the lining is a the oxygen reacts with
negative electrode the carbon of the
made from carbon electrode and forms
carbon dioxide gas
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions molten mixture of
aluminium oxide molten aluminium is
Solid ionic compounds can also undergo electrolysis when dissolved in water. and cryolite produced and removed
● It
requires less energy to dissolve ionic compounds in water than it does to melt them.
● However,
in the electrolysis of solutions, the pure elements are not always produced.
This is because the water can also undergo ionisation:
Electrolysis of zinc chloride
H2O(l) ➞ H+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Molten zinc chloride is broken down by electrolysis. This means zinc metal + −
potassium most is collected at the cathode and a pale green chlorine gas is collected at the
reactive anode. Free ions from the molten zinc chloride are able to move around and chlorine +
Products at the anode sodium
Products at the cathode carry electric currents, hence why the bulb lights up. gas
−
calcium
In In the electrolysis of a solution, if In the electrolysis of a solution, if the metal is
the non-metal contains oxygen then magnesium more reactive than hydrogen then hydrogen gas is zinc
metal
oxygen gas is formed at the anode: aluminium formed at the cathode:
(carbon)
● The
OH (aq) ions formed from the
−
zinc ● The
H+(aq) ions from the ionisation of water are
ionisation of water are attracted to attracted to the cathode and react with it.
iron
the anode. ● The
H+(aq) ions gain electrons from the cathode molten zinc
● The
OH (aq) ions lose electrons to
− tin and form hydrogen gas. chloride heat
the anode and form oxygen gas. lead ● 2H
+
(aq) + 2e− ➞ H2(g)
4OH−
(aq) ➞ O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e− (hydrogen)
●
● The
metal ions remain in solution.
copper
Key terms
If the non-metal ion is a halogen, Make sure you can write a definition for these key terms.
silver
then the halogen gas is formed at the
anode. gold
least anode cathode cryolite electrode
● 2Cl
−
(aq) ➞ Cl2(g) + 2e− platinum reactive electrolysis electrolyte reactivity
Chapter 6: Electrolysis
Retrieval questions
process of using electricity to extract elements from
1 What is electrolysis?
a compound
Put paper here

2 What is the name of the positive electrode? anode
3 What is the name of the negative electrode? cathode
Put paper here

liquid or solution that contains ions and so can conduct
4 What is an electrolyte?
electricity
5 Where are metals formed? cathode
6 Where are non-metals formed? anode

Put paper here
by melting or dissolving them, and then passing a direct

7 How can ionic substances be electrolysed?
current through them
they do not conduct electricity, or the ions

8 Why can solid ionic substances not be electrolysed?
Put paper here
cannot move
In the electrolysis of solutions, when is the metal

9 when the metal is more reactive than hydrogen
not produced at the cathode?
In the electrolysis of a metal halide solution, what is

10 halogen
produced at the anode?
Put paper here
In the electrolysis of a metal sulfate solution, what is

11 oxygen
produced at the anode?
12 What is the half equation for the ionisation of water? H2O(l) ➞ H+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Put paper here
What metals are extracted from ionic compounds by

13 metals that are more reactive than carbon
using electrolysis?
In the electrolysis of aluminium oxide, why is the

14 to lower the melting point
aluminium oxide mixed with cryolite?
Put paper here
In the electrolysis of aluminium oxide, what are the

15 graphite
anodes made of?
In the electrolysis of aluminium oxide, why do the

16 they react with the oxygen being formed
anodes need to be replaced?
Chapter 7: Energy changes
Knowledge organiser
Temperature
Energy changes The surroundings Reaction Energy transfer Example Everyday use Bonds
change
During a chemical reaction, energy transfers When chemists say energy is transferred from or to “the more energy
occur. surroundings” they mean “everything that isn’t the reaction”. temperature of ● oxidation released when
● self-heating cans
Energy can be transferred: For example, imagine you have a reaction mixture in a test exothermic to the surroundings the surroundings ● combustion making bonds than
● hand warmers required to break
● to the surroundings – exothermic tube. If you measure the temperature in the test tube using a increases ● neutralisation
thermometer, the thermometer is then part of the surroundings. bonds
● from the surroundings – endothermic ● thermal
● If
the thermometer records an increase in temperature, the
less energy released
This energy transfer can cause a temperature temperature of decomposition
reaction in the test tube is exothermic. from the sports injury when making bonds
change. endothermic the surroundings ● c itric acid and
●
● If
the thermometer records a decrease in temperature, the surroundings packs than required to
Energy is always conserved in chemical reactions. decreases sodium hydrogen
reaction in the test tube is endothermic. break bonds
This means that there is the same amount of carbonate
energy in the Universe at the start of a chemical
reaction as at the end of the chemical reaction.
Reaction profiles Chemical cells Batteries

exothermic reaction endothermic reactions
In a metal displacement reaction, one metal is oxidised – it loses electrons. These electrons A battery is formed of two
are transferred to another metal, which gains the electrons and so is reduced. or more cells connected in
activation
activation series.
energy By using a chemical cell to conduct this reaction, the electron’s movement generates a
energy
A reaction profile shows whether a current. ● Some
batteries are
reaction is exothermic or endothermic. rechargeable. An external
In the cell shown, the zinc atoms from the
energy
energy e− e− electric current is applied,

reactants products
The activation energy is the minimum energy electrode lose electrons, turn into ions, and which reverses the reaction.
energy
amount of energy that particles must released absorbed move into the solution.
have to react when they collide. ● Some
batteries, like
products reactants The electrons travel through the circuit to + –
alkaline batteries, are not
the copper electrode, causing the LED to rechargeable because the
zinc rod
light up. reaction is not reversible.
progress of reaction progress of reaction
copper
Once at the copper electrode, a metal ion rod
Once the reactants are
from the solution will pick the electrons up used up, the chemical
and become a metal atom. salt reaction stops and no
Bonds (HT only) Breaking bonds solution
more potential differences
or dilute
Atoms are held together by strong chemical bonds. If a lot of energy is released when making the bonds and only The greater the difference in reactivity acid are released.
In a reaction, those bonds are broken and new a little energy is required to break them, then overall energy is between the two metals in the cell, the
ones are made between different atoms. released and the reaction as a whole is exothermic. greater the potential difference produced.
● Breaking
a bond requires energy so is
endothermic. Making bonds
Making a bond releases energy so is exothermic. If a little energy is released when making the bonds and a lot
Hydrogen fuel cells
●
is required to break them, then overall energy is taken in and

the reaction as a whole is endothermic. Fuel cells use a fuel and oxygen from the air to Advantages Key terms
generate a potential difference. the only waste is water Make sure you can write a
●
Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity from ● do

not need to be definition for these key terms.
Bond calculations hydrogen and oxygen. The overall reaction is: electrically recharged
activation energy battery
Different bonds require different amounts of energy to be broken (their bond energies). To work out the 2H2(g) + O2(g) ➞ 2H2O(l)
overall energy change of a reaction, you need to: Disadvantages bond energy chemical cell
The hydrogen is oxidised to produce water. combustion endothermic
1 work
out how much energy is required to break all the bonds in the reactants ● hydrogen
is highly
There are different types of hydrogen fuel cell. In flammable and exothermic fuel cell
2 work out how much energy is released when making all the bonds in the products.
alkaline fuel cells, the half equations are below: difficult to store
overall energy transferred = energy required to break bonds − energy required to make bonds neutralisation oxidation
● 2H
(g) + 4OH−(aq) ➞ 4H2O(l) + 4e− hydrogen is often
2
reaction profile rechargeable
●
● A positive number means an endothermic reaction.

● O
(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e− ➞ 4OH−(aq) produced from non-
2
● A negative number means an exothermic number.
renewable resources thermal decomposition
Chapter 7: Energy changes
Retrieval questions
1 What is an exothermic energy transfer? transfer to the surroundings
Put paper here

2 What is an endothermic energy transfer? transfer from the surroundings
3 What is a reaction profile? diagram showing how the energy changes in a reaction
Put paper here

minimum amount of energy required before a collision
4 What is the activation energy?
will result in a reaction
the energy required to break a bond or the energy

5 What is bond energy?
released when a bond is formed
Put paper here
In terms of bond breaking and making, what is an less energy is required to break the bonds than is
6
exothermic reaction? released when making the bonds
In terms of bond breaking and making, what is an more energy is required to break the bonds than is
7
endothermic reaction? released when making the bonds
Put paper here
connect two different metals (electrodes) in a solution

8 How are chemical cells made?
(electrolyte)
9 What is a battery? two or more chemical cells connected in series

Put paper here
How does the potential difference of a cell depend on the bigger the difference in reactivity, the greater the
10
the metals that the electrodes are made of? potential difference
11 How can some cells be recharged? by applying an external current

Put paper here
12 Why can some cells not be recharged? the reaction cannot be reversed
13 What is a fuel cell? cell that uses a fuel and oxygen to generate electricity
14 In the hydrogen fuel cell, what is the overall reaction? 2H2(g) + O2(g) ➞ 2H2O(l)
Put paper here
In the alkaline hydrogen fuel cells, what are the half 2H2(g) + 4OH−(aq) ➞ 4H2O(l) + 4e−
15
equations? O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e− ➞ 4OH−(aq)
only product is water, do not need to be electrically

Put paper here
16 Give an advantage of the hydrogen fuel cell.

recharged
hydrogen is flammable, difficult to store and is often

17 Give a disadvantage of the hydrogen fuel cell.
produced from non-renewable sources
Chapter 8: Rates and equilibrium 1
Knowledge organiser
Rates of reaction Change in mass Collision theory

The rate of a reaction is how quickly the reactants turn The reaction For a reaction to occur, the reactant particles need to collide. When the particles collide, they
cotton wool
into the products. mixture is bung
need to have enough energy to react or they will just bounce apart. This amount of energy is called
placed on a the activation energy.
To calculate the rate of a reaction, you can measure:
mass balance. reaction mixture
conical flask You can increase the rate of a reaction by:
• how quickly a reactant is used up As the reaction
quantity of reactant used proceeds and • increasing the frequency of collisions
mean rate of reaction = the gaseous • increasing the energy of the particles when they collide.
time taken
product is given
• how quickly a product is produced.
off, the mass
quantity of product formed mass
mean rate of reaction = of the flask will balance
time taken decrease.
For reactions that involve a gas, this can be done by
The rate for the reaction is then:
measuring how the mass of the reaction changes or the Factors affecting rate of reaction
volume of gas given off by the reaction. change in the mass
rate =
time taken
Condition that increases rate How is this condition caused? Why it has that effect
The mass is measured in grams and time is measured in
Volume of gas produced seconds. Therefore, the unit of rate is g/s. 1 particles move faster, leading to more
frequent collisions
The reaction mixture rubber tubing Heat the container in which the
increasing the temperature 2 particles have more energy, so more
is connected to a gas reaction is taking place.
syringe or an upside down Calculating rate from graphs (HT only) collisions result in a reaction
measuring cylinder. As the gas note that these are two separate effects
syringe The results from an experiment can be plotted
reaction proceeds the gas on a graph.
is collected. there are more reactant particles in the
• A steep gradient means a high rate of reaction – the increasing the concentration Use a solution with more solute in the
The rate for the reaction reaction mixture, so collisions become
reaction
reaction happens quickly. of solutions same volume of solvent.
is then: mixture more frequent
• A shallow gradient means a low rate of reaction – the
volume of gas produced reaction happens slowly.
rate =
time taken
Increase the number of gas particles
Volume is measured in cm3 and time in seconds, so the increasing the pressure less space between particles means more
you have in the container or make the
unit for rate is cm3/s. Mean rate at specific time of gases
container smaller.
frequent collisions
To obtain the rate at a specific time draw a tangent to

the graph and calculate its gradient.
Mean rate between two points in Cut the solid into smaller pieces, or
only reactant particles on the surface of
a solid are able to collide and react; the
time 1.0 increasing the surface area grind it to create a powder, increasing
greater the surface area the more reactant
0s
0.9 of solids the surface area. Larger pieces decrease

To get the mean rate of reaction between two points particles are exposed, leading to more
=5
0.8 the surface area.

tt
in time: frequent collisions

ta
en
0.7
ng
loss in mass in g
ta
1.0
0.6 0.70 g
0.9 (opposite
0.5
side to a)
0.8
0.4 Catalysts
0.7
0.3
loss in mass in g
0.6 Some reactions have specific substances called catalysts

0.2
0.5
100 s that can be added to increase the rate. These substances
0.1 (adjacent side to a) activation energy
mass at 100 seconds: 0.80 g are not used up in the reaction. without catalyst
0.4 mass at 50 seconds: 0.56 g
change in mass: 0.80 − 0.56 = 0.24 g 0 A catalyst provides a different reaction pathway that has a activation energy
50 100 150
energy
0.3 change in time: 100 s – 50 s = 50 s with catalyst
0.2
time in s lower activation energy. As such, more particles will collide reactants
mean rate of reaction between 50 and
Rate at 50 s =
0.70 g
= 0.007 g / s
with enough energy to react, so more collisions result in a
0.1 0.24 g
100 seconds = ——— = 4.8 x 10–3 g/s 100 s reaction. products
50 s
The gradient is the change in y divided by the
0
50 100 150 change in x for a right-angled triangle drawn
from the tangent. progress of reaction
time in s
Chapter 8: Rates and equilibrium 2
Knowledge organiser
Reaction conditions Le Châtelier’s principle (HT only) Reversible reactions Equilibrium

The conditions of a reaction refer to the external At equilibrium, the amount of reactants and products is In some reactions, the In a closed system no reactants or products can
endothermic
environment of the reaction. When the reaction occurs constant. In order to change the amounts of reactant and products can react to produce escape. If a reversible reaction is carried out in a closed
in a closed system, you can change the conditions by: product at equilibrium the conditions of the reaction must the original reactants. This is system, it will eventually reach dynamic equilibrium –
be changed. The closed system will then counteract the called a reversible reaction. a point in time when the forward and reverse reactions
• changing the concentration of one of the substances change by favouring either the forward reaction or the
reverse reaction. This is known as Le Châtelier’s principle.
When writing chemical A+B ⇌ C+D have the same rate.
• changing the temperature of the entire reaction equations for reversible
vessel For example, lowering the concentration of the product At dynamic equilibrium:
reactions, use the symbol.
in the system causes the forward reaction to be favoured
• changing the pressure inside the vessel. • the reactants are still turning into the products
to increase the concentration of the product. In this reaction: exothermic
• the products are still turning back into the reactants
• A and B can react to form C
• the rates of these two processes are equal, so overall
and D – the forward reaction
Changing concentrations (HT only) the amount of reactants and products are constant.
• C and D can react to form A and B – the reverse reaction.
Change Effect Explanation The different directions of the reaction have opposite energy
opposes the change by making less reactant changes. Dynamic equilibrium
decrease concentration of product favours the forward reaction
and more product If the forward reaction is endothermic, the reverse reaction will At dynamic equilibrium the amount of reactant and
opposes the change by making more reactant be exothermic. product are constant, but not necessarily equal.
increase concentration of product favours the reverse reaction
and less product The same amount of energy is transferred in each direction. You could have a mixture of reactants and products in
opposes the change by making more reactant a 50:50 ratio, in a 75:25 ratio, or in any ratio at all. The
decrease concentration of reactant favours the reverse reaction
and less product conditions of the reaction are what change that ratio.
opposes the change by making less reactant
increase concentration of reactant favours the forward reaction
and more product
How dynamic equilibrium is reached
Progress of reaction start of reaction middle of reaction at dynamic equilibrium
Changing temperature (HT only)
Amount of A + B high decreasing constant
Change Effect Explanation
Frequency of collisions A + B high decreasing constant
increase temperature of opposes the change by decreasing the temperature
favours the endothermic reaction
surroundings of the surroundings Rate of forward reaction high decreasing same as rate of reverse reaction
decrease temperature of opposes the change by increasing the temperature

favours the exothermic reaction
surroundings of the surroundings
forward reaction
rate of reaction
Changing pressure (HT only) equilibrium is
reached at
this point
Change Effect Explanation
increase the favours the reaction that results decreasing the number of molecules within the vessel opposes the
pressure in fewer molecules change because it decrease pressure
reverse reaction
decrease the favours the direction that results increasing the number of molecules within the vessel opposes the
pressure in more molecules change because it increase pressure
time
Key terms Amount of C + D zero increasing constant

Frequency of collisions C + D no collisions increasing constant
activation energy catalyst collision collision theory closed system
conditions dynamic equilibrium frequency of collision gradient Rate of reverse reaction zero increasing same as rate of forward reaction
Le Châtelier’s principle rate of reaction reversible reaction tangent
Chapter 8: Rates and equilibrium
Retrieval questions
C8 questions Answers 22
What is the effect of increasing the concentration of
Put paper here

favours the forward reaction
reactants on a reaction at dynamic equilibrium?
how quickly reactants are used up or products
1 What is the rate of a reaction? What is the effect of decreasing the concentration of
Put paper here

are produced 23 favours the forward reaction
products on a reaction at dynamic equilibrium?
What is the equation for calculating the mean rate change in quantity of product or reactant
2 mean rate =
of reaction? time taken What is the effect of increasing pressure on a reaction
24 favours the reaction that leads to the fewest molecules
Put paper here

What is the unit for rate of reaction in a reaction at dynamic equilibrium?
3 g/s
involving a change in mass?
What is the effect of decreasing pressure on a reaction
25 favours the reaction that leads to the most molecules
Put paper here

What is the unit for rate of reaction in a reaction at dynamic equilibrium?
4 cm /s
3
involving a change in volume?
the minimum amount of energy colliding particles have What is the effect of increasing temperature on a
5 What is the activation energy? 26 favours the endothermic reaction
Put paper here

to have before a reaction will take place reaction at dynamic equilibrium?
What effect does increasing concentration have on the
6 increases What is the effect of decreasing temperature on a
rate of reaction? 27 favours the exothermic reaction
Put paper here
reaction at dynamic equilibrium?

more reactant particles in the same volume lead to more
7 Why does increasing concentration have this effect?
frequent collisions
What effect does increasing pressure have on the rate
8 increases
of reaction?
less space between particles means more frequent
9 Why does increasing pressure have this effect?
Put paper here
collisions
What effect does increasing surface area have on the
10 increases
rate of reaction?
more reactant particles are exposed and able to collide,
11 Why does increasing surface area have this effect?
leading to more frequent collisions
Put paper here
What effect does increasing temperature have on the

12 increases
rate of reaction?
particles move faster, leading to more frequent
13 Why does increasing temperature have this effect? collisions – particles have the same activation energy,
so more collisions result in a reaction
a substance that increases the rate of a reaction but is
Put paper here
14 What is a catalyst?
not used up in the reaction
lower the activation energy of the reaction, so more
15 How do catalysts increase the rate of a reaction?
collisions result in a reaction
the reactants turn into products and the products turn
16 What is a reversible reaction?
into reactants
Put paper here
17 Which symbol shows a reversible reaction?
the point in a reversible reaction when the rate of the

18 What is dynamic equilibrium?
forward and reverse reactions are the same
What are the three reaction conditions that can
19 concentration, temperature, pressure
be changed?
Put paper here
the position of equilibrium will shift to oppose external

20 What is Le Châtelier’s principle?
changes
What is the effect of increasing the concentration of
21 favours the forward reaction
reactants on a reaction at dynamic equilibrium?
Chapter 9: Crude oils and fuels
Knowledge organiser
Crude oil Combustion Fractional distillation

Crude oil is incredibly Hydrocarbons are used as fuels. This is because when they react with oxygen they release The different hydrocarbons in crude oil refinery/petroleum gas
important to our society a lot of energy. This reaction is called combustion. Complete combustion is a type of are separated into fractions based on their (short-chain hydrocarbons
and low boiling point
and economy. It is formed combustion where the only products are carbon dioxide and water. boiling points in a process called fractional alkanes, used as fuel)
from the remains of distillation. All the molecules in a fraction 50°C
ancient biomass – living have a similar number of carbon atoms, and gasoline/petrol
organisms (mostly so a similar boiling point. (used for fuel in car engines)
plankton) that died many Properties
The process takes place in a fractionating
millions of years ago. Whether or not a particular hydrocarbon is useful as a fuel depends on its properties: column, which is hot at the bottom and kerosene
Raw crude oil is a thick cooler at the top. (used for aircraft fuel)
• flammability – how easily it burns
black liquid made
• boiling point – the temperature at which it boils The process works like this:
of a large number of diesel oil/gas oil
different compounds • viscosity – how thick it is 1 crude oil is vapourised (turned into a gas (used as fuel in diesel
mixed together. Most Its properties in turn depend on the length of the molecule. by heating) engines and as boiler fuel)
of the compounds are 2 the hydrocarbon gases enter the column the oil is vaporised
hydrocarbons of various Chain length Flammability Boiling point Viscosity before it goes into
3 the hydrocarbon gases rise up the column the tower 350°C
sizes. Hydrocarbons
are molecules made
long chain low high high (very thick) 4 as hydrocarbon gases rise up the column
of carbon and they cool down residue
short chain high low low (very runny)
hydrogen only. 5 when the different hydrocarbons reach (very thick, sticky mixture
of long-chain hydrocarbons,
their boiling point in the column they used in making roads and
condense flat roofs)
Alkanes 6 the hydrocarbon fraction is collected.
One family of hydrocarbon molecules are called alkanes. Alkane molecules only have single bonds in them. The first four
alkanes are: Products from fractional distillation
H H H Many useful products come from the separation of crude oil by fractional distillation.
H C H H C C H
Fuels Feedstock Useful materials produced
H H H
methane ethane petrol, diesel oil, kerosene, heavy fuel oil, fractions form the raw material for other solvents, lubricants, polymers, and
and liquefied petroleum gases processes and the production of other detergents
H H H H H H H
substances
H C C C H H C C C C H
H H H H H H H
propane butane
Cracking Alkenes
The different alkanes have different numbers of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms. You can always work the molecular Not all hydrocarbons are as useful as each other. Longer molecules tend Alkenes are a family of hydrocarbons
formula of an alkane by using CnH2n+2. to be less useful than shorter ones. As such, there is a higher demand for that contain double bonds between
shorter-chain hydrocarbons than longer-chain hydrocarbons. carbon atoms.
A process called cracking is used to break up longer hydrocarbons and turn Alkenes are also used as fuels, and to
them into shorter ones. produce polymers and many other
Key terms Cracking produces shorter alkanes and alkenes.
materials.
They are much more reactive than
Two methods of cracking are:
alkanes alkenes boiling point combustion cracking crude oil feedstock alkanes. When mixed with bromine
• catalytic cracking – vaporise the hydrocarbons, then pass them over a water, the bromine water turns from
flammability fractional distillation fuel hydrocarbon viscosity hot catalyst orange to colourless. This can be used
• steam cracking – mix the hydrocarbons with steam at a very high to tell the difference between alkanes
temperature and alkenes.
Chapter 9: Crude oil and fuels
Retrieval questions
1 What is a hydrocarbon? compound containing carbon and hydrogen only
Put paper here

over millions of years from the remains of
2 How is crude oil formed?
ancient biomass
3 What are the alkanes? hydrocarbons that only have single bonds
4 What are the first four alkanes? methane, ethane, propane, butane
Put paper here

5 What is the general formula for the alkanes? CnH2n+2
6 How does boiling point depend on the chain length? longer the chain, higher the boiling point
7 How does viscosity depend on chain length? longer the chain, higher the viscosity
Put paper here
8 How does flammability depend on chain length? longer the chain, lower the flammability
How can the different alkanes in crude oil

9 fractional distillation
be separated?
10 What is a fraction? a group of hydrocarbons with similar chain lengths
Put paper here
Name five useful fuels produced from petrol, diesel oil, kerosene, heavy fuel oil, and liquefied
11
fractional distillation. petroleum gases
Name four useful materials produced from crude oil
12 solvents, lubricants, polymers, detergents
fractions.
breaking down a hydrocarbon with a long chain into
13 What is cracking?
smaller molecules
Put paper here
14 Name two methods to carry out cracking. steam cracking and catalytic cracking
15 What are the products of cracking? short chain alkanes and alkenes
16 What are alkenes? hydrocarbons with a double bond

Put paper here
17 What are alkenes used for? formation of polymers
Describe the reactivity of alkenes compared

18 alkenes are much more reactive
to alkanes.
19 How can you test for alkenes? alkenes turn orange bromine water colourless
Chapter 10: Organic reactions
Knowledge organiser
Organic chemistry
There are lots of different ‘families’ of carbon-containing compounds, for example, alkanes and alkenes. These families are called a homologous series. Each compound
within a homologous series has similar properties and reactions. They all contain specific atoms in specific orders, called the functional group.
Homologous Functional First four of

Formation Uses Combustion reaction Other reactions Other information
series group homologous series
HH HH HHHH HH H H H HH H
HH H H H H H HH H HH Addition with halogens Alkenes are called
C2H4 + Br2 ➞ C2H4Br2
C
C C C HHC CC C C C HHC C C CC C C C HHC C C C C CC C C C The two atoms from the unsaturated because they
Br Br
HH HH HH HH HHHH HH HHHHHH HH halogen molecule are H H have double bonds. As
−
−
−
−
C=C + Br − Br → H − C − C − H
ethene, propene, butene, pentene, • complete combustion added across the carbon – such, atoms can be added
−
ethene, propene, butene, pentene,
−
−
C2H4 C3H6 C4H8 C5H10 H H
CH C3H C4H C5H H H to the molecule by breaking
2 4 6 8 10 produces carbon dioxide carbon double bond.
and water the double bond.
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H Addition with hydrogen C2H4 + H2 ➞ C2H6
• incomplete combustion This contrasts with alkanes
C C H C C C H C C C C H C C C C C
• formation of polymers The two atoms from the
more likely, resulting in a H H H H
which are called saturated
alkenesH
H C
H
C H H H H H H cracking
H H
smoky yellow flame hydrogen molecule are added
• a chemical feedstock C C + H2 H C C H as there is no space to add
ethene, propene, butene, pentene,
• both types of alkene across the carbon – carbon
C2H4 C3H6 C4H8 C5H10 H H H H more atoms.
combustion release less double bond to form an alkane.
Alkenes have a general
H H H H H H H H H H H H energy per mole than Addition with steam C2H4 + H2O ➞ C2H5OH
alkanes formula CnH2n.
H C C C H C C C C H C C C C C React with steam at high H H
H H
−
−
H H H H H H H H H temperature and pressure
−
C=C + H − OH H−C−C−H
−
in the presence of a H H
−
−
propene, butene, pentene,
C3H6 C4H8 C5H10 H OH
catalyst to form alcohols.
H H H H H H
H C O H H C C O H Ethanol
H C can C beC formed
O H • ethanol is used in Reaction with sodium
H H H H fermentation
from the H H alcoholic drinks Alcohols react with sodium to release hydrogen. The product from
methanol ethanol of sugarpropanol
– warm a • short alcohols are very this reaction is called an alkoxide, which if added to water forms a
• first four alcohols mix
H H H H H H sealed mixture of yeast effective fuels and combust strongly alkaline solution.
easily with water, so
and a sugar solution. easily, burning with a blue Alcohols are highly
H C O H H C C O H H C C C O H are used as solvents for flame and producing carbon
alcohols –OH flammable and must not be
H H H H H H glucose ➞ ethanol + substances that don’t dioxide and water handled near naked flames.
methanol ethanol propanol carbon dioxide dissolve in water
2CH3OH + 3O2 ➞ Oxidation
H H H H C6H12O6(aq) ➞ • common in perfumes, 2CO2 + 4H2O Alcohols can react with oxidising agents, like potassium
H C C C C O H 2C2H5OH(aq) aftershaves and
dichromate, to form carboxylic acids.
H H H H + 2CO2(g) mouthwashes
butanol
H H H H H H
O O O O Carboxylic acids react in the same way as other acids.
H C H C C H C C C H C C C C
Reaction with sodium carbonate
O H H O H H H O H H H H O H
Carboxylic acids react with bases to form salts. For example,
methanoic acid ethanoic acid propanoic acid butanoic acid
carboxylic acids react with a metal carbonate to produce a salt, (HT only) When added to
H O H H H H H
O O O O • carboxylic acids can undergo carbon dioxide, and water.
water, carboxylic acids are
carboxylic
H C H C
C
C H C C C H C C C C
oxidation of alcohols
•
ethanoic acid is used combustion, but we do not H partially ionised to form
generally do this or use them Reaction with alcohols
O
acids O H H O H H H O H H H H O H in vinegar
Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to H C C H H weakly acidic solutions.
methanoic acid O
ethanoic acid H propanoic acid butanoic acid as a fuel
make water and esters. The reaction H O C C H They are weak acids.
H O H H O H H H O
requires sulfuric acid as a catalyst. H H
H C C H C C C H C C C C
O H O H O H Esters have distinctive smells and are used in perfumes and flavourings.
H H H H H H
ethanoic acid propanoic acid butanoic acid The product of ethanol and ethanoic acid is ethyl ethanoate.
Key terms
addition reaction alcohols alkene alkoxide carboxylic acid ester fermentation cracking functional group homologous series oxidation oxidising agent saturated unsaturated
Chapter 10: Organic reactions
Retrieval questions

1 What is a homologous series? a group of compounds with the same functional group
Put paper here

a group of atoms that determines the properties of a
2 What is a functional group?
compound
3 What are alkenes? a homologous series with a double carbon–carbon bond
Put paper here

What is the general formula for alkenes? CnH2n
What is the product from an addition reaction of an

5 a haloalkane
alkene with a halogen?
What is the product from the addition reaction of an
6 an alkane
alkene with hydrogen?
Put paper here
What conditions are required for the addition

7 high temperature, high pressure, and a catalyst
reaction of an alkene with steam?
8 What are alcohols? a homologous series with an –OH group
9 How are alcohols produced? steam with an alkene or fermentation

Put paper here
What conditions are required to produce alcohols by

10 sugar solution with yeast mixed in, warm, sealed vessel
fermenting?
11 Name the first four alcohols. methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol
Put paper here
What are the products of a reaction between an

12 hydrogen and an alkoxide
alcohol and sodium?
What is the organic product formed by the
13 carboxylic acid
oxidation of an alcohol?
14 Name an oxidising agent. acidified potassium dichromate
Put paper here
15 What are carboxylic acids? a homologous series with a –COOH group
What do carboxylic acids form when they react with

16 salt, carbon dioxide, water
sodium carbonate?
Put paper here
17 How are carboxylic acids produced? oxidation of alcohols
methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid,

18 Name the first four carboxylic acids.
butanoic acid
What is the organic product of a reaction between a
19 an ester
carboxylic acid and an alcohol?
Put paper here
What catalyst is normally used in the formation of

20 concentrated sulfuric acid
esters?
What occurs when pure carboxylic acids are added
21 a weak acid is formed
to water?
Chapter 11: Polymers
Knowledge organiser
Polymers Addition polymerisation Condensation polymerisation (HT only)

Polymers are very long molecules made up Addition polymerisation starts with molecules with a C=C bond Condensation polymerisation can involve two different monomers, each has two functional groups.
of lots of smaller molecules joined together (e.g., alkenes) as the monomer. The carbon-carbon double bond H
H
in a repeating pattern. The smaller molecules breaks in each molecule, and the carbon atoms then link together. Molecule A is a diol. It has Molecule B is a dicarboxylic acid. O H H O
are called monomers. The process of turning two –OH groups: one at H O C C O H It has a carboxylic acid group at C C C C
H H H H either end. either end. HO H H OH
many monomers into a polymer is called H H
where n is a
polymerisation. n C C C C
large number
n
There are two main types of polymerisation. H H H H
H H
many single long chain
Type of Products of ethene monomers of poly(ethene) To simplify the diagrams, a rectangle is used to represent C C.
Monomers
polymerisation polymerisation H H
The n refers to a large number of molecules. The rounded brackets
molecules O O
and the bonds sticking out of them represent where the next H O O H C C
addition with C=C just the molecule in the chain goes.
Molecule A HO OH
polymerisation bonds, such polymer The inside of the brackets is known as the repeating unit – the Molecule B
as alkenes section that repeats over and over again many thousands of times in
diols, the polymer.
condensation dicarboxylic polymer and Addition polymers are named after the monomer used to create them. When molecule A and molecule B react O O
polymerisation acids, or water
• An addition polymer made of ethene is called poly(ethene). C C
together, the –OH group from the
diamines H O O H H O O H
• An addition polymer made of propene is called poly(propene). carboxylic acid and a hydrogen atom
from the –OH group on the alcohol O O
join together to form water. C C
H O O + O H
H 2O
Natural polymers
Amino acids and proteins (HT only) DNA
Another molecule B and another molecule A can now react with either side of the
Condensation reactions can also happen with just one monomer All genetic information is stored in DNA. molecule that has been formed.
molecule, so long as the molecule has two different functional groups. Genetic information contains the instructions O O O O
for the functioning and development of living C C C C
Amino acids have an amine functional group and a carboxylic acid
organisms. H O O H H O O O H H O O H
functional group. The amine functional group has a nitrogen bonded to
a carbon and two hydrogens. DNA is made of two long polymers that O O O O
wind around each other in a double helix. C C C C
Glycine is the simplest amino acid.
The polymers are made of four different H O O O O O H
amine carboxylic acid monomers called nucleotides. + 2H2O

functional H functional group
H O
group phosphate
N C C base
H O H
H
You could keep adding more molecules in the pattern ABABABABA. Every time a molecule is
glycine
added, a water molecule is produced. This type of reaction is called a condensation reaction.
deoxyribose sugar
When many molecules of glycine react together they form a polypeptide. nucleotide If you keep adding molecules, a condensation polymer is produced. This is represented by:
There are many different H H O H H O Starch and cellulose n HO OH + n HOOC COOH (O O CO CO )n + 2nH2O
types of amino acids. They can N C C + N C C When diols (compounds with two –OH groups) and dicarboxylic acids react together, they form polyesters.
Starch and cellulose are another two natural
react together to form many H H O H H H O H
polymers. Both of these are made from
different polypeptides. When
glucose molecules joined together. Whether
lots of polypeptides come Key terms
peptide bond the resulting polymer is starch or cellulose Make sure you can write a definition for these key terms.
together they form something
depends on how the glucose molecules form
called a protein. H O H
H O chains with each other. addition polymerisation amine amino acid condensation polymerisation DNA
N C C N C C + H2O
H H H H O H monomer natural polymer nucleotide polymer polypeptide protein repeating unit
Chapter 11: Polymers
Retrieval questions

1 What are monomers? small molecules that join together to form a long chain
Put paper here

2 What is a polymer? a very long molecule made of repeating units
the smallest part of a polymer that repeats itself

3 What is a repeating unit?
throughout the chain
Put paper here

4 What is polymerisation? a reaction that turns multiple monomers into polymers
5 What are the two types of polymerisation? addition and condensation
What kind of monomers are involved in addition

6 molecules with C=C bonds, such as alkenes
polymerisation?
Put paper here
What kind of monomers are involved in condensation

7 monomers with two functional groups
polymerisation?
What other products are made in condensation

8 water (normally)
Put paper here
polymerisation?
What does n represent in an equation showing

9 a very large number
polymerisation?
10 What is a natural polymer? a polymer that is produced naturally by organisms

Put paper here
11 Give four examples of natural polymers. polypeptides, starch, cellulose, DNA
the building blocks for polypeptides and proteins, which

12 What are amino acids?
have an amine and a carboxylic acid group
13 What is a polypeptide?
Put paper here
a polymer made from many amino acids
14 What is a protein? a polymer made from amino acids
15 Which monomer makes up starch and cellulose? glucose

Put paper here
16 What is DNA? a molecule containing genetic information
17 Which monomers are DNA made of? nucleotides
18 How is DNA arranged? double helix

Chapter 12: Chemical analysis
Knowledge organiser
Pure and impure Formulations Chromatography

In chemistry, a pure substance contains a single Formulations are examples of mixtures. They have many Chromatography is a method to separate different
element or compound that is not mixed with any other different components (substances that make them up) components in a mixture. It is set up as shown here, with Paper – the Solvent front – the top
stationary phase. of where the solvent
substance. in very specific proportions (amounts compared to each a piece of paper in a beaker containing a small amount Each component within travels up the paper.
other). of solvent. the substance moves a
Pure substances melt and boil at specific temperatures. different distance up the
Scientists spend a lot of time trying to get the right The Rf value is a ratio of how far up the paper a certain paper. The distance it
An impure substance contains more than one type of components in the right proportions to make the most spot moves compared to how far the solvent has moves depends on how
element of compound in a mixture. useful product. travelled.
soluble it is in the solvent.
The substances
If it travels far it is very
to be tested are
Impure substances melt and boil at a range of Formulations include fuels, cleaning agents, paints, alloys, distance moved by substance soluble, if it does not it is
Rf = less soluble. If a substance placed on the
temperatures. fertilisers, and foods. distance moved by solvent produces only one spot, pencil line. We draw
than the substance is pure. the line in pencil
It will always be a number between 0 and 1. because pen would
dissolve and travel
The Rf value depends on the solvent and the
Testing gases temperature, and different substances will have different Solvent – the mobile phase.
up the paper.
The top of the solvent must be below the

Common gases can be identified using the follow tests: Rf values. The Rf values for particular pencil line or the substances to be tested
solvents can be used to identify a substance. will dissolve away from the paper.
Gas What you do What you observe if gas is present
hydrogen hold a lighted splint near the gas hear a squeaky pop
oxygen hold a glowing splint near the gas splint re-lights Testing for cations
carbon dioxide bubble the gas through limewater the limewater turns milky (cloudy white) Metal ions always have a positive charge (i.e., they are cations). Sodium hydroxide solution can be
used to identify some metal ions.
chlorine hold a piece of damp litmus near the gas bleaches the litmus white
Cation Positive result
on slow addition of excess sodium hydroxide solution, white precipitate forms that eventually
aluminium ions, Al3+
dissolves again with excess sodium hydroxide
Flame tests
calcium ions, Ca2+ on addition of excess sodium hydroxide solution, white precipitate that does not dissolve
Substances containing metals can
Metal Flame colour magnesium ions, Mg2+ on addition of excess sodium hydroxide solution, white precipitate that does not dissolve
produce a coloured light in a flame.
This can be used to identify the lithium crimson copper(II) ions, Cu2+ forms a blue precipitate
metal. However, if there is more sodium yellow iron(II) ions, Fe2+ forms a green precipitate
than one metal in the substance
potassium lilac iron(III) ions, Fe3+
forms a brown precipitate
then this method will not work, as
the colours mix and intense colours calcium orange-red
mask more subtle colours. copper green
Testing for anions
Instrumental methods Flame emission spectroscopy Anion Test Positive result

Instrumental analysis involves using Flame emission spectroscopy is a type of instrumental analysis carbon dioxide gas formed which can
carbonate, CO32− add dilute acid
complex scientific equipment to test similar to a flame test. be test for with limewater
substances. The sample solution is put into a flame and the light given off is passed chloride, Cl− add silver nitrate solution in the presence of nitric acid white precipitate formed
Instrumental methods are rapid and through a spectroscope. Instead of a human observing a colour, bromide, Br −
add silver nitrate solution in the presence of nitric acid cream precipitate formed
accurate. They are also sensitive, which the instrument tells you exactly which wavelength of light is being
means they can give results even with given off as a line spectrum. You can then compare the spectrum iodide, I− add silver nitrate solution in the presence of nitric acid yellow precipitate formed
very small amounts of substance. to a reference to establish the identity of your sample. You can also sulfate, SO42− add barium chloride solution in the presence of hydrochloric acid white precipitate formed
measure the concentration of the substance in your sample solution.
Key terms
chromatography flame emission spectroscopy flame test formulation impure instrumental analysis
mobile phase precipitate pure Rf value solvent solvent front stationary phase
Chapter 12: Chemical analysis
Retrieval questions

1 In chemistry, what is a pure substance? something made of only one type of substance
Put paper here

What is the difference between the melting and boiling pure – sharp/one specific temperature
2
points of a pure and impure substance? impure – broad/occurs across a range of temperatures
3 What is a formulation? a mixture designed for a specific purpose
Put paper here

fuels, cleaning agents, paints, medicines, alloys,
4 What are some examples of formulations?
fertilisers, and foods
5 What is chromatography? a process for separating coloured mixtures
distance moved by substance

6 How is Rf calculated? Rf =
Put paper here
distance moved by solvent
7 What is the test for hydrogen? a lit splint gives squeaky pop
8 What is the test for oxygen? re-lights a glowing splint

Put paper here
9 What is the test for carbon dioxide? turns limewater milky if bubbled through it
10 What is the test for chlorine? bleaches damp litmus paper
What is the test for aluminium, calcium, and

11 forms white precipitate with sodium hydroxide solution
magnesium ions?
Put paper here
How can aluminium ions be distinguished from the white precipitate will dissolve with excess sodium
12
calcium and magnesium ones? hydroxide
What colour precipitates are formed when sodium
copper(II) ions form blue precipitate, iron(II) ions form
13 hydroxide solution is added to solutions of copper(II),
green precipitate, iron(III) ions form brown precipitate
iron(II), and iron(III) ions?
Put paper here
add silver nitrate and nitric acid: chloride forms white

14 What is the test for a halide ion? precipitate, bromide forms cream precipitate, iodide
forms yellow precipitate
15 What is the test for a carbonate ion? carbon dioxide gas formed on addition of acid
Put paper here
white precipitate formed with hydrochloric acid and

16 What is the test for a sulfate ion?
barium chloride
What colours are produced by different metals in a lithium – crimson; sodium – yellow; potassium – lilac;
17
flame test? calcium – orange-red; copper – green
Put paper here
18 What is instrumental analysis? using complex scientific equipment to identify substances
19 What are the three advantages of instrumental analysis? rapid, accurate, and sensitive
What information does flame emission the wavelength of light given off by a metal in a flame to
20
spectroscopy produce? identity of the metal and its concentration
Chapter 13: The Earth’s atmosphere
Knowledge organiser
The Earth’s changing atmosphere Greenhouse gases Sun

3 energy emitted by the
Earth as long wave radiation
1 short wave radiation
Period Proportions of gases Evidence Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and 4 greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere absorb the long
water vapour, absorb radiation and maintain temperatures
about 4.6 billion • carbon dioxide, CO2 Because it was waves, trapping the energy
on the Earth to support life. and warming the Earth.
years to about 2.7 Released by volcanoes. Biggest component of the atmosphere. billions of years
billion years ago • oxygen, O2 ago there is very However, in the last 150 years, more greenhouse gases have
Very little oxygen present. little evidence been released due to human activities. 2 The atmosphere absorbs
to draw upon. and reflects some radiation.
• nitrogen, N2 • carbon dioxide – combustion of fossil fuels, he
re
p Earth
Released by volcanoes. deforestation os
m
at
• water vapour, H2O • methane – planting rice fields, cattle farming
Released by volcanoes. Existed as vapour as Earth was too hot for it to condense.
• other gases
Ammonia, NH3, and methane, CH4, may also have been present.
Global warming Global climate change
about 2.7 billion • carbon dioxide, CO2 Still limited
years ago to Amount in atmosphere begins to reduce because: as billions of Global warming leads to another process called global
about 200 million years ago, Scientists have gathered peer-reviewed evidence climate change – how the overall weather patterns over
• water condenses to form the oceans, in which CO2 then dissolves
years ago but can look to demonstrate that increasing the amount of many years and across the entire planet will change.
• algae (and later plants) start to photosynthesise
at processes greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will increase
light There are many different effects of climate change, including:
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen that happen the overall average temperature of the Earth. This is
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 called global warming. • sea levels rising
today (like
•
CO2 precipitates in the oceans as solid carbonates (sediments) that photosynthesis) • extreme weather events
However, it is difficult to make predictions about
form rocks and make the atmosphere as it is so big and complex. This • changes in the amount and time of rainfall
•
CO2 taken in by plants and animals. When they die, the carbon in them is theories about leads some people to doubt what scientists say. • changes to ecosystems and habitats
locked up as fossil fuels the past. • polar ice caps melting.
• oxygen, O2
Starts to increase as a product of photosynthesis.
• nitrogen, N2
Continues to increase. Nitrogen is a very stable molecule so any process that Carbon footprints
produces it causes the overall amount to build up over time. As such, it is important to reduce the release of greenhouse
• water vapour, H2O Increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the
gases into the atmosphere. The amount of carbon dioxide and
Starts to decrease. As the Earth cools, the vapour condenses and forms atmosphere increases the global average temperature
methane that is released into the atmosphere by a product,
the oceans. of the Earth, which results in global climate change.
person, or process is called its carbon footprint.
about 200 million • carbon dioxide, CO2 small proportions of other gases, Ice core
years ago until the about 0.04% such as water vapour, carbon evidence for
present • oxygen, O2
dioxide, and noble gases
millions of Other pollutants released in combustion of fuels
about 20% years ago and
• nitrogen, N2 lots of global Pollutant Origin Effect
oxygen
about 80% ~20% measurements carbon monoxide incomplete combustion of fuels colourless and odourless toxic gas
• water vapour, H2O taken recently. particulates (soot and incomplete combustion of fuels especially global dimming, respiratory problems, potential to
Very little overall. Collects in large clouds
unburnt hydrocarbons) in diesel engines cause cancer
as part of the water cycle. nitrogen
• other gases ~80% sulfur impurities in the fuel reacting with
sulfur dioxide acid rain and respiratory problems
Small proportions of other gases such as oxygen from the air
the noble gases. nitrogen from the air being heated near
oxides of nitrogen acid rain and respiratory problems
an engine and reacting with oxygen
Key terms
acid rain atmosphere carbon footprint global climate change carbon monoxide global dimming global warming greenhouse gas particulate pollutant
Chapter 13: The Earth’s atmosphere
Retrieval questions

1 What is the atmosphere? a layer of gas surrounding the Earth
Put paper here

2 What was the early atmosphere composed of? mostly carbon dioxide
3 How did the oceans form? water vapour condensing as the Earth cooled
Put paper here

How did the amount of carbon dioxide in the dissolved in the oceans, photosynthesis, converted to
4
atmosphere decrease to today’s levels? fossil fuels, precipitated as insoluble metal carbonates
When did life start to appear, and what was the about 2.7 billion years ago; amount of atmospheric
5
impact of this on oxygen in the atmosphere? oxygen increased as it was released in photosynthesis
How has the amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere
Put paper here
6 increased slowly as it is a very stable molecule

changed over time?
Why can scientists not be sure about the composition
7 it was billions of years ago and evidence is limited
of the Earth’s early atmosphere?
approximately 80% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and trace
Put paper here
8 What is the current composition of the atmosphere? amounts of other gases such as carbon dioxide, water
vapour, and noble gases
9 What is a greenhouse gas? a gas that traps radiation from the Sun
10 What type of radiation do greenhouse gases absorb? longer wavelength infrared radiation
Put paper here
11 Name three greenhouse gases. methane, carbon dioxide, water vapour
Give two ways recent human activities have increased

12 burning fossil fuels, deforestation
the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Give two ways recent human activities have
Put paper here
13 rice farming, cattle farming

increased the amount of atmospheric methane.
14 What is global warming? an increase in the overall global average temperature
the change in long-term weather patterns across

15 What is global climate change?
Put paper here
the planet
sea levels rising, extreme weather events, changes in the
16 What are some possible effects of climate change? amount and time of rainfall, changes to ecosystems and
habitats, polar ice caps melting
the amount of carbon a product, process, or person
17 What is a carbon footprint?
Put paper here
releases into the atmosphere over its lifetime

How is carbon monoxide formed, and what is the incomplete combustion; colourless and odourless
18
danger associated with it? toxic gas
How are particulates formed, and what are the incomplete combustion; global dimming, respiratory
19
dangers associated with them? problems, potential to cause cancer
Put paper here
How is sulfur dioxide formed, and what are the sulfur impurities in fossil fuels react with oxygen during
20
dangers associated with it? combustion; acid rain, respiratory problems
How are oxides of nitrogen formed, and what are atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen react in the heat of a
21
the dangers associated with them? combustion engine; acid rain, respiratory problems
Chapter 14: The Earth’s resources 1
Knowledge organiser
Natural and synthetic resources Finite and renewable resources Waste water
We use the Earth’s resources to provide us with warmth, fuel, Some resources are finite. This means that they will Human activities produce lots of waste water as sewage, agricultural waste, and industrial waste.
shelter, food, and transport. eventually run out. Sewage and agricultural waste contain organic matter and harmful microbes.
•
Natural resources are used for food, timber, clothing, and
• Fossil fuels are an example of a finite resource. They • Industrial waste contains organic matter and harmful chemicals.
fuels. take so long to form that we use them faster than they
These need to be removed before the water can be put back into the environment.
Synthetic resources are made by scientists. They can
• are naturally formed.
replace or supplement natural resources. Resources that will not run out are called renewable
When choosing and synthesising resources, it is important to resources.
consider sustainable development. This is development that Wood is an example of a renewable resource. Trees can
Treating sewage water
meets the needs of current generations without compromising be grown to replace any that are cut down for wood.
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. screening and grit removal
The sewage passes through a metal grid that filters out large objects.
Potable water Fresh water

Water is a vital resource for life. Potable water is water that is safe to In the UK, potable water is produced from sedimentation
drink. However, most water on Earth is not potable. rain water that collects in lakes and rivers. To The sewage is left so that solid sediments settle out of the water. The
produce potable water: sediments sink to the bottom of the tank. The liquid sits above the sediment.
Type of water What it has in it 1 Choose an appropriate source of fresh water.
pure water just water molecules and nothing else 2 Pass the water through filters to remove
potable water water molecules, low levels of salts, safe large objects.
levels of harmful microbes 3 Sterilise the water to kill any microbes using Treating sludge Treating effluent
salty water (sea water) water molecules, dangerously high levels ozone, chlorine, or UV light.
of salt, can have high levels of harmful sewage sludge effluent
microbes This sediment is called sludge. Sludge The remaining liquid is called effluent.
fresh water (from rivers, water molecules, low levels of salt, often contains organic matter, water, dissolved This effluent has no solid matter visible,
lakes, or underground) has harmful microbes at high levels compounds, and small solid particles. but still contains some matter and
harmful microorganisms.
Salty water Distillation anaerobic treatment

aerobic treatment
Some countries do not have lots of fresh water Bacteria are added to digest the organic
matter. These bacteria break down the Bacteria are added to the effluent. These
available. Desalination is the process to turn saltwater bacteria feed on organic matter and the
into potable water. This requires a lot of energy and can matter anaerobically – with a limited
supply of oxygen. harmful microorganisms in the effluent.
be done by: clamp The bacteria break down the matter by
distillation
• aerobic respiration – oxygen needs to be
reverse osmosis
• present.
Reverse osmosis involves using membranes to separate biogas
seawater
the salts dissolved in the water. The water needs to be The anaerobic digestion of sludge
pressurised and the salty water corrodes the pumps. As produces biogas. Biogas is a mixture of bacteria removed
such, it is an expensive process. methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen The bacteria are allowed to settle out of
sulfide. It can be used as fuel. the water.
ice and
water mixture
remaining sludge used as fuel discharged back to rivers
The remaining sludge can be dried out The water is now safe enough to be
and can also be burnt as a fuel. released back into the environment.
Chapter 14: The Earth’s resources 2
Knowledge organiser
Metal extraction (HT only) Disposal of products

Metals are used for many different things. Some metals can be extracted from their ores by reduction or electrolysis. When someone finishes with a product, it can be
However, metal ores are a finite resource and these processes require lots of energy. • added to a landfill
This can cause habitat loss and other problems in the local ecosystem. Some items persist in landfills as
Scientists are looking for new ways to extract metals that are more sustainable. they do not biodegrade and could be there for hundreds of years.
Phytomining and bioleaching are two alternative processes used to extract copper from low grade ores (ores with • incinerated
only a little copper in them). Some products can be incinerated to produce useful energy. However, the combustion can often be
incomplete and result in harmful pollutants being released to the atmosphere.
• reused
This is when an item is used again for a similar purpose.
Phytomining Bioleaching
• recycled
1
Grow plants near the metal ore. 1
Grow bacteria near the metal ore. Recycling requires energy, but conserves the limited resources and often requires less energy than needed
2
Harvest and burn the plants. 2
Bacteria produce leachate solutions that contain to make brand new materials.
3
The ash contains the metal compound. metal compound.
4
Process the ash by electrolysis or displacement with 3
Process the leachate by electrolysis or
scrap metal. displacement with scrap metal.
The table shows information about the extraction, processing, and disposal of some common materials.
This information is used when making a LCA.
Both of these methods avoid the digging, moving, and disposing of large amounts of rock associated with traditional Material Extraction/processing Disposal
mining techniques. metal quarrying and mining cause habitat loss
• metals can normally be recycled by melting them
•
machinery involved in mining release
• down and then casting them into new shapes
greenhouse gases metals in landfill can persist for a long time
•
Life cycle assessment extraction from metal ores require lots of energy
•
A life cycle assessment (LCA) is a way of looking at the whole life of a
inputs outputs plastic normally come from fossil fuels that are non- many plastic products can be reused and recycled
•
product and assessing its impact on the environment and sustainability. LCA
renewable plastics often end up in landfills where they
•
It is broken down into four categories: raw material atmospheric
raw emissions persist as they are not biodegradable
extracting and processing raw materials
• materials
incinerating plastics releases lots of harmful
•
manufacturing and packaging
• manufacture /
packaging / waterborne pollutants like carbon monoxide and particulates
use and operation during its lifetime
• distribution wastes
disposal at the end of its useful life, including transport and
• paper produced from trees that require land and lots of many paper products can be recycled
•
distribution at each stage energy use / reuse / maintenance solid wastes water to grow paper products can also be incinerated or they
•
Some parts of an LCA are objective, such as the amount of water used or lots of water also used in the production process can decay naturally in a landfill
waste produced in the production of a product. recycle / waste incineration and decay release greenhouse gases
•
coproducts
However, other parts of an LCA require judgements, such as the polluting management
effect, and so LCAs are not a completely objective process. glass produced by heating sand, which requires a lot many glass products can be reused, or crushed
•
of energy and recycled
if glass is added to landfills it persists as it is not
•
Key terms biodegradable
ceramics come from clay and rocks
• most ceramics are not commonly recycled in the
•
aerobic anaerobic biodegrade bioleaching distillation effluent generally require quarrying, which requires
• UK, and once broken cannot be reused
finite resources life cycle assessment phytomining potable water recycling energy, releases pollutants from heavy ceramics tend to persist in landfills
•
renewable resources reverse osmosis screening sedimentation sewage machinery, and causes habitat loss
sludge sterilisation sustainable development
Chapter 14: The Earth’s resources
Retrieval questions

1 What do we use the Earth’s resources for? warmth, shelter, food, fuel, transport
Put paper here

2 What are some examples of natural resources? cotton, wool, timber
3 What are some examples of synthetic resources? plastic, polyester, acrylic
4 What is a finite resource? a resource that will eventually run out
Put paper here

development that meets the needs of current
5 What is sustainable development? generations without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
6 What are the four main types of water? pure water, salt water, fresh water, potable water
7 What is potable water? water that is safe to drink
Put paper here
In the UK, how is potable water extracted from fresh

8 filtration and sterilisation
water?
9 What is sterilisation? killing microbes
10 What are three examples of sterilising agents? chlorine gas, UV light, and ozone
Put paper here
11 How can potable water be produced from salt water? desalination

12 How can desalination be carried out? distillation or reverse osmosis
13 What are the three main types of waste water? sewage, agricultural waste, industrial waste
Put paper here
14 What can waste water contain? organic matter, harmful microbes, harmful chemicals
15 What is the first step in processing waste water? screening and grit removal
16 What is sedimentation? separating the waste water into sludge and effluent
Put paper here
17 How is sludge treated? anaerobic respiration

18 How is effluent treated? aerobic respiration
19 What is phytomining? using plants to extract copper
20 What is bioleaching? using bacteria to extract copper
Put paper here
a way of assessing the energy costs and environmental

21 What is a life cycle assessment?
effect of a product across its lifetime
• extracting and processing raw materials
• manufacturing and packaging
22 What are the four stages of a life cycle assessment?
• use and operation during its lifetime
Put paper here
• disposal at the end of its useful life

How can we reduce the amount of new materials
23 by reducing, reusing, or recycling products
manufactured?
In what ways can materials that are not recycled be
24 landfill or incineration
disposed?
Chapter 15: Making our resources 1
Knowledge organiser
Corrosion Polymers
Corrosion is when a material reacts with substances in the environment and eventually wears away. Corrosion can be The properties of polymers depend on
prevented in in two ways: the monomers that make them up
•
physical barriers
• the conditions under which they are made.
•
sacrificial protection
•
For example, low density poly(ethene) and high density poly(ethene) are both made from ethene
Rusting is an example of corrosion. It is caused by iron reacting with oxygen and water from the environment. monomers but have very different properties due to the way that the polymer chains line up in the material.
Low density poly(ethene) High density poly(ethene)

Physical barriers Sacrificial protection
LDPE is formed when the addition polymerisation HDPE is formed when the addition
The material is covered with a physical barrier like grease, A more reactive substance is placed on the material. reaction of ethene is carried out under high pressure and polymerisation reaction of ethene is carried out
paint, or a thin layer of another metal by a process called The more reactive substance will react with the in the presence of a small amount of oxygen. using a catalyst at 50 °C. The polymer chains are
electroplating. environment, and not the main material. straight and can pack tightly together, so causing the
The branched polymer chains cannot pack together,
Aluminium reacts with oxygen to make a very thin layer of For example, iron is galvanised with zinc. The zinc high density of the polymer.
so causing the low density of the polymer.
aluminium oxide around the metal that acts as a physical barrier. then reacts with the oxygen and water in place of
This layer then protects the rest of the metal from corrosion. the iron.
polymer polymer
Alloys chains chains
Alloys allow us to tailor the properties of metals to specific uses.

Alloy Composition Properties Use
bronze copper and tin resistant to corrosion statues, decorative items, ship propellers
LD poly(ethene) or LDPE HD poly(ethene) or HDPE
brass copper and zinc very hard but workable door fittings, taps, musical instruments
gold alloys mostly gold with attractive, corrosion jewellery
copper, silver and zinc resistant, hardness the proportion of gold is measured in carats. Thermosoftening polymers Thermosetting polymers
added depends on carat 24 carat gold contains 100% gold, 18 carat
Thermosoftening polymers do not have links Thermosetting polymers have strong links between
gold contains 75% gold
between the different chains, and soften when they the different chains, and do not melt when they
high carbon steel iron with 1–2% carbon strong but brittle cutting tools, metal presses are heated. are heated.
low carbon steel iron with <1% carbon soft, easy to shape extensive use in manufacture of cars, the tangled web of polymer chains fixedthetogether
tangledbyweb of polymer chains fixed together by
machinery, ships, containers, structural steel chains are relatively easy to strong covalent bonds
chains –
are relatively easy to strong covalent bonds –
separate this is calledseparate
cross-linking this is called cross-linking
stainless steel iron with chromium resistant to corrosion, cutlery, plumbing
and nickel hard
aluminium alloys over 300 alloys low density, properties aircraft, military uses
available depend on composition
thermosoftening polymer thermosetting

thermosoftening
polymer polymer thermosetting polymer
Ceramics
Ceramics are materials with versatile properties that can have many different uses.
Ceramic Manufacture Properties Uses
Composites
soda-lime glass heat a mixture of sand, transparent, brittle everyday glass objects
sodium carbonate, limestone Composites are made from a main material (called a matrix) with fragments or fibres
borosilicate glass heat sand and boron trioxide higher melting point than soda- oven glassware, of other materials (called reinforcements) added into them. This means the material’s
lime glass laboratory glassware properties can be made more useful.
clay ceramics shape wet clay then heat in a hard, brittle, easy to shape before crockery, construction, Plywood and reinforced concrete are examples of composites.
(pottery + bricks) furnace manufacture, resistant to corrosion plumbing fixtures
Chapter 15: Making our resources 2
Knowledge organiser
The Haber process Fertilisers

Fertilisers are important chemicals used to improve the growth of crop plants. Ammonia is a vital component of many Fertilisers are produced industrially to increase the amount of food obtained from crops. Compounds containing
fertilisers. It is produced in the Haber process: nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium are used, and fertilisers with all three in them are called NPK fertilisers.
• nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia NPK fertilisers are formulations. Some of the substances that go into NPK fertilisers can be mined straight from
• N2(g) + 2H2(g) 2NH3(g) the ground (like potassium chloride or potassium sulfate). Others, like phosphate rock, need to be processed first.
It is a reversible reaction, so the conditions affect the yield. Phosphate rock can react with different acids to make different products, which can either be used as fertilisers on
their own or added to an NPK fertiliser.
hydrogen from
natural gas
and nitrogen
single superphosphate
from the air
calcium Ca (PO )
are pumped in 3 4 2
unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are returned phosphate
to the reaction vessel via the compressor Haber process + +
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 calcium CaSO4
calcium nitrate
sulfate
Ca(NO3)2
nitric acid
cooling HNO3
chamber H2SO4 sulfuric
acid
HNO3
nitric
react together phosphoric acid mined
HNO3 ammonia
ammonium acid phosphate
NH3
nitrate nitric acid H3PO4 rock
NH4NO3
the nitrogen / hydrogen

mixture is compressed reaction vessel
to a pressure of 200 atm containing iron catalyst the mixture of gases emerging
ammonium react
and heated to 450 °C from the reactor is cooled; phosphate together
ammonia liquefies and is separated NPK (NH4)3PO4
fertiliser
Conditions
mined triple superphosphate
potassium
Compromise chloride
calcium phosphate
Ca3(PO4)2
The conditions used for the Haber process are a compromise to KCl
balance yield, cost, and rate.
an iron catalyst
•
temperatures of about 450 °C
•
pressure of about 200 atmospheres
• Laboratory vs. industry
The compounds found in fertilisers can be produced in the laboratory as well as industrially:
Temperature Pressure Catalyst
laboratory industrial
The forward reaction is There are fewer gas molecules on Iron is an effective catalyst for
exothermic. Therefore, the product side, so increasing the the Haber process. It does not Quantities produced small large
lowering the temperature pressure would increase the yield increase the yield, but does continuous (can keep
Process batch (do it once)
would increase the yield of and the rate of reaction. However, increase the rate. doing it)
ammonia, but would also it is very expensive to increase Apparatus glass stainless steel
decrease the rate of reaction. the pressure. Speed slow fast
Key terms
alloy ceramic composite corrosion galvanise Haber process matrix NPK fertiliser reinforce rusting thermosetting thermosoftening

Chapter 15: Making our resources
Retrieval questions

the destruction of a material through reactions with
1 What is corrosion?
Put paper here

substances in the environment
What physical barriers be used to protect against
2 grease, paint, a thin layer of metal
corrosion?
3 What is sacrificial protection? adding a more reactive metal to the surface of a material
Put paper here

4 How is rust formed? reaction between iron, water, and oxygen
5 What are two alloys of copper? brass and bronze
6 What are gold alloys in jewellery made from? gold with copper, zinc, and silver
Put paper here
7 What are steel alloys made from? iron, carbon, and other metals
8 What is a property of aluminium alloys? generally have low densities
What is the main difference between soda-lime and

Put paper here
9 borosilicate glass has a much higher melting point

borosilicate glass?
10 Give two examples of clay ceramics. pottery and bricks
What two things do the properties of polymers monomers and the conditions under which they are
11
depend on? formed
Put paper here
What is the main difference between thermosetting thermosetting polymers do not soften when heated,
12
and thermosoftening polymers? thermosoftening polymers do
13 What is a composite? a mixture of a matrix and reinforcements
14 Name two composites. plywood and reinforced concrete

Put paper here
What is the balanced symbol equation for the Haber

15 N2(g) + 2H2(g) 2NH3(g)
process?
16 What is the ammonia used for? fertilisers
What is the effect of increasing the temperature of
Put paper here
17 decrease yield, increase rate, increase cost

the Haber process on the yield, rate, and cost?
What is the effect of increasing the pressure of the
18 increase yield, increase rate, increase cost
Haber process on the yield, rate and cost?
19 What catalyst do we use for the Haber process? iron
Put paper here
20 What are the conditions for the Haber process? 450 °C, 200 atm, iron catalyst
a formulation containing soluble compounds of
21 What is an NPK fertiliser?
nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium

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Knowledge Organiser: Elements and Compounds Development of The Model of The Atom

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Chapter 1: Atomic structure

Electron −1 0 (very small) = same as the number of protons

Put paper here

Put paper here

10 proton: +1, neutron: 0, electron: −1

equal numbers of positive protons and negative

substance made of more than one type of atom

Development of the Periodic Table Group 1 elements

no gaps – all elements up to a certain Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg

How are elements

Key terms Group 7 displacement reactivity

Put paper here

Put paper here

7 What name is given to the Group 1 elements? alkali metals

metals with oxygen, chlorine, and water.

11 electrostatic forces of attraction and more shielding

How do the melting points of the halogens change

further from the nucleus, meaning there are weaker

18 What name is given to the Group 0 elements? noble gases

Particle model Ions Ionic bonding Giant ionic lattice

+ each other by the strong - + -

freezing condensing lost 11 11

shares one pair of electrons. H H

Double bond = each atom Metals: structure and properties

shares two pairs of electrons.

atoms must be broken to or boil the substances, not the

Graphite Fullerenes Measuring particles

The carbon atoms in nanotubes are arranged in Key terms

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only a small amount of energy is needed to break the melted or dissolved?

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electricity? 31 What are four properties of pure metals?

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36 Explain why alloys are harder than pure metals.

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18 Give three uses of fullerenes. used in healthcare, electronics, cosmetics,

C4 questions Answers moles of solute

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1 method used to calculate the concentration of an

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6 What volume does one mole of any gas occupy at

Which formula is used to calculate concentration mass (g)

concentration in g/dm3 and volume?

If the amount of solute in a solution is increased,

maximum mass of the product that could have been

reaction may be reversible

16 What is the percentage yield? actual yield as a proportion of theoretical yield

19 Why is a high atom economy desirable?

Alkanes 6 the hydrocarbon fraction is collected.