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Advanced Structured Materials
Holm Altenbach
Wolfgang H. Müller
Bilen Emek Abali Editors
Higher Gradient
Materials
and Related
Generalized
Continua
Volume 120
Series Editors
Andreas Öchsner, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Esslingen University of
Applied Sciences, Esslingen, Germany
Lucas F. M. da Silva, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Holm Altenbach, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany
Common engineering materials reach in many applications their limits and new
developments are required to fulfil increasing demands on engineering materials.
The performance of materials can be increased by combining different materials to
achieve better properties than a single constituent or by shaping the material or
constituents in a specific structure. The interaction between material and structure
may arise on different length scales, such as micro-, meso- or macroscale, and offers
possible applications in quite diverse fields.
This book series addresses the fundamental relationship between materials and their
structure on the overall properties (e.g. mechanical, thermal, chemical or magnetic
etc) and applications.
The topics of Advanced Structured Materials include but are not limited to
• classical fibre-reinforced composites (e.g. glass, carbon or Aramid reinforced
plastics)
• metal matrix composites (MMCs)
• micro porous composites
• micro channel materials
• multilayered materials
• cellular materials (e.g., metallic or polymer foams, sponges, hollow sphere
structures)
• porous materials
• truss structures
• nanocomposite materials
• biomaterials
• nanoporous metals
• concrete
• coated materials
• smart materials
Advanced Structured Materials is indexed in Google Scholar and Scopus.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8611

Holm Altenbach Wolfgang H. Müller
• •
Bilen Emek Abali

Editors
Higher Gradient Materials

and Related Generalized
Continua
123
Editors
Holm Altenbach Wolfgang H. Müller
Institut für Mechanik Institut für Mechanik
Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Technische Universität Berlin
Magdeburg, Germany Berlin, Germany
Bilen Emek Abali

Institut für Mechanik
Technische Universität Berlin
Berlin, Germany
ISSN 1869-8433 ISSN 1869-8441 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-30405-8 ISBN 978-3-030-30406-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30406-5
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
The idea for this volume of the Advanced Structured Materials Series was born
during two seminars, namely “New Developments in Micropolar Theory,” and “Ad-
vanced Seminar: Generalized Continua in Engineering—Theory, Experiments, and
Applications,” which were held on November 6-7, 2017 and September 3-5, 2018,
respectively, both at the Technische Universität Berlin. The first seminar was or-
ganized by Wolfgang H. Müller (Berlin) and Elena Vilchevskaya (St. Petersburg)
and the second by Wolfgang H. Müller (Berlin) & Holm Altenbach (Magdeburg)
and attended by many scientists from Germany, Russia, Italy, USA, Sweden, Geor-
gia, France, Estonia, and Finland. The organizers were assisted by B. Emek Abali
(Berlin).
Generalized Continua have recently seen a formidable renaissance: the Cosserat
brothers gave a first summary in 1909. Their ideas stayed dormant for a while and
were picked up after World War II by Ericksen & Truesdell resulting in a continu-
ous stream of theoretical papers until today. Most recently, the theory was comple-
mented by applications and embedded in experiments focusing on how to determine
the various new material parameters required for making the theory applicable.
During the last decade various colloquia held in Paris (2009)1, Wittenberg (2010,
2012)2, 3, and Magdeburg (2015)4, as well as the CISM Course “Generalized Con-
tinua—from the Theory to the Engineering Applications” (Udine, 2011)5 helped
to promote this type of research. During this new “Advanced Seminar,” attention
1 Maugin, G.A., Metrikine, A.V. (eds) Mechanics of Generalized Continua: One Hundred Years
After the Cosserats. Springer, New York, 2010
2 Altenbach, H., Maugin, G.A., Erofeev, V. (eds) Mechanics of Generalized Continua. Advanced
Structured Materials, vol. 7. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2011
3 Altenbach, H., Forest, S., Krivtsov, A. (eds) Generalized Continua as Models for Materials. Ad-
vanced Structured Materials, vol. 22. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
4 Altenbach, H., Forest, S. (eds) Generalized Continua as Models for Classical and Advanced
Materials. Advanced Structured Materials, vol. 42. Springer, Cham
5 Altenbach H., Eremeyev V.A. (eds) Generalized Continua from the Theory to Engineering Ap-
plications. CISM International Centre for Mechanical Sciences (Courses and Lectures), vol 541.
Springer, Vienna, 2013
v
vi Preface
was paid on the most recent research items, e.g., new generalized models, materials
with significant microstructure, multi-field loadings or identification of constitutive
equations. Finally yet importantly, a comparison with discrete modeling approaches
and experiments was discussed.
As editors, we intend to thank all authors for their crucial contributions as well
as all reviewers for their invaluable time and effort. We delightedly acknowledge Dr.
Christoph Baumann (Springer Publisher) for initiating the book project. In addition,
we have to thank Dr. Mayra Castro (Senior Editor Applied Sciences; Materials Sci-
ence; Materials Engineering; Nanotechnology and Nanomedicine) and Mr. Ashok
Arumairaj (Production Administrator) giving the final support. Last but not least,
the first editor has to acknowledge the Fundacja na rzecz Nauki Polskiej (Funda-
tion for Polish Science) allowing to finalize this book at the Politechnika Lubelska
(host: Prof. dr.hab.inż. Tomasz Sadowski, dr.h.c.) with the help of the Alexander
von Humboldt Polish Honorary Research Felloship.
Berlin, Magdeburg Holm Altenbach

July 2019 Wolfgang H. Müller
Bilen Emek Abali
Contents
1 A Computational Approach for Determination of Parameters in

Generalized Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Bilen Emek Abali, Hua Yang, and Panayiotis Papadopoulos
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Homogenization Between Micro- and Macroscales . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Determination of Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Computation of One Specific Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Algorithm for All Deformation Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Extensible Beam Models in Large Deformation Under Distributed
Loading: a Numerical Study on Multiplicity of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . 19
Francesco dell’Isola, Alessandro Della Corte, Antonio Battista, and
Emilio Barchiesi
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 The Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.1 Kinematics and Deformation Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.2 Lagrange Multipliers Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Numerical Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.2 The Number of Equilibrium Configurations when the
Load Increases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.3 Equilibrium Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.4 Parametric Study on the Extensional Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
vii
viii Contents
3 On the Characterization of the Nonlinear Reduced Micromorphic

Continuum with the Local Material Symmetry Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Victor A. Eremeyev
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 Micromorphic Continua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3 Local Material Symmetry Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 Relaxed Micromorphic Medium as a Micromorphic Subfluid . . . . 47
3.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4 Structural Modeling of Nonlinear Localized Strain Waves in
Generalized Continua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Vladimir I. Erofeev, Anna V. Leontyeva, Alexey O. Malkhanov, and
Igor S. Pavlov
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Principles of Structural Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3 One-dimensional Model of a Nonlinear Gradient-elastic
Continuum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.4 Nonlinear Strain Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5 A Diffusion Model for Stimulus Propagation in Remodeling Bone
Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Ivan Giorgio, Ugo Andreaus, Faris Alzahrani, Tasawar Hayat, and
Tomasz Lekszycki
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.2 Accepted Assumptions and Main Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3 Poromechanical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4 Evolutionary Equations for Bone Remodeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.5 Stimulus Modeling Without Time Delay and Diffusion Phenomena 79
5.6 An Improved Version of Stimulus Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.7 Numerical Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.7.1 A Physiological Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.7.1.1 Uniform Tension Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.7.1.2 Non-uniform Tension Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.7.2 Simulation of a Healing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6 A C1 Incompatible Mode Element Formulation for Strain Gradient

Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Rainer Glüge
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1.1 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.1.2 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Contents ix
6.2 From Local Balance of Momentum to Minimization of the

Elastic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.3 Ciarlets Elastic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.3.1 Strain Gradient Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.3.2 Stress-strain Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3.3 Material parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.4 Element Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.4.2 Incompatible Mode Element Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.4.3 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.4.4 Testing of the Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.5 Single Force Indentation Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.5.1 The Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.5.2 Meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.5.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.5.3.1 Transition Behavior as α = 0 . . . ∞ . . . . . . . . . 108
6.5.3.2 Singularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.5.4 A Comment on Pseudorigid Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.6 Sharp Corner Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.6.1 The Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.6.2 Meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.6.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.6.3.1 Transition Behavior as α → ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.6.3.2 Convergence on Mesh Refinement . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.7 Improvement of the Element Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.8 Convergence Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7 A Comparison of Boundary Element Method and Finite Element
Method Dynamic Solutions for Poroelastic Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Leonid A. Igumnov, Aleksandr A. Ipatov, Andrey N. Petrov, Svetlana
Yu. Litvinchuk, Aron Pfaff, and Victor A. Eremeyev
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.2 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.2.1 usi –p-formulation in Laplace Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.2.2 usi –p-formulation in Time Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.3 Boundary Integral Equation and Boundary Element Methodology . 125
7.4 Laplace Transform Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.5 Numerical Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
x Contents
8 From Generalized Theories of Media with Fields of Defects

to Closed Variational Models of the Coupled Gradient
Thermoelasticity and Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Sergey Lurie and Petr Belov
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.2 Kinematics of Gradient Continuous Media and Gradient Media
with Fields of Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.3 Variational Statement of Generalized Gradient Media with
Fields of Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.4 Mathematical Statement for Generalized Gradient Dilatation
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.5 Identification of Generalized Stress Factors of the Model . . . . . . . . 143
8.6 Particular Model: Gradient Thermoelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.7 Particular Model: Gradient Thermal Conductivity Model . . . . . . . . 148
8.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9 Mathematical Modeling of Elastic Thin Bodies with one Small Size . . 155
Mikhail Nikabadze and Armine Ulukhanyan
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9.2 On Parametrization of a Thin Body Domain With one Small Size
with an Arbitrary Base Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.2.1 Representation of the Second Rank Unit Tensor and
Representation of its Components in the Form of Power
Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.2.2 Representations of Gradient, Divergence, Repeated
Gradient, and Laplacian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.3 Presentations of the Equations of Motion, Heat Influx and
Constitutive Relations of Micropolar Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.3.1 Presentations of the Equations of Micropolar Theory . . . . 168
9.3.2 Representation of the Equation of Heat Influx in
Micropolar Mechanics of a Deformable Thin Solids . . . . . 169
9.3.3 Representations of Hooke’s Law and Fourier’s Heat
Conduction Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.4 Some Recurrence Relations of the System of Legendre
Polynomials on the Segment [−1, 1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.4.1 Main Recurrence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.4.2 Additional Recurrence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.5 Moments of Some Expressions Regarding the Legendre
Polynomial System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.5.1 Moments of Some Expressions Regarding the Legendre
Polynomial System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.6 Different Representations of the System of Motion Equations in
Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Contents xi
9.6.1 Presentations of the System of Motion Equations

in Moments with Respect to Systems of Legendre
Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.7 Representations of Constitutive Relations in Moments . . . . . . . . . . 181
9.8 On Boundary and Initial Conditions in Micropolar Mechanics of
a Deformable Thin Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.8.1 The Boundary Conditions on the Front Surface . . . . . . . . . 183
9.8.2 Boundary Conditions in Moments in the Theory of
Thin Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9.8.3 Kinematic Boundary Conditions in Moments . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.8.4 Physical Boundary Conditions in Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
9.8.5 Boundary Conditions of Heat Content in Moments . . . . . . 189
9.8.5.1 Boundary Conditions of the First Kind in
Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.8.5.2 Boundary Conditions of the Second Kind in
Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.8.5.3 Boundary Conditions of the Third Kind in
Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.8.6 Initial Conditions in Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.9 Problem Statements in Moments of Micropolar
Thermomechanics of a Deformable Thin Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.9.1 Statement of the Coupled Dynamic Problem in
Moments of (r, N ) Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.9.2 Statement of a Non-stationary Temperature Problem in
Moments of (r, N ) Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9.9.3 Statement of the Uncoupled Dynamic Problem in
Moments of the (r, N ) Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10 Application of Eigenvalue Problems Under the Study of Wave
Velocity in Some Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Mikhail Nikabadze and Armine Ulukhanyan
10.1 Kinematic and Dynamic Conditions on the Strong Discontinuity
Surface in Micropolar Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.1.1 Kinematic Conditions on the Strong Discontinuity
Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.1.2 The Mass and the Tensor of the Moment of Inertia
Conservation Laws on the Wave Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.1.3 Dynamic Conditions on the Wave Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.2 Equations for Determining the Wave Velocities in an Infinite
Micropolar Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
10.3 Classical Materials with Anisotropy Symbols {1,5} and {5,1} . . . . 208
10.4 Classical Material with an Anisotropy Symbol {1, 2, 3} (Cubic
Symmetry) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
xii Contents
10.5 Classical Material with an Anisotropy Symbol {1,1,2,2}

(Transversal Isotropy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
10.6 Micropolar Material with a Center of Symmetry and the
Anisotropy Symbol {1,5,3} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
10.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11 Theoretical Estimation of the Strength of Thin-film Coatings . . . . . . . 221
Sergey N. Romashin, Victoria Yu. Presnetsova, Larisa Yu. Frolenkova,
Vladimir S. Shorkin, and Svetlana I. Yakushina
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
11.2 Theoretical Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.3 Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
11.4 Comparison of Calculation Results with Known Data . . . . . . . . . . . 229
11.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
List of Contributors
Bilen Emek Abali

Chair of Continuum Mechanics and Constitutive Theory, Institute of Mechanics,
Technische Universität Berlin, Einsteinufer 5, 10587 Berlin, Germany
e-mail: bilenemek@abali.org
Faris Alzahrani
NAAM Research Group, Department of Mathematics, King Abdulaziz University,
Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: faris.kau@hotmail.com
Ugo Andreaus
Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Università di Roma La
Sapienza, 18 Via Eudossiana, Rome, Italy
e-mail: ugo.andreaus@uniroma1.it
Emilio Barchiesi
International Research Center for the Mathematics and Mechanics of Complex
Systems - M&MoCS, Università dell’Aquila, L’Aquila
e-mail: barchiesiemilio@gmail.com
Antonio Battista
Systems - M&MoCS, Università dell’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
LaSIE, Université de La Rochelle, La Rochelle, France
e-mail: antonio.battista@uni-lr.fr
Petr Belov
Institute of Applied Mechanics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: belovpa@yandex.ru
xiii
xiv List of Contributors
Francesco dell’Isola
Research Institute for Mechanics, Nizhny Novgorod Lobachevsky State University,
23, Gagarin av. 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
e-mail: francesco.dellisola.me@gmail.com
Alessandro Della Corte
e-mail: alessandro.dellacorte.memocs@gmail.com
Victor A. Eremeyev
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdańsk University of Technology,
ul. Gabriela Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
e-mail: eremeyev.victor@gmail.com
Vladimir I. Erofeev
Mechanical Engineering Research Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences
e-mail: erof.vi@yandex.ru
Larisa Yu. Frolenkova
Orel State University named after. I.S. Turgenev, 29 Naugorskoe Shosse, 302020
Orel, Russia
e-mail: Larafrolenkova@yandex.ru
Ivan Giorgio
Sapienza, 18 Via Eudossiana, Rome
Systems - M&MoCS, Università dell’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
e-mail: ivan.giorgio@uniroma1.it
Rainer Glüge
Institute of Mechanics, Otto-von-Guericke–University Magdeburg, Universitäts-
platz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
e-mail: gluege@ovgu.de
List of Contributors xv
Tasawar Hayat
Department of Mathematics, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
NAAM Research Group, Department of Mathematics, King Abdulaziz University,
Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: pensy_t@yahoo.com
Leonid A. Igumnov
e-mail: Igumnov@mech.unn.ru
Aleksandr A. Ipatov
e-mail: ipatov@mech.unn.ru
Tomasz Lekszycki
Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: t.lekszycki@wip.pw.edu.pl
Anna V. Leontyeva
Mechanical Engineering Research Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences,
e-mail: aleonav@mail.ru
Svetlana Yu. Litvinchuk
e-mail: litvinchuk@mech.unn.ru
Sergey Lurie
Institute of Applied Mechanics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: salurie@mail.ru
Alexey O. Malkhanov
e-mail: alexey.malkhanov@gmail.com
Mikhail Nikabadze
Lomonosov Moscow State University
Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: nikabadze@mail.ru
Panayiotis Papadopoulos
Department of Mechanical Engineering, 6131 Etcheverry Hall, University of
California, Berkeley, CA, 94720-1740, USA
e-mail: panos@me.berkeley.edu
xvi List of Contributors
Igor S. Pavlov
Mechanical Engineering Research Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences,
e-mail: ispavlov@mail.ru
Andrey N. Petrov
e-mail: andrey.petrov@mech.unn.ru
Aron Pfaff
Fraunhofer Institute for High-Speed Dynamics, Ernst-Mach-Institut, Ernst-
Zermelo-Str. 4, Freiburg, 79104, Germany
e-mail: Aron.Pfaff@emi.fraunhofer.de
Victoria Yu. Presnetsova
Orel, Russia
e-mail: alluvian@mail.ru
Sergey N. Romashin
Orel, Russia
e-mail: sromashin@yandex.ru
Vladimir S. Shorkin
Orel, Russia
e-mail: vshorkin@yandex.ru
Armine Ulukhanyan
Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: armine_msu@mail.ru
Hua Yang
Chair of Continuum Mechanics and Constitutive Theory, Institute of Mechanics,
Technische Universität Berlin, Einsteinufer 5, 10587 Berlin, Germany
e-mail: hua.yang@campus.tu-berlin.de
Svetlana I. Yakushina
Orel, Russia
e-mail: jakushina@rambler.ru
Chapter 1
A Computational Approach for Determination
of Parameters in Generalized Mechanics
Bilen Emek Abali, Hua Yang, and Panayiotis Papadopoulos
Abstract Metamaterials are functionalized by specifying a structure at a micro-

scopic length scale such that they provide a tailored deformation response at a
macroscopic length scale. Their modeling at the macroscale is attained by using
the generalized mechanics that incorporates higher gradients of the displacement
leading to additional parameters effected by the “inner” structure at the microscale.
As these additional parameters are a consequence of the inner structure, we propose
a general methodology for determining them by using a computational approach.
The inner structure is given and the presented strategy achieves numerical values of
all homogenized parameters to be used in the generalized mechanics for modeling
a structure at the macroscale.
Keywords: Parameter determination · Material modeling · Inverse analysis · Finite

element method · Generalized mechanics
1.1 Introduction
Homogenization is an approach to include the effects in another time or length scale.

We concentrate at the homogenization in space, where at least two different length
scales are existing. At atomistic length scale, discrete atoms are modeled as points
and their interaction with scalar potentials. In micrometer length scale, the amount
of such points is so high, more conveniently we use continuum mechanics resulting
B. E. Abali · H. Yang
Technische Universität Berlin, Institute of Mechanics, Einsteinufer 5, 10587 Berlin, Germany
e-mail: bilenemek@abali.org; hua.yang@campus.tu-berlin.de
P. Papadopoulos
University of California, Berkeley, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 6131 Etcheverry Hall,
Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
e-mail: panos@me.berkeley.edu
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

H. Altenbach et al. (eds.), Higher Gradient Materials and Related
Generalized Continua, Advanced Structured Materials 120,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30406-5_1
2 Abali, Yang, Papadopoulos
from a homogenization approach. Homogenization links two different physics and

bridges discrete and continuum mechanical models. Such an approach can be based
on a statistical method as introduced in Irving and Kirkwood (1950). An analogous
attempt is used for composite materials, a heterogeneous material at the microscale
can be modeled as a homogeneous material at the macroscale. In this case the scale
separation is motivated by the material properties, at both scales, continuum me-
chanics models the underlying system. Such an approach uses energy equivalence
at both scales as proposed in Hill (1972). For a composite material, at least two
different materials, with known material models and parameters, generate a homog-
enized material modeled with a predetermined constitutive equation. Determination
of material parameters of the homogenized material is a challenging task. Analytical
solutions can be obtained by using homogenization approaches leading to estimates
of the homogenized parameters (Voigt, 1889; Reuss, 1929; Hashin and Shtrikman,
1962), for a more detailed explanation of these methods, we refer to Dormieux et al
(2006); Zohdi and Wriggers (2008); Nemat-Nasser and Hori (2013); Kachanov and
Sevostianov (2013); Zohdi (2004). Analogous ideas are used to obtain analytical or
semi-analytical solutions for parameter determination in the case of special types of
inclusions—voids in the bulk material at the microscale—leading to different struc-
ture related materials response at the macroscale. These homogenization methods
use several solution methods as in Eshelby (1957); Mori and Tanaka (1973); Levin
(1976); Willis (1977); Kanaun and Kudryavtseva (1986); Hashin (1991); Nazarenko
(1996); Shafiro and Kachanov (2000); Castañeda and Tiberio (2000); Zheng and Du
(2001); Sevostianov and Kachanov (2014); Berryman (2005); Sburlati et al (2018);
Nazarenko et al (2018).
In addition to these (semi-)analytical methods, computational approaches allow
one to apply the same type of strategy for every microstructure as in Kushnevsky
et al (1998); Kouznetsova et al (2001); Miehe et al (2002); Lebensohn et al (2004);
Sevostianov and Kachanov (2006); Nazarenko et al (2009); Ladeveze et al (2010);
Nemat-Nasser and Srivastava (2011); Mercer et al (2015); Nazarenko et al (2016).
Often, the idea in Hill (1972) is employed such that a representative volume ele-
ment (RVE) is postulated. The main assumption (an RVE relies on) is the axiomatic
start that there exists an RVE with periodic boundary conditions accurately describ-
ing the deformation response of the whole geometry. The general consensus is the
applicability of this postulate, at least for classical mechanics with an energy defini-
tion depending on the first gradient of displacement. For the generalized mechanics,
higher gradients of displacement are incorporated in the energy definition as intro-
duced in different versions in Eringen and Suhubi (1964); Mindlin (1964); Eringen
(1968); Steinmann (1994); Eremeyev et al (2012); Polizzotto (2013a,b); Ivanova
and Vilchevskaya (2016); Abali (2019). Although different concepts are used for
motivating a generalized mechanics, all versions consider using a second space gra-
dient in displacement. We doubt that the same postulate is reasonable and refrain
ourselves from taking for granted that an RVE exists in the case of generalized me-
chanics.
At the microscale, the formulation is sufficient with first gradients in the en-
ergy formulation. By abusing the wording, we call the formulation with first gradi-
1 Approach for Determination of Parameters in Generalized Mechanics 3
ents “classical mechanics.” For describing the material response accurately, we may
use classical mechanics (also called Cauchy continuum or Boltzmann continuum)
and incorporate a detailed description of the inner structure (substructure). Con-
sider a simple plate of 100 mm length manufactured by a 3D printer (additively)
with gaps or pores of 10 μm length. As we want to model this structure by the
classical mechanics, we need to use an extensive computational effort. Instead, we
may use a generalized mechanics formulation with energy definition incorporat-
ing higher gradients. The additional parameters lead naturally as a consequence of
the homogenization procedure between micro- and macroscales, we refer to Pideri
and Seppecher (1997); Bigoni and Drugan (2007); Seppecher et al (2011); Abdoul-
Anziz and Seppecher (2018); Mandadapu et al (2018). Therefore, we start off with
the a priori knowledge that two approaches are identical: the detailed modeling at
the microscale by classical mechanics and an efficient modeling at the macroscale
by generalized mechanics. For the microscale modeling, we need solely the known
material parameters—they are directly measurable—as well as a huge computa-
tional effort. For the macroscale modeling by generalized mechanics, we need addi-
tional (effective) parameters—they are unknown. Since both modeling approaches
are identical, we can extract the unknown parameters by a comparison. In this work,
we intend to describe a general approach for this comparison. For the sake of clar-
ity, we use an isotropic material and a quadratic energy formulation; however, the
method is applicable for every symmetry class and nonlinear formulation.
Parameter determination in generalized mechanics has been studied before, for
example see Forest et al (1999); Pietraszkiewicz and Eremeyev (2009). An often
used technique is the asymptotic analysis for scale separation as applied in me-
chanics by Bensoussan et al (1978); Hollister and Kikuchi (1992); Chung et al
(2001); Temizer (2012) as well as in generalized mechanics by Forest et al (2001);
Li (2011); Eremeyev (2016); Barboura and Li (2018). Often an RVE is used, in rare
cases the same critical inspection is applied about the existence of an RVE (Rahali
et al, 2015). Beyond the difficulty of an RVE, the length scale is of importance when
it comes to the question if generalized mechanics is adequate. For example the so-
called “size-effect” phenomenon is demonstrated in experiments various times, see
for example, Namazu et al (2000); Lam et al (2003); Chen et al (2010). Basically,
this effect starts dominating by increasing the bending stiffness of a beam when-
ever the length scale in the macroscale divided by the length scale of the microscale
decreases and approaches to unity. This effect is precisely captured by strain gra-
dient theory based computations in Abali et al (2017), where the same generalized
mechanics formulation is used for simulating geometries in different sizes. We em-
phasize that the formulation remains the same; but the response varies depending
on the ratio of length scales. In other words, materials response is not the same for a
large sample and for a small sample. Therefore, we conclude that the additional pa-
rameters are structure (geometry) related as well as we fail to define the appropriate
length scale ratio. Moreover, we fail to exploit an RVE (a small sample) differing in
response regarding the whole body (a large sample). Hence, we avoid on purpose
introducing an RVE with the cell length tantamount to the length scale ratio.
In this work we concentrate on an innovative method for determining all addi-

tional parameters emerging in a generalized mechanics formulation. The novelty of
this method relies on:
• circumventing the use of an RVE,
• being applicable for any anisotropic structure (even effected by the substruc-
ture),
• the capability of determining parameters for geometric and material nonlinear-
ities as well.
For providing a clear demonstration of the algorithm, we will show results for the
simplest case: a linear, isotropic material at the microscale with a given substructure
and known two material parameters. This configuration is assumed to result in a lin-
ear, isotropic, centro-symmetric strain gradient material with seven parameters. The
outcome is determining these seven parameters. The computational characterization
of the homogenized material is based on simulations obtained by the finite element
method. Algorithm is explained in detail and the code for the computation is made
public in order to encourage a transparent and efficient scientific exchange.
1.2 Homogenization Between Micro- and Macroscales
By following Abali and Müller (2016) we begin with the axiom that there is a La-
grangean density, L, depending on any number of coordinates, xμ , leading to an
action formulation:

A= L dΣ , dΣ = dx1 dx2 . . . dxm , (1.1)
Ω
for the domain of interest Ω in this m-dimensional space. The definition of the La-
grangean is the key aspect. For classical mechanics, it depends on so-called “prim-
itive variables” and their first derivatives, we use herein a primitive variable as a
function simply existing axiomatically, in the following, it will be simply the dis-
placement for isothermal deformation without phase change or any other chemical
or electrodynamics interactions, etc. For generalized mechanics, such as a second
gradient theory, it depends on primitive variables, their first and second derivatives.
The coordinates are space, X, and time, t, such that xμ = {X, t} defines a material
frame where the particles rest and this configuration is the reference frame without
strain energy. In the case of neglecting gravitational as well as inertial terms in the
energy formulation, we end up with the Lagrangean being equal to (minus of) the
stored energy density, L = −w. For this energy we distinguish between microscale
energy density, mw, and the macroscale energy density, Mw. The action obtained
at the microscale by using the substructure is equal to the action obtained at the
macroscale. This assumption is conceptually different to the Hill–Mandel condi-
tion, which states that the mean product of microscopic stress times strain over the
region equals the product of the mean stress times mean strain. Herein, we skip in-
troducing stress or its averaging over the volume and work with energies at both
scales. We solely consider a system defined by the action and equivalence of this
action in micro- and macroscales that is possible by using different definitions of
the microscale energy density, mw, and the macroscale energy density, Mw.
Consider an elastic material with the quadratic energy formulation in strains mεij
by using the stiffness tensor mCijkl expressed in Cartesian coordinates as follows:
m 1m m
w= εij Cijkl mεkl , (1.2)
2
where for the sake of clarity, we assume a linear strain measure as well as constant
material parameters in the stiffness tensor. The same formulation would be applica-
ble for any other definition of the stored energy density as well. At the microscale,
the material parameters are known, i.e., mCijkl is defined in each point of the con-
tinuum body. In the case of the strain gradient theory, the macroscale energy density
is given by
M 1M M 1
w= εij Cijkl Mεkl + Mεij Gijklm Mεkl,m + Mεij,k Dijklmn Mεlm,n . (1.3)
2 2
We are searching for the material parameters generating the homogenized stiffness
tensor MCijkl as well as structure related material tensors Gijklm and Dijklmn .
All three are unknowns; however, they are constants (in space) at the macroscale
by simplifying our methodology to homogeneous materials. As we have excluded
inertial terms as well as time-dependent material behavior, the continuum body, B,
deforms immediately to the steady state and the equivalence of action in multiscales
reduces to

m M
w dv = w dv ,
B B

m m m M M
εij Cijkl εkl dv = Cijkl εij Mεkl dv+
B B
(1.4)
M M
+ 2Gijklm εij εkl,m dv+
B
M
+ Dijklmn εij,k Mεlm,n dv ,
B
since the unknown material tensors are constant in space. Consider a continuum
body at the reference frame and a particle of it with coordinates Xi as depicted in
Fig. 1.1 The same massive particle is moved to mxi as a consequence of the de-
formation. As this deformation is described at the microscale, the substructure is
visualized as well. For the simplicity, an example is used as in composite materi-
als with the orange inclusion (fiber) embedded in the blue material (matrix). For the
homogenized case, the same particle moves to Mxi expressed at the macroscale with-
out the substructure. We emphasize that micro- and macroscales are both expressed
in the same coordinate system. There is no scale separation or different coordinate
Fig. 1.1 Homogenization

procedure. Left: continuum
body in the reference frame.
Right top: deformation at the
microscale. Right bottom:
corresponding deformation at
the macroscale.
systems in this investigation. Two different cases are demonstrated: heterogeneous

case at the microscale with known material properties versus homogeneous case at
the macroscale with sought after parameters. The displacement at both scales are
different
m
ui = mxi − Xi ,
(1.5)
M
ui = Mxi − Xi ,
and we intend to determine parameters fulfilling Eq. (1.4) with the same strain mea-
sure at both scales, for example we may use linearized strains
m 1 ∂ mui ∂ muj m
εij = + = u(i,j) ,
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi
(1.6)
M 1 ∂ Mui ∂ Muj M
εij = + = u(i,j) ,
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi
with the usual comma notation for partial derivatives in space and round brackets
for symmetrizing over these indices. At both scales, the displacement field as well
as the strain field are different. The energy descriptions are also different. But the
total amount of the energy used for the deformation is equivalent.
1.3 Determination of Parameters
For the given macroscopic energy in Eq. (1.3), we observe the following symmetry
relations based on the quadratic description
M
Cijkl = MCklij , Dijklmn = Dlmnijk , (1.7)
additionally the following relations based on symmetric strain

M
Cijkl = MCjikl , Dijklmn = Djiklmn , Gijklm = Gjiklm , Gijklm = Gijlkm .
(1.8)
Specifically, we restrict to a specific case and assume isotropic and centro-symmetric
properties at the macroscale for the linear strain gradient elastic material modeled
as in Eq. (1.4) leading to
M
Cijkl = c1 δij δkl + c2 (δik δjl + δil δjk ) ,
Dijklmn = c3 (δij δkl δmn + δin δjk δlm + δij δkm δln + δik δjn δlm )+
+ c4 δij δkn δml +
+ c5 (δik δjl δmn + δim δjk δln + δik δjm δln + δil δjk δmn )+ (1.9)
+ c6 (δil δjm δkn + δim δjl δkn )+
+ c7 (δil δjn δmk + δim δjn δlk + δin δjl δkm + δin δjm δkl ) ,
Gijklm = 0 ,
we refer to Appendix of Abali et al (2015) for their derivation. The parameters

c = {c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 , c5 , c6 , c7 } are unknowns to be determined. For 7 unknowns we
need 7 independent deformation cases. For one specific case, by inserting the latter
into Eq. (1.4), we obtain
7
A1α cα = R1 , (1.10)
α=1
with the coefficient matrix A and right hand side R as follows:

M
A11 =δij δkl εij Mεkl dv ,
B

M
A12 =(δik δjl + δil δjk ) εij Mεkl dv ,
B

M
A13 =(δij δkl δmn + δin δjk δlm + δij δkm δln + δik δjn δlm ) εij,k Mεlm,n dv ,
B

M
A14 =δij δkn δml εij,k Mεlm,n dv ,
B

M
A15 =(δik δjl δmn + δim δjk δln + δik δjm δln + δil δjk δmn ) εij,k Mεlm,n dv ,
B

M M
A16 =(δil δjm δkn + δim δjl δkn ) εij,k εlm,n dv ,
B

M
A17 =(δil δjn δmk + δim δjn δlk + δin δjl δkm + δin δjm δkl ) εij,k Mεlm,n dv ,
B

m
R1 = εij mCijkl mεkl dv .
B
(1.11)
By defining 7 cases, we acquire Ac = R with A of rank 7 leading to unique deter-

mination of unknowns by c = A−1 R. First, we explain one specific case. Second,
we propose 7 cases. Third, we compute some example structures for demonstrating
the proposed method in action.
1.4 Computation of One Specific Case
For the homogenized structure, we give the desired displacement field as a smooth
function, Mu = Mu(X), and assume that the material model allows to cap-
ture this displacement field accurately. In other words, the chosen substructure
has to be in such a way that the isotropic and centro-symmetric class is sufficient
for the macroscale. As we define the displacement by giving a smooth function,
the compatibility is fulfilled such that the second derivative can be interchanged,
M
ui,jk = Mui,kj . By knowing the macroscale displacement field, we propose to
have a microscale displacement field with the same displacement distribution on
the boundaries as in the macroscale. This choice is the key difference to the con-
ventional homogenization procedures with an RVE, where the boundary condition
is circumvented by applying periodic boundaries. Herein we intend to suggest a
scheme without an RVE as we fail to argue that the periodic boundary condition is
adequate in the case of higher gradients. Hence, we simply state that both scales:
• provide the same boundary values,
• deform with the same energy.
The latter statement has been used for constructing the inverse analysis as in
Eq. (1.10). The former will be used to generate a computational scheme for ob-
taining mu in the case of a given substructure.
Consider a continuum body, B, at the microscale; for example Fig. 1.1 includes
such a geometry with one inclusion. We search for the displacement field, mu, which
lets the action invariant leading to the variational formulation:

∂ mw
δA = 0 ⇒ m
δui,j dV = 0 , (1.12)
B ∂ ui,j
with the integral measure dV = dX1 dX2 dX3 in Cartesian coordinates. After
inserting Eqs. (1.2), (1.6), we obtain the integral form:

Form = m
Cijkl mu(k,l) δui,j dV . (1.13)
B
This so-called weak form contains the unknowns, mu = { mu1 , mu2 , mu3 }, and their
corresponding test functions, δu = {δu1 , δu2 , δu3 }, both are approximated with
the same Hilbertian Sobolev space

V̂ = mu, δu ∈ [Hn (Ω)]3 : mu, δu = given ∀x ∈ ∂B , (1.14)
which is known as the Galerkin method. On all boundaries, ∂B, the displacement is
given by so-called Dirichlet type boundary conditions being equal to displacement
at the macroscale, Mu, as follows:
m
ui = Mui , δui = 0 ∀x ∈ ∂B . (1.15)
The computation delivers the displacement at the microscale to be used in Eq. (1.11)
for constructing R1 .
1.5 Algorithm for All Deformation Cases
The main objective is to construct the matrices, A, R, in Eq. (1.11) in order to deter-
mine the unknown material parameters, c. The following Algorithm 1 demonstrates
the necessary repeated steps for assembling the matrices and solving for the param-
eters. Seven cases are necessary to obtain seven parameters, cα .
Algorithm 1: Determination of cα parameters
input : Substructure and material properties at the microscale, homogenized displacement

field at the macroscale, Mu, for α = 1 . . . 7 cases
output: Calculating the material parameters cα
begin
set : geometry at the microscale
set : material data at the microscale
case is set by α = 0
while case α = 7 do
α := α + 1
choose: smooth function Mu
set : boundary conditions with Mu
solve : mu by using Eq. (1.13)
solve : mεij = mu(i,j) and Mεij = Mu(i,j)
solve : coefficients in A and R by using Eq. (1.11)
end
Determine the coefficients by c = A−1 R
end
The necessary seven cases are compiled as follows:

y x
case1 : Mu = , ,0 ,
2 2
case2 : Mu = x, 0, 0 ,

case3 : Mu = − xz, 0, xy ,
x2
case4 : Mu = xz, 0, − , (1.16)
2
case5 : Mu = − yz, 0, xy ,
y2
case6 : Mu = 0, −y, ,
2
y2
case7 : Mu = 0, , 0 ,
2
where the choice of up to quadratic functions is justified by acquiring constant strain
gradients. We emphasize that the chosen cases are indeed generating independent
deformation responses such that 7 cases let us uniquely determine 7 coefficients. An-
other set of 7 cases might be found as well; we assume to have several admissible
sets to be used. Herein we are interested to demonstrate briefly, how the algorithm
works. As long as the computation allows one to find a numerical solution for the
suggested cases; there are no limitations to suggest another set than proposed herein.
We have constructed the aforementioned cases in such a way that the strain, Mεij ,
and the strain gradient tensor, Mεij,k , possess as less components as possible. The
proposed displacement field at the macroscale, Mu, is easy to consider in a computa-
tional setting; but it is nearly impossible to construct an experimental setup to obtain
the same deformation profile. Hence, we understand that the proposed algorithm is
a useful tool for determining structure related coefficients and further experiments
are necessary to examine the accuracy.
1.6 Examples
For demonstrating the algorithm in action, we have exploited open-source packages

developed under the FEniCS project (Alnaes et al, 2009; Logg et al, 2012) and used
a Python code, which can be found in the web site in Abali (2017) to be used under
the GNU Public license as in GNU Public (2007). The algorithm suggests to solve
7 cases on an arbitrary geometry representing the inner substructure. In order to
examine the methodology as well as comprehend the physical meaning of the length
scale used in this context, we performed several studies. We use a standard case
where ball shaped inclusions are embedded in a matrix material as shown in Fig. 1.2.
This cell, 1 μm×1 μm×1 μm, can be understood as a representative volume element
such that repeated positioning of the same cell builds up the structure. Technically,
we concentrate on the case where different materials are used for the matrix, Ω Ma ,
and inclusion, Ω In . These domains comprise the whole domain, Ω = Ω Ma ∪ Ω In .
Fig. 1.2 Inner substructure

for performing computations,
inclusions are positioned
along the diagonals within the
cell, of diameter d = 0.5 μm,
with a ratio of inclusions of
approximately 12% regarding
the whole domain of size
1 μm.
By selecting the same material properties for both domains, i.e., the ball shaped
inclusions and embedding matrix, we expect to have a homogenized microstructure
leading to zero—the implementation gives out 10−5 or smaller—parameters, c3 ,
c4 , c5 , c6 , c7 . By choosing different materials, these parameters emerge and vary
depending on the number of repeated cells measured by the length scale. We simply
use that one cell as the lower threshold of the length scale, in order words, we
assume that in this length scale and smaller, the microscale approach has to be used
by modeling both materials differently. A homogenization approach is not adequate
for this structure with the length scale 1 μm or less. This result is obvious; ratio of
the geometric length scale per the substructure length scale is approaching unity.
The substructure length scale is measured as the diameter of ball shaped inclusions,
d. We construct different geometric length scales 1 μm, 2 μm, 3 μm, 4 μm, 5 μm by
repeating the cells, as presented in Fig. 1.3. A particular example of such a structure
relies on additive manufacturing resulting in a porous bulk material out of ABS or
PLA, where the bulk material creates Ω Ma and the voids determine Ω In . In this case,
we may approximate the structure by using following material parameters, Young’s
modulus and Poisson’s ratio, respectively,
Fig. 1.3 All used domains with the same inner substructure, representing voids or inclusions in a
porous material (dark blue areas with a red line along the edges for the sake of visualization), the
inclusions are positioned diagonally providing a nearly isotropic distribution.
E = 1 GPa , ν = 0.3 ∀x ∈ Ω Ma ,
(1.17)
E = 1 MPa , ν = 0.3 ∀x ∈ Ω In ,
at the microscale; leading to the usual Lame parameters:
Eν E
λ= , μ= (1.18)
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) 2(1 + ν)
with the isotropic linear Hooke’s law:

m
Cijkl = λδij δkl + μδik δjl + μδil δjk . (1.19)
By using the proposed algorithm, we obtain the homogenized parameters for the
diameter d = 0.5 μm as plotted in Fig. 1.4. We observe that the parameters
monotonously converge to different than zero values until the length scale of 4 μm
such that we understand 4 μm as the smallest length scale for a homogenization
with the strain gradient formulation—this observation is valid for d = 0.5 μm. In
the case of increasing inclusion diameters to d = 0.7 μm for the identical config-
uration, Fig. 1.5 shows that the threshold is decreased approximately to 3 μm. This
observation tells us that the strain gradient theory is capable of predicting the me-
chanical response in a length scale greater than the threshold. Of course, this thresh-
old is difficult to determine accurately and it serves to a better understanding of the
limitations of the homogenization method. For much larger length scales, the effect
of strain gradient terms diminish as discussed in Abali et al (2017).
A similar result is obtained by studying a porous metal structure with the same
configuration but higher Young’s modulus for the bulk, as follows:
E = 100 GPa , ν = 0.3 ∀x ∈ Ω Ma ,

(1.20)
E = 1 MPa , ν = 0.3 ∀x ∈ Ω In .
Fig. 1.4 Results for a plastic matrix, parameters are obtained in geometries in different length
scales but the same inner substructure with d = 0.5 μm.
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A moment after the first train glided in, and, after a brief pause,
carried Edith away with it.
In spite of the heat, Lizzie, who had only lunched after a very mild
fashion at a confectioner's, and who had the vigorous appetite of a
healthy girl, began to feel excessively hungry. It seemed impossible
for her to endure another quarter of an hour at the station and the
short railway journey and cab drive without having something in the
shape of food to sustain her.
So, taking up her load, she moved towards a refreshment room and
procured a bun. A wistful little face, with hollow eyes, was peering at
her through the open doorway and gazing longingly at the food.
Ever sensitive to the call of need, the warm-hearted girl rose and
handed the untasted bun to the famished-looking lad, who had
hardly time to make a rude nod and utter thank ye' before one of the
porters gave him a gentle push, and said, "Come, youngster, get out
o' this. We can't do with beggars in the station."
The child, only too glad to escape, was off like an arrow, and Lizzie
sat down to discuss another bun in the place of the one she had
given away. She then paid her twopence, and was going out of the
refreshment room with a very unsatisfied feeling when she suddenly
remembered that she had just another penny loose in a small
outside jacket pocket. This time she chose a different kind of bun,
and when she had eaten it found, to her horror, that the price of it
was twopence, and that when it was paid for she would not have
sufficient money left to purchase her railway-ticket.
Lizzie picked up her parcels and went out of the refreshment room,
feeling half-perplexed, half-amused at the position in which she
found herself. "What would mamma think if she knew that I was
wandering about here at a railway-station in London, and with only
three-pence in my pocket? Actually unable to go on my way for want
of a penny. What shall I do for two more halfpennies? Poor mamma!
She would fancy all kinds of horrors—that I should be kidnapped,
perhaps, for she seemed to think that Edith ought to keep me close
at her side under all circumstances. Five minutes to train time.
Something must be done."
What Lizzie did was to indulge in a hearty laugh first of all, and whilst
these thoughts were passing through her mind. The next thing was
to go towards the window, at which a boy-clerk was giving out
tickets. The boy was looking excessively cross, and he did his work
in a morose fashion, without uttering a word, unless compelled to
reply to a question, which he did as briefly as possible. The fact was
he had made a mistake in giving change to a passenger early in the
day, and had been obliged to make up the deficiency out of his own
pocket, in accordance with rules.
Lizzie explained her position to this youngster, after peeping over his
shoulder to see if there was any older person in the office to whom
she might appeal.
"Can't help it. Ticket's fourpence," was the sullen reply.
"But I have told you I am just a penny short. If you will let me have a
ticket, I will leave something with you worth many shillings. This silk
umbrella, my silver pencil-case, or one of my parcels. You can look
inside."
For a moment the sullen face relaxed; but no, the young clerk was in
a savage mood, and determined to revenge himself on all the other
passengers who might come to him for the dishonesty of that one
who had gone off with more than his lawful change. He therefore
shook his head, and gruffly said, "Booking-offices are not
pawnshops."
No other reply could Lizzie get, and she turned from the little window
with a slight quiver of the lip, which told of a little sinking of the heart
at the thought of her predicament. To add to her discomfort, the train
by which she should have gone on, came in and went without her.
There would be another in a few minutes; after that a very long
interval. She must make an effort to obtain a penny, if she even
begged for it. She was far too tired to walk the weary miles between
her and home, had she known the way, and it would be a very
expensive cab ride. Edith would certainly scold her roundly if she
were to use that mode of conveyance. She must not think of it.
Glancing along the platform, Lizzie saw a lady and a gentleman

sauntering slowly towards her, arm-in-arm. The thought crossed her
mind that a lady would be sure to help a girl like herself out of such
an unexpected dilemma, and she accordingly advanced towards the
couple, and, in as few words as possible, explained her position, and
simply asked for the gift of a penny.
To Lizzie's utter astonishment, the lady turned on her a hard,

searching glance. Then looking up at her husband she said, while
her lip was curled contemptuously, "Do you believe this absurd
story?"
The gentleman did not answer, but Lizzie often remembered, in after
days, the deprecating glance which he cast on his wife, though he
seemed afraid to suggest that, after all, the "absurd story" might be
true.
His companion did not hesitate long.
"I do not believe a word of your tale," she said in a harsh voice. "It is
most unlikely that a person of your dress and appearance should be
really in need of a penny. I suspect there is some trick in this
application. Go away. I shall give you nothing."
After another searching look, first at Lizzie, then at her husband,

which seemed to ask if there were any acquaintance between them,
she turned away, the hard expression still on her face. Lizzie stood
for a moment, as if petrified with astonishment, and then, utterly
overcome with pain and mortification, she burst into tears, and once
more took her seat on the bench where she had rested before.
At this crisis of the story there was a unanimous burst of indignation

from mamma's three listeners. Flossie could hardly believe it
possible that a woman could be so horrid. Jack wished he could
punch the boy at the booking-office, and Madge lifted her
sympathetic blue eyes, all moist with tears, and asked "if the story
were real, or only make-believe?"
"Absolutely true," replied mamma.
"Were you the girl without a penny?" inquired Jack, who had a way
of connecting his mother with all her stories, and who insisted that
she was like all the nice heroines.
"No, Jack. I never was placed in such a strait. But I regret to say I
must leave Lizzie in it, for I hear your father's step. You must wait till
to-morrow for another chapter."
CHAPTER III.
THE young people were careful to have their room in a state of very
unusual order on the following afternoon when their mother entered
to spend the twilight hour with them and to continue her story. The
small cousins were too much occupied with the many treasures of
the doll's house to be much in the way.
"Go on as quickly as you can, mother," said Jack. "It seemed horrid
to leave poor Lizzie and her parcels at that station last night, and
crying, too, for want of a penny. I wish I had been there; I would have
carried all her biggest parcels, and given her my new penny that
Flossie thought of so little consequence last night."
"If it had not been lost past recovery, through the hole in your pocket,
Jack," remarked Madge, the housewife. "But there is this about dear
old Jack: his sympathy means something, and he will help as well as
talk if there is anything he can do."
"I am sure of that," said mamma.
We will go back twenty years, and to Lizzie Northcote. I think I only

told you her Christian name last night. Probably if she had spoken to
one of the porters, he would have helped her out of the trifling
difficulty; but the girl naturally spoke first to a lady, as the least likely
to refuse her request. She was wiping away the tears which the
coarse refusal had brought into her eyes, when, on looking up, she
noticed a stout, ruddy-faced country gentleman observing her
attentively. He had been about the station almost as long as herself,
and appeared to be waiting for someone. He was a man in the full
vigour of life and health, though his crisp hair was tinged with gray,
and in his face there was a fatherly expression that reminded Lizzie
of her own dear parent in their Lincolnshire home.
She was about making up her mind to speak to him, when he

addressed her. "What is your trouble, dear child?" said he. "Anything
I can do for you? You need not be afraid to speak; I have had
children of my own, and still have one dear lass about your age. I
wish her cheeks were half as rosy as yours."
There was a tinge of sadness about the last words, but there was no
mistaking the manly, sympathetic ring of that kindly voice. Lizzie felt
that she had found the friend she wanted, and she told her story in a
few words, but did not ask her listener for a penny. There was no
need to do that. Almost before she had finished, his hand was in his
pocket, as he asked the name of the station at which she wished to
alight; and, as soon as he knew it, he went to the booking-window,
obtained a ticket, and placed it in the girl's hand.
"I don't know how to thank you enough," she said, half-laughing, half-
crying. "It seemed so absurd to be kept here for want of a penny—to
become a beggar for it, and to be refused, when I had the worth of
so much money about me."
"Do not thank me at all, my child," said the gentleman. "But may I
ask whether you sought help from the lady to whom you spoke?"
Lizzie's face flushed as she told how rudely she had been repulsed.
"Poor thing!—I don't mean you, child; I mean the fossil in female
attire whom you mistook for a woman with a heart in her bosom.
Depend on it she never held a little prattling girl of her own in her
arms, as I have done. Now, will you take another shilling or two, in
case of further emergency?"
"No, thank you; indeed I want nothing more. I should like to send
back what you have lent me in stamps, if you will kindly give me your
address."
The gentleman laughed merrily at the idea of receiving the trifle back
again, and said, "Tell that handsome sister of yours I saw you both
long before you saw me; that she must never leave you again with
such a narrow margin of cash, especially if there is a refreshment
stall close at hand, and a ragged urchin to assist you in eating the
buns."
"I was very hungry," said Lizzie, with a good hearty laugh, "and my
second bun was the cause of all my trouble."
"Not the boy's share; eh?"
"Certainly not. If I had been contented with one bun, all would have
been well."
"Here is your train coming in," said the friend in need. "Let me hand
in your parcels."
He saw her comfortably placed, closed the door of the carriage, and
lifted his hat by way of farewell.
The train went slowly forward, and Lizzie, as she waved her hand in
reply, saw the kindly stranger extend his own to a tall young man
who was stepping eagerly towards him just as he turned away from
the carriage.
"No doubt," thought she, "he has been waiting all this time for that
new-comer who stepped up in such a hurry. A happy thing for me
that he did not come sooner, and carry off my kind gentleman before
I had time to receive his help. I wish I knew his name; I am sure
papa would like to thank him for his goodness to me."
At this moment Lizzie noticed what she at first thought was a letter
amongst her parcels. She snatched it hastily, fearing that the
unknown had left something of consequence behind him; but she
found it was only an empty envelope addressed, "Percival Long,
Esq., Elin Crag, Belford Regis." Naturally she did little else but
wonder whether this could be the name she wished so much to
know. At any rate she resolved to take care of the envelope, and
deposited it at the very bottom of her pocket.
The brief railway journey was soon over, and a cab speedily landed
Lizzie at her cousin's house, where she received a rapturous
welcome from her smaller relatives, who were beginning to think
their playmate had forgotten her promise. As a matter of course, she
had to obtain money for her cab-fare before she could dismiss the
man. Her cousin supplied this at once, saying, "Do not trouble to go
into your room to fetch it, Lizzie. But, my dear girl, you should not run
your purchases within a shilling or two of your cash."
"I have done worse than that," said Lizzie. "I have not only been
within a penny, but without one this afternoon. It is lucky I escaped
being taken up for begging at a railway-station."
Without implicating Edith or letting her cousin Ellen know how scanty
was the margin over and above her railway-fare which her sister had
given her, Lizzie gave a ludicrous account of her recent troubles and
of the manner in which she had been relieved.
Helen was horrified, and began to concern herself about Edith's

pecuniary resources.
"Edith is all right. She has enough, and, besides, she is with an old
friend who would supply her wants. We are thorough country folk,
Helen, and we had so enjoyed the shops and the buying all sorts of
nice little things, without considering that unlimited expenditure was
leading us straight to bankruptcy. I should have done well enough
but for my greediness in eating two buns instead of making one do.
However, I am quite ready for that delightful meal—a knife and fork
tea—which you promised me. I ate the buns 'without prejudice,' as
the lawyers say, and beg you will not remember those items when
you see me feeding. You alluded to roast fowl, I think, and my nose
suggests fried ham. I must not lose another moment."
Gathering up her gloves and other minor belongings, the girl ran up-
stairs, and soon returned, bright, fresh, and smiling, in her pretty cool
muslin dress. But if anyone had peeped into her room they would
have seen that a portion of her time there had been spent on her
knees. She had knelt to acknowledge an answered prayer; for, in her
brief trouble, she had lifted up her heart to God to ask Him for help,
and she now thanked Him as heartily for having sent her just the
assistance and the friend she needed.
Lizzie's hostess had no occasion to complain that her young cousin

failed to appreciate the tea-table dainties, or the little people that she
was a less lively companion than usual. It was only when even they
confessed themselves too tired to play any longer that Lizzie at
length sat down to enjoy a much-needed rest.
The weary girl had forgotten self in her desire to keep her promise
and minister to the pleasure of the children, who little knew what the
effort cost her.
Edith returned sooner than was expected. Her cousin was not in the
room when she entered, so did not hear the exclamation, "Oh, Lizzie
I am most thankful to see you safe at home."
"Where did you expect to see me, Edie?"
"To say the truth I have been quite uncomfortable about you. I had
scarcely left the station and you on the platform when I thought how
little money I had just given you, and how selfish I had been all the
day through, as we had gone about together. You thought of
mamma, of me, of everybody but yourself; and I, Lizzie! I feel
ashamed when I remember that I considered no person's
convenience but my own, and that every purchase I made was a
selfish one. I did not even care about getting that shawl for dear
mamma!"
"Well, dear, it was got, and Helen was kind enough to make it up in a
nice large pasteboard box, and send it off to the parcels office. I
hope mamma will receive it to-morrow."
"No thanks to me!" said Edith.
"It went as from both," replied Lizzie. "You may be sure of that, Edie.
Now, tell me, have you enjoyed your evening?"
"Nora—Mrs. Martin—was delighted to see me, and I found her
husband exceedingly kind and agreeable."
"And his brother, the young groomsman?" asked Lizzie, with an arch
smile.
Edith would not appear to understand the insinuation; but only

replied that all the Martins were as nice as usual.
"But," she added, "I must tell you, Lizzie, what spoiled the evening
for me. We had two other guests who came later than I did, and
quite unexpectedly. The gentleman is a distant relative of Mr.
Martin's, and is agreeable enough; but his wife is Nora's aversion.
She is a dreadful person: so cold, hard, unsympathetic, and besides
so fond of saying sharp things without the least regard to the feelings
of others that she spoils everybody's comfort. She told a story, and
she looked, I thought, only at me whilst she related it, about a well-
dressed young lady who had asked her for the gift of a penny at a
railway-station. 'And fancy,' she said, 'I had seen the creature
gorging herself with sweets in the refreshment room only the
moment before. I told her plainly that she was an impostor, though I
have no doubt George would have opened his purse to her had he
been alone.'"
"I could not get rid of the idea that you were the young lady, Lizzie;
and when she named the place and described the girl I felt sure of it.
All my selfishness flashed across my mind. I remembered how I had
hurried you about your lunch—far less substantial than my own;
loaded you with my parcels; and left you with not even money
enough to obtain proper refreshment, when you must have been
both hungry and weary. I thought, too, that I might grow to be like
that hard, cold-hearted woman who seemed so devoid of common
feeling, and I could not endure even the fancied picture. I was too
unhappy to stay at Mrs. Martin's as long as I intended, and nothing
ever rejoiced me more than to find you here safe and sound."
As Edith spoke she threw her arms round her sister's neck and
kissed her affectionately.
Lizzie returned the caress with all the warm sisterly love that was
part of her sweet feminine character. Further conversation was,
however, prevented by the entrance of Cousin Helen, who
announced that her lively little ones were at length sleeping
peacefully, from the baby upwards. She jestingly alluded to Lizzie's
adventure, and was surprised to observe the effect her joke had
upon Edith, and to hear the latter frankly acknowledge how much
she had been to blame.
Lizzie turned the conversation as quickly as possible, and no more

was said about the matter. The cousins passed the last hour before
bed-time in talk about mutual friends and relatives, and the expected
return of Helen's husband on the morrow.
When the two sisters were in their own room, Edith had something
more to say.
"Does it not seem strange that so little a thing should make me feel
so differently, both about myself and you, Lizzie? I have always had
an idea that you, as younger sister, ought to give up your will to
mine, and as though things which mattered for me were of no
consequence to you; as though the best was my due always, and
that—"
"Don't say another word, Edith. I have always been glad for you to
have the best. You set off pretty things far more than I do."
"Ah, Lizzie, darling! It was good in you to give up; but it was not good
in me to take the best. I can see to-night, as I never did before, how
much I may learn from you, little sister."
"I am certain your feeling in this way towards me is an answer to

dear mamma's prayers, Edie. People have always petted and
admired you, dear, and I'm sure I do, as much as anybody," said
frank Lizzie, looking with genuine admiration into the face of her tall,
handsome sister, who had probably never in her life looked so lovely
and lovable as she did at that moment. "And so much praise is not
quite a help towards keeping us humble. Luckily for me, I am never
very much admired, except by old women and little children."
"And that is because your kind heart and willing hands are always
devising and doing something for their happiness. You must help me
to deserve love; and let us work together."
"As a beginning, let us pray together, Edie, to fit us for our work."
If the mother of those two kneeling girls could have looked into their
room that summer night she would have been filled with joy and
praise, and would have thanked God for an answered prayer.
From that time a new bond existed between the sisters. They were
united by closer ties than that of kindred, being sisters in Christ.
CHAPTER IV.
"I SUPPOSE," said Flossie, when the story was resumed on the third
afternoon, "that the two lives influenced through the want of a penny
were those of Edith and Lizzie. I did not like Edith in the least when
she left her sister in such a way, but I do like her now."
Mamma smiled at her daughter's earnestness, and replied, "Those

two lives were lastingly influenced; but there is something more to be
told. You must not want to know the end of the story until it comes to
you in due course. There is no peeping at the last page or two when
you are listening to a tale-teller, as some impatient readers do when
they are professing to read a story, just to know how it ends. To
continue mine:"
The girls had a few more happy days with their relatives, during
which everyone noticed the increased unity between the sisters.
Probably the effect produced on Edith would have passed away, but
for that closer bond of which I spoke to you. The habit of united
prayer and of seeking counsel from God's Word together was not
given up by the girls, consequently there was spiritual growth, and
each influenced the other for good.
Edith had refined tastes and persevering industry. Lizzie, with all her
warm-heartedness and self-devoting disposition, was often too
impulsive, besides being far less orderly and methodical than her
elder sister. So each benefited the other, and was herself improved
by communion of work and interests.
Lizzie showed her sister the envelope which she had found amongst
her parcels, and the two after due deliberation decided on
addressing a few grateful lines to Percival Long, Esq., nothing
doubting that he was the fatherly gentleman who had been so kind.
The letter did not come back, and; on the other hand, there was no
reply. So the sisters were left in doubt as to whether it had reached
the right person or had been received by a stranger, to whom its
contents would prove enigmatical.
Two or three days before the girls were to have returned to their
country home they received an unexpected summons which caused
their immediate departure.
Mrs. Northcote was again laid on a bed of sickness, and needed the
presence of her daughters.
Perhaps Edith's filial affection had never before been so severely

tested. Her "young groomsman," as Lizzie named Mr. Henry Martin,
had accompanied his sister-in-law when she called upon the
Northcote girls at "Cousin Helen's." Nothing loth, they had accepted
the hearty invitation to stay the evening, and during the remainder of
the time that Edith and Lizzie remained in London scarcely a day
passed without their seeing each other. Nora, the young wife, had as
yet few household cares, and could devote much of her time to the
country sisters. She was delighted to have the company of her own
school friend, and charmed with her bright, unaffected younger
sister. Mr. Henry Martin managed, probably through the sympathetic
consideration of his elder brother and partner, to be much less
occupied than usual. So pleasant little parties were formed for sight-
seeing and little excursions in and about London, which were
thoroughly enjoyed by all the individual members thereof.
And in the midst of all this enjoyment came the sorrowful summons
to call Edith and Lizzie home. There had been some talk of Lizzie's
returning alone before the news arrived telling of Mrs. Northcote's
illness. Nora was anxious for both the girls to spend a few days with
her at the termination of their visit to Cousin Helen. That Edith
wished to accept the invitation there could be no doubt; but Lizzie,
while equally anxious for her sister to enjoy a longer stay, had herself
decided to return home.
"I do not think we ought both to stay away from mamma," she said;
"but if she has one of us, that will suffice for the time, Edie. I will go.
You shall stay. The visit to Nora is more to you than it could possibly
be to me."
The rising flush on Edith's cheek told that she felt the truth of her
sister's words. She made no reply in words; but she bent lovingly
towards Lizzie and kissed the bright kind face, the expression of
which was one of the most hearty sympathy. The silent caress, the
pressure of hands, said more than words. It was in the evening of
that day, when Edith had decided, with her mother's consent, to
accept Nora's invitation, that the girls received the sorrowful news
from home.
There was no doubt that Mr. Henry Martin had been greatly struck
with Edith from the time of his brother's marriage, when she
officiated as first bridesmaid, and he as groomsman. Her remarkable
beauty, her refined manners, her taste, combined with perfect
neatness in dress, had all struck him as far beyond what he had ever
seen in combination. But while these outside attractions were
admirable in their way, he felt they were not all that would be needed
to ensure domestic happiness. He feared that Edith prided herself
too much on her beauty, and was apt not only to expect homage on
account of it, but to undervalue others who did not possess it in the
same degree.
"I could not endure a vain, selfish, and self-asserting woman,"

thought he to himself; "one who would only value a man's honest
affection in accordance with the doses of flattery he might
administer, or the means which he might place at her disposal for the
indulgence of taste in dress or love of display. I want a helpmeet,
such as God intended woman to be when He gave her to the man
whom He had formed. If only Edith Northcote's inner qualities
corresponded to her beautiful person, I would endeavour to win her
affections. But, whatever else I have in a partner for life, I must try to
choose one who will help and not hinder me on the heavenward
road."
Probably few persons knew the depth and earnestness of Henry

Martin's character, or guessed that what they did see and admire
was only the fruit of lessons learned at the feet of Jesus. In society
everyone said of him that he was a finished gentleman; so kind, so
unselfish, so modest, thinking for the comfort of all whilst regardless
of his own. As a lawyer, the clients who consulted the firm could
never speak too highly of the unflinching uprightness of the younger
brother, though one plain-spoken old gentleman, with a sad lack of
the courtesy which distinguished Henry Martin, told him to his face,
"Sir, you are as obstinate as a mule. You are not fit for a lawyer. Your
business is to win my case for me by using every weapon the law
will allow, whether I am right or wrong, provided I pay the bill."
"Then," replied Henry, "I fear I am not fit to be a lawyer, for I cannot
fight feeling that I ought to lose the battle, and that if it were won it
would be because your purse is long enough to carry the case from
court to court, whilst your antagonist, a poor man, would be ruined at
the end of the first stage. I could and did fight on your side once, but
then you were in the right."
The irascible old gentleman was won over by these words to
reconsider his intended action, and to see its injustice. More than
that, his really generous nature was stirred to seek a reconciliation
with the opponent, who had once been his friend, and a lasting
reunion was the result.
He still told Henry Martin in jest that he was not fit to be a lawyer, but
he never failed to throw business in the way of the firm, and in the
young man's ear a voice seemed to whisper the sweet words,
"Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children
of God."
"Child of God." Yes, that was the title to which Henry Martin aspired,
and the fellow Christian who saw his daily life felt that such fruit
could only spring from the good seed which had taken root in an
honest and good heart through the influence of the Holy Spirit.
There were poor homes, too, in which Henry was a well-known

visitor; whose presence brought sunshine and comfort, both to soul
and body. He strove to live, not to himself, but for the good of others,
and to the glory of the Master whom he professed to serve. Many
wondered that at thirty years of age he was still unmarried, but this
peep into his inner life will sufficiently explain the reason. He sought
one who would be at least like-minded with himself, and at the same
time his habits and tastes were too refined to admit of
companionship with a partner who lacked these characteristics,
however excellent in other respects.
In Edith Northcote, he found every external charm, and he was now

watching closely, to discover if the still more important qualities were
also to be found in her. He was also watchful over his own conduct,
and, whilst kindness itself towards both the Northcotes, he was most
careful to conceal the deeper interest with which Edith had inspired
him.
Nora, with feminine quick-sightedness, guessed something of what

was in his mind, and joked him about her fair friend.
"You must not be an old bachelor, Henry," she said. "And where
would you find a handsomer wife than Edith?"
"If beauty were all," said he, laughing.
"Beauty is not all with Edith," she replied, warming in defence of her
friend. "She comes of a good stock; her father has abundant means,
if that mattered to you, and the whole family are deservedly
respected. And then how tasteful she is! Her appearance would
adorn any home, even with a master as fastidious as yourself. She
has charming taste, and would be as ornamental as any man could
desire, provided his means were sufficiently large to gratify her
wishes in the way of dress, and Edith is one of the least extravagant
people I know. She combines economy with taste. I only wish I
looked half as well-dressed by spending twice the money. Both she
and Lizzie are splendid housekeepers, too. They have given me
many a hint since they came to London, which I hope to profit by.
What else could a man want?"
"There is still one thing needful, Nora, and I hope to find that in the
girl I ask to be my wife, or I must be an old bachelor."
"I know what you mean, Henry, and if you had asked me whether
Edith possessed it, I should have said, 'She is very dear to me; but I
do not think she is all you mean in that respect.' Lately, I have
noticed a great difference. Not that her words have told much; but
there is a softened manner, an increased thoughtfulness for others. I
can hardly express all I mean; but it seems to me that where Edith
would once have put herself before others, she now puts others
before herself. She used rather to snub Lizzie, too; now she loves to
speak of her sister's good qualities, and of all she, 'stately Edith,'
owes to her influence and example. Lizzie is a good girl all through;
but for all that, Henry, I should love to have Edith in the family."
"Because you like her better; but then you see, to me, it is of
consequence that I should like her better."
Henry left his sister-in-law still in the dark about his feelings towards
her friend; but he was looking forward to seeing Edith when she
should be Nora's guest. The letter from home, however, deranged
his plan. He saw the faces of the sisters pale at the news, and heard
Lizzie's prompt words, as she rose from her seat:
"I must prepare at once. Would it be possible to travel to-night?"
"We must prepare, dear," said Edith. "I do not think we can go to-
night. Indeed, Harold's letter expressly states that there is no danger,
and that papa does not wish us to leave London before the 9.15
train, which is express, and will arrive as soon as the one that starts
earlier. This is an attack similar to others which have tried mamma
so sadly for years, and we must be with her as soon as possible."
"Could I not go, Edie, and leave you to finish your visit to Nora, as
we had arranged? If there were the least sign of danger you should
be sent for."
"That is like you, Lizzie, to take the watching and anxiety, and wish to
leave me the pleasure. Of course, I had reckoned on my visit to
Nora; but it must not be thought of now. We must go together, dear;
though," she added, "Lizzie is worth twice as much in a sick-room as
I am."
The words were simply said, but they touched Henry Martin deeply;
and his sister replied to them: "We shall be very sorry to lose you
both, and are specially sorry for the cause of your going. But I trust
Mrs. Northcote may soon recover her strength, and then we shall
look forward to a still longer visit, and from Lizzie as well as yourself,
Edith."
Henry himself added, "You are right to go with your sister, Miss
Northcote. Now, would you like to send a telegram to your brother?"
"I should indeed."

"Tell me the exact address and the message you wish conveyed,
and I will take it myself."
Edith did so, and Henry put it into few words, read it aloud, and then
took it to the office.
The girls lost no time in making their preparations, and on the

following morning were speeding on their homeward way. Early as it
was, Henry Martin was at the Great Northern station to see them
start, and to bring another farewell from Nora, and a request for
immediate intelligence of their arrival and frequent news of Mrs.
Northcote.
It had cost Edith something to give up the visit to Mrs. Martin, on

which she had reckoned so much; for old habits, particularly selfish
ones, are not to be rooted out all at once. Only a very short time
before, she would have hesitated and considered if it were possible
for her to send Lizzie home alone, and for herself to follow a little
later.
Happily, Lizzie's prompt example and the voice of conscience

pointed out the proper course; and the strength to do right for which
she had asked on her knees was given her. And now, as the train
was carrying her rapidly homeward, Edith felt happy, apart from the
anxiety on account of her mother; for conscience spoke approvingly,
and the words of one whose approbation she had learned to value,
"You are right to go with your sister," still seemed to sound in her ear.
Mamma paused, then added, "I shall finish my story to-morrow,

children; but I must leave you now."
"We can guess the ending," interposed Madge; and the others
nodded, in a confident fashion, as if they, too, knew all about it.
"And we know what two lives were influenced as regarded their

future by that penny."
Mamma only laughed, and saying, "Do not be too sure," retreated
without further comment.
CHAPTER V.
WHEN the sisters arrived at home they were doubly thankful that
they had lost no time in setting out. They found Mrs. Northcote's
illness was of a much more serious character than the letter had led
them to anticipate. The filial love and self-devotion of both the girls
would be tested to the utmost, and it must be owned that Mr.
Northcote and his sons doubted much whether these qualities in
Edith's case would stand the strain.
But soon all who were in the house, and none more than the invalid
mother, became sensible of the change that had begun in the elder
daughter. Perhaps nothing tries the mettle that the young are made
of more than sickness in a house. When not actually engaged in
attendance on the sufferer, there is the unnatural quiet in the home,
the necessity for excluding visitors, abstaining from outdoor social
intercourse, and the impossibility of indulging in the usual merry
games. The burst of song which springs to the young lips must be
hushed, the piano remain closed, for fear of disturbing the invalid.
Even the innocent jest, which might provoke a laugh, is suppressed;
because laughter has a heartless sound when pain shuts out those
we love from sharing in it.
At first Edith found all these things hard to bear with perfect
submission. But she loved her mother, and love is all-constraining.
Lizzie and she acted in a delightful concert, which none had ever

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Higher Gradient Materials and Related

Generalized Continua Holm Altenbach

Mechanics for Materials and Technologies 1st Edition

Multiscale Solid Mechanics: Strength, Durability, and

Advances in Mechanics of Materials and Structural

Shell-like Structures: Advanced Theories and

Analysis of Shells Plates and Beams A State of the Art

Varieties of Continua: From Regions to Points and Back

Understanding Statistics 1st Edition Sture Holm

Local Gradient Theory for Dielectrics Fundamentals and

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8611

Bilen Emek Abali

Higher Gradient Materials

Bilen Emek Abali

ISSN 1869-8433 ISSN 1869-8441 (electronic)

Berlin, Magdeburg Holm Altenbach

1 A Computational Approach for Determination of Parameters in

3 On the Characterization of the Nonlinear Reduced Micromorphic

6 A C1 Incompatible Mode Element Formulation for Strain Gradient

6.2 From Local Balance of Momentum to Minimization of the

8 From Generalized Theories of Media with Fields of Defects

9.6.1 Presentations of the System of Motion Equations

10.5 Classical Material with an Anisotropy Symbol {1,1,2,2}

Bilen Emek Abali

Bilen Emek Abali, Hua Yang, and Panayiotis Papadopoulos

Abstract Metamaterials are functionalized by specifying a structure at a micro-

Keywords: Parameter determination · Material modeling · Inverse analysis · Finite

Homogenization is an approach to include the eﬀects in another time or length scale.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

from a homogenization approach. Homogenization links two diﬀerent physics and

In this work we concentrate on an innovative method for determining all addi-

1.2 Homogenization Between Micro- and Macroscales

Fig. 1.1 Homogenization

systems in this investigation. Two diﬀerent cases are demonstrated: heterogeneous

1.3 Determination of Parameters

additionally the following relations based on symmetric strain

we refer to Appendix of Abali et al (2015) for their derivation. The parameters

with the coeﬃcient matrix A and right hand side R as follows:

By deﬁning 7 cases, we acquire Ac = R with A of rank 7 leading to unique deter-

1.4 Computation of One Speciﬁc Case

1.5 Algorithm for All Deformation Cases

Algorithm 1: Determination of cα parameters

input : Substructure and material properties at the microscale, homogenized displacement

The necessary seven cases are compiled as follows:

For demonstrating the algorithm in action, we have exploited open-source packages

Fig. 1.2 Inner substructure

at the microscale; leading to the usual Lame parameters:

with the isotropic linear Hooke’s law:

E = 100 GPa , ν = 0.3 ∀x ∈ Ω Ma ,

"Can't help it. Ticket's fourpence," was the sullen reply.

Glancing along the platform, Lizzie saw a lady and a gentleman

To Lizzie's utter astonishment, the lady turned on her a hard,

His companion did not hesitate long.

After another searching look, first at Lizzie, then at her husband,

At this crisis of the story there was a unanimous burst of indignation

"Absolutely true," replied mamma.

"I am sure of that," said mamma.

We will go back twenty years, and to Lizzie Northcote. I think I only