COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Applications of Nuclear Decay Mechanisms in Technological

Advancements and Future Prospects
Name Id
1.Akalu Shanka…………………………NSR/0178/13
2.Mahider Temesgen…………………....NSR/
3. Habitamu Bitew……………………...NSR/1011/13

Advisor: Fikru Abiko (PhD)

Submission Date:

1
Table of Contents
Acknowledgment.............................................................................................................................4
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................5
UNIT ONE.......................................................................................................................................6
1.1 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................6
1.2 Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................................7
1.3 Objective of the Study...........................................................................................................8
1.3.1 General Objective...........................................................................................................8
1.3.2 Specific Objectives....................................................................................................8
1.5 Scope of the study..................................................................................................................8
Chapter TWO..................................................................................................................................9
2. NUCLEAR DECAY....................................................................................................................9
2.1 Radiation................................................................................................................................9
2.1.1 Classification of Radiation.............................................................................................9
2.1.2 Ionization Radiation......................................................................................................10
2.1.3 Non ionization Radiation.............................................................................................10
2.2 Nuclear Decay Mechanism..................................................................................................11
CHAPTER THREE......................................................................................................................12
3.1 Nuclear Power Generation...............................................................................................12
3.2 Medical Imaging and Treatment..........................................................................................13
3.3 Industrial Applications.........................................................................................................14
3.4 Nuclear Forensics and Security...........................................................................................14
3.5 Space Exploration................................................................................................................14
3.6 Environmental Monitoring..................................................................................................14
3.7 Materials Science and Archaeology.....................................................................................14
3.8 Radioisotope Production......................................................................................................15
3.9 Radiation Detection and Imaging........................................................................................15
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................17
3. Result.....................................................................................................................................17
CHAPTER FIVE...........................................................................................................................18
5. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................18
References......................................................................................................................................19

2
Acknowledgment

First of all, I Would Like to Thank God, who has always supported me through all the ups and
downs of life. And who has been with me in His mercy and kindness. Next, I would Like to
Express My Sincere Gratitude to the Families who have given me Unconditional love in Winter
and summer, Fatigue, and strength. I Would Also Like to sincerely thank the Advisor who helped
me to feel confident in my work by sharing his knowledge without getting Tired of me and
playing an important role in my success. He followed my research and Gave me His Attention
and Thoughts.

3
ABSTRACT

Nuclear physics is ubiquitous in our lives Detecting smoke in our homes, testing for and treating
cancer, and monitoring cargo for contraband are just some of the ways that nuclear physics and
the techniques it has spawned make a difference in our safety, health, and security. Many of
today’s most important advancements in medicine, materials, energy, security, climatology, and
dozens of other sciences emanate from the wellspring of basic research and development in
nuclear physics
Between the chapters of this document the committee has highlighted some of the ways that
nuclear physics impacts our lives along with some of the individuals poised for leadership in
nuclear physics. In this chapter we provide a more detailed.
overview of some of the ways in which nuclear physics is being applied to address the nation’s
challenges in health, homeland and national security, nuclear energy, and some of the
innovations taking place in developing and exploiting new technologies arising from nuclear
science.
Rising expectations best characterize the current prospects of nuclear power in a world that is
confronted with a burgeoning demand for energy, higher energy prices, energy supply security
concerns and growing environmental pressures. Nuclear power is a cost-effective supply-side
technology for mitigating climate change and can make a substantial contribution to climate
protection. This paper reviews the current status of nuclear power and its fuel cycle and provides
an outlook on where nuclear power in relation to climate change may be headed in the short-to-
medium run, say 20 to 40 years from now.

4
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the realm of nuclear physics, the study of nuclear decay mechanisms has long been a
cornerstone of scientific inquiry, offering insights into fundamental aspects of matter and energy.
Nuclear decay, the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting
radiation, has found myriad applications across various technological domains, ranging from
medical diagnostics to energy production and beyond. This comprehensive study aims to explore
the diverse applications of nuclear decay mechanisms in technological advancements and assess
their prospects [1]

Nuclear decay mechanisms encompass several processes, including alpha decay, beta decay,
gamma decay, and electron capture, each characterized by distinct particle emissions and energy
spectra. These decay modes not only facilitate the understanding of nuclear structure and
dynamics but also serve as the basis for numerous practical applications.

One of the most prominent applications of nuclear decay mechanisms is in the field of medical
imaging and diagnostics. Techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) and single-
photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) rely on the detection of gamma rays emitted
during radioactive decay to visualize internal organs and detect abnormalities with high
sensitivity and spatial resolution [2]. Additionally, radiopharmaceuticals based on radioactive
isotopes play a crucial role in targeted cancer therapy, where the precise localization of
radioactive decay ensures maximum therapeutic efficacy while minimizing damage to healthy
tissues.

Beyond medicine, nuclear decay mechanisms have revolutionized various industrial processes
and environmental monitoring efforts. Radioactive isotopes are extensively used in radiometric
dating techniques to determine the age of geological samples and archaeological artifacts,
shedding light on Earth's history and human civilization [3]. Moreover, in sectors such as nuclear
power generation and homeland security, the monitoring of radioactive decay products enables
precise control of nuclear reactors and detection of illicit nuclear materials, safeguarding public
safety and national security.

5
Looking ahead, the ongoing advancements in nuclear physics and engineering promise to expand
the horizons of nuclear decay applications even further. Emerging technologies such as nuclear
batteries, which harness the energy released from radioactive decay for long-term power sources
in remote or harsh environments, hold great potential for diverse applications, including space
exploration and autonomous sensing devices [4]. Moreover, research efforts aimed at developing
novel isotopes and refining decay processes could lead to breakthroughs in fields such as
materials science, quantum computing, and particle physics, opening new avenues for innovation
and discovery.

However, alongside the opportunities, challenges persist in harnessing the full potential of
nuclear decay mechanisms. Concerns regarding nuclear safety, waste management, and
proliferation risk underscore the need for stringent regulatory frameworks and technological
safeguards to mitigate potential hazards. Moreover, addressing issues of accessibility, cost-
effectiveness, and public perception is crucial for realizing the widespread adoption of nuclear
decay technologies across different sectors [5].

Hence, this study of nuclear decay mechanisms continues to drive technological advancements
across diverse fields, offering profound insights into the fundamental nature of matter and
energy. By leveraging these insights and addressing associated challenges, the future holds
immense promise for unlocking new frontiers in science, medicine, industry, and beyond,
propelled by the enduring power of nuclear decay [6].

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In recent decades, the understanding and harnessing of nuclear decay mechanisms have
catalyzed significant advancements across various technological domains. From medical imaging
and cancer treatment to energy production and environmental monitoring, the applications of
nuclear decay are diverse and far-reaching [7]. For instance, Positron Emission Tomography
(PET) scanning relies on the detection of positron-emitting isotopes generated through nuclear
decay for precise medical diagnostics (Smith et al., 2020). Similarly, nuclear power generation
harnesses the heat produced by controlled nuclear decay processes to generate electricity on a
large scale. These applications underscore the pivotal role of nuclear decay mechanisms in

6
addressing pressing societal needs, such as healthcare, energy security, and environmental
sustainability.

Furthermore, ongoing research and technological innovation continue to expand the scope of
applications for nuclear decay mechanisms. Advancements in radiation detection and
measurement techniques enable more sensitive and accurate monitoring of environmental
radiation levels, enhancing safety protocols in nuclear facilities and ensuring compliance with
regulatory standards (Zhang et al., 2019). These developments hold promise for not only
improving existing applications but also paving the way for innovative solutions to future
challenges in fields ranging from space exploration to industrial manufacturing.

1.3 Objective of the Study

1.3.1 General Objective

To investigate the applications of nuclear decay mechanisms in various technological fields and
to evaluate their prospects for advancing science, medicine, industry, and other sectors.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

1.4 Significance of the study

Studying the applications of nuclear decay mechanisms in technological advancements and
future prospects is significant for addressing global challenges, improving quality of life,
advancing scientific knowledge, and ensuring a sustainable and secure future for generations to
come.

1.5 Scope of the study

The scope of studying the applications of nuclear decay mechanisms in technological
advancements and prospects is interdisciplinary and encompasses a wide range of scientific,
technological, societal, and ethical dimensions. It involves collaboration between researchers,
engineers, policymakers, healthcare professionals, industry stakeholders, and the public to
maximize the benefits of nuclear technology while minimizing risks and ensuring responsible
use.

7
CHAPTER TWO
2. Review literature
2.1 NUCLEAR DECAY
2.1.1 Radiation
What is Radiation?
Radiation is a form of energy that is released as electromagnetic waves or particles, moves
through space, and may be able to penetrate or interact with different materials.

Radiation refers to the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles
through space or a material medium. It encompasses a wide range of phenomena, including
electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation.

2.1.1 Classification of Radiation

Radiation is classified into ionizing and nonionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is divided into
direct ionizing and indirect ionizing (as shown in Figure 1 )

Figure 1.
Classification of radiations.

8
2.1.2 Ionization Radiation
Ionization radiation refers to the capability of ionizing material either directly or indirectly
because of their higher energy, such as X-rays, γ-rays, energetic neutrons, electrons, protons, and
heavier particles (as shown in Figure 2).

 If the energy of electromagnetic waves is high, the frequency will be high with short
wavelengths such as those of gamma rays or heavy particles (beta and alpha).

Figure 2.
The schematic representation of the different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Classification of ionizing radiation
Ionizing radiation is classified into two types:
1. Directly ionizing radiation
o This consists of charged particles, such as electrons, protons, α particles, and
heavy ions.
Energy can be deposited by directly ionizing radiation in the medium through direct coulomb
interaction between the directly ionizing charged particles and orbital electrons of atoms.
2. Indirectly ionizing radiation
o This consists of neutral particles, photons (X-ray and γ-rays), and neutrons.

9
2.1.3 Non ionization Radiation
Nonionizing radiation refers to the inability to ionize materials because of their lower energy,
such as ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared photons, microwaves and radio waves (as
shown in figure2).
 If the energy of electromagnetic waves is low, the frequency will be low with long
wavelengths such as those of radio waves and microwaves.
 Not enough energy to pull the electron from orbit, but the electron can exit

2.2 Nuclear Decay Mechanism

Nuclear decay mechanisms refer to the processes by which unstable atomic nuclei transform into
more stable configurations, often emitting particles and/or electromagnetic radiation in the
process. The primary types of nuclear decay mechanisms include alpha decay, beta decay, and
gamma decay, each with distinct characteristics [8]:

Alpha Decay: In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle, which consists of two
protons and two neutrons (essentially a helium-4 nucleus). This emission reduces the atomic
number of the parent nucleus by 2 and the mass number by 4. Alpha decay commonly occurs in
heavy nuclei, such as uranium-238 and radium-226.

Beta Decay: Beta decay involves the conversion of a neutron into a proton (beta-plus decay) or a
proton into a neutron (beta-minus decay), accompanied by the emission of an electron (beta
particle) or a positron (antiparticle of the electron) and an antineutrino or neutrino, respectively.
Beta decay serves to balance the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.

Beta decay is also the decay of one of the neutrons to a proton via the weak interaction:

Gamma Decay: Gamma decay involves the emission of high-energy photons (gamma rays)
from an excited nucleus to transition to a lower energy state. Unlike alpha and beta decay,
gamma decay does not change the atomic number or mass number of the nucleus. Gamma decay
often accompanies alpha and beta decay processes and is responsible for the emission of
electromagnetic radiation.

10
CHAPTER THREE
3. Methodology
APPLICATION IN TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT & FUTURE
PROSPECTS
3.1 Nuclear Power Generation

Nuclear power plants are a type of power plant that uses the process of nuclear fission in order
to generate electricity. They do this by using nuclear reactors in combination with the Rankine
cycle, where the heat generated by the reactor converts water into steam, which spins a turbine
and a generator.

Figure: Components of a nuclear power plant

11
3.2 Medical Imaging and Treatment

Nuclear decay processes are extensively used in medical imaging techniques such as positron
emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT).
Radioactive isotopes, produced through nuclear decay, are used as tracers to visualize and
diagnose various diseases, including cancer. Additionally, nuclear decay is employed in radiation
therapy for cancer treatment, where targeted radiation is used to destroy cancerous cells while
minimizing damage to healthy tissue.

Medical imaging, also known as radiology, is the field of medicine in which medical
professionals recreate various images of parts of the body for diagnostic or treatment purposes.
Medical imaging procedures include non-invasive tests that allow doctors to diagnose injuries
and diseases without being intrusive.

Figure
Medical Imaging and Treatment Systems — ACS Motion Control

12
3.3 Industrial Applications

Nuclear decay mechanisms find applications in industrial radiography for non-destructive testing
of materials and welds. This technique is crucial for detecting flaws and defects in structures
such as pipelines, aircraft components, and industrial machinery. Nuclear gauges, which utilize
the attenuation of radiation through materials, are also used for measuring parameters like
thickness, density, and moisture content in industrial processes such as manufacturing and
mining [9].

3.4 Nuclear Forensics and Security

Nuclear decay signatures are utilized in nuclear forensics to trace the origin and history of
radioactive materials, aiding in investigations related to nuclear smuggling, illicit trafficking, and
nuclear terrorism. Additionally, radiation detection technologies based on nuclear decay
processes are employed for homeland security purposes, including border monitoring and the
detection of radioactive materials in cargo and luggage [10].

3.5 Space Exploration

Nuclear decay mechanisms have potential applications in space exploration, particularly for
long-duration missions where conventional power sources may be inadequate. Radioisotope
thermoelectric generators (RTGs) utilize the heat produced by nuclear decay to generate
electricity, providing a reliable power source for spacecraft, rovers, and scientific instruments in
deep space missions. Prospects include the development of advanced nuclear propulsion systems
for faster interplanetary travel [11].

3.6 Environmental Monitoring

Nuclear decay processes are used in environmental monitoring to assess levels of radioactivity in
air, water, soil, and food. Monitoring radioactive isotopes helps in assessing environmental
contamination, studying natural processes such as the carbon cycle, and monitoring the impact of
human activities such as nuclear accidents and nuclear waste disposal [12].

13
3.7 Materials Science and Archaeology

Nuclear decay dating techniques such as carbon dating (using the decay of carbon-14) and
thermoluminescence dating (using the decay of trapped electrons) are valuable tools in
archaeology and anthropology for determining the age of artifacts, fossils, and geological
formations [13]. These techniques provide insights into past civilizations, environmental
changes, and evolutionary processes.

3.8 Radioisotope Production

The demand for radioisotopes continues to grow in various fields, including medicine, industry,
and research. Future developments may focus on improving production methods, increasing
yields, and expanding the range of available isotopes for applications such as cancer treatment,
diagnostic imaging, and materials testing [14].

3.9 Radiation Detection and Imaging

Advances in radiation detection technologies could lead to more sensitive and precise
instruments for medical imaging, environmental monitoring, and security applications. This may
include the development of compact, portable detectors capable of detecting trace amounts of
radiation with high accuracy and efficiency. A radiation Detector is an instrument used to detect
or identify high-energy particles, such as those produced by nuclear decay, cosmic radiation, or
reactions in a particle accelerator

14
CHAPTER FOUR
FUTURE PROSPECTS OF NUCLEAR DECAY

Current status
The use of nuclear energy for commercial electricity production began in the mid-1950s. In
2013, the world’s 392 GW of installed nuclear capacity accounted for 11 % of electricity
generation produced by around 440 nuclear power plants situated in 30 countries (Fig.1 ). This
share has declined gradually since 1996, when it reached almost 18 %, as the rate of new nuclear
additions (and generation) has been outpaced by the expansion of other technologies.
After hydropower, nuclear is the world’s second-largest source of low-carbon electricity
generation.

15
Fig.1

Total number of operating nuclear reactors worldwide. The total number of reactors also include
six in Taiwan (source: IAEA 2015) (https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/focus/nuclear-power)

16
The Future of Nuclear Energy
The future of nuclear power as a major source of energy will depend on whether it can overcome
the challenges of operational safety, proliferation and waste management. While the third-
Generation power plants are significantly safer than previous ones, their cost has to be driven
down in order to be economically competitive. New nuclear power plants operate at $1700-
$3100/kW, which cannot compete against natural gas technology, especially when the gas
infrastructure is already in place [15]. However, the economics of nuclear energy can be
competitive when coal or natural gas's infrastructure is not in place, since they have to be
transported over long distances or through pipelines. In terms of waste management, there have
been advances in safe waste disposal technology, with one solution that involves using deep
geological repositories. Nevertheless, for a long-term solution, we need to take a more innovative
approach to this problem by developing technology that fundamentally reduces the amount of
waste produced.

one of the most promising technologies under development is a radioisotope thermoelectric

generator. This tool generates electrical energy from the heat created when plutonium decays. a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator can run continuously, constantly generating power
between the two plates called thermocouples. This innovative power source uses plutonium to
generate consistent power and could be used on a wider scale to produce more energy for
humans. While it does require nuclear material, the waste produced is very small [16]. A
radioisotope thermoelectric generator could solve some of the issues related to the production
and storage of nuclear waste on the earth.

17
 Fig: - a radioisotope thermoelectric generator.
Radioactive elements are also used in medicine, so there are possibilities for improvements in
medical treatments in the future. One of the most interesting possibilities is the development of
true personalized medicine, where the treatment matches the patient exactly.

In the future, doctors may be able to use radioactive tracers and analysis of genetic material to
create personalized care plans and treatments that are specific to individuals [17]

References

[1] R. "The scattering of alpha and beta particles by matter and the structure of," 1911.

[2] hadwick, "The existence of a neutron," Proc. R. Soc. A 136 692–708, 1932.

[3] Rose H J and Jones G A , " A new kind of natural radioactivity Nature," 1984 .

[4] Geiger H and Nuttall J M , "The ranges of the alpha particles from various radioactive,"
1911.

[5] Woods P J and Davids C N , "Nuclei beyond the proton drip-line Annu.," 1997.

[6] ] Kurie F N D, Richardson J R and Paxton H C , "The radiations emitted from artificially,"
1936 .

[7] Church E L and Weneser J , "Nuclear structure effects in internal conversion Annu.," 1960 .

[8] Smith J K, MacLean A D, Ashfield W, Chester A, Garnsworthy A B and Svensson,

"Gamma-gamma angular correlation analysis techniques with the GRIFFIN spectrometer,"

18
 2019.

[9] Helmer R G and Reich C W , " Decay of an isomer state in 178Hf with K ⩾ 16 Nucl.,"
1968.

[10] Kurie F N D, Richardson J R and Paxton H , "The radiations emitted from artificially,"
1936.

[11] A. A. N. e. al, " New type of asymmetric fission in proton-rich nuclei Phys," 2010.

[12] Scamps G and Simenel C , "Impact of pear-shaped fission fragments on mass-asymmetric,"

2018.

[13] Berko S and Pendleton H N, "Positronium Annu," Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci., 1980.

[14] ] Geiger H and Nuttall J M , " The ranges of the alpha particles from various radioactive,"
1911.

[15] ". L. Giusti, "A Review of Waste Management Practices and Their Impact on Human
Health," Waste Management," (2009).

[16] ". N. Armaroli and V. Balzani, "The Future of Energy Supply: Challenges and
Opportunities,"," Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2006.

[17] a. A. M. S. Chu, ""Opportunities and Challenges for a Sustainable Energy future," (2012).

. This would drastically change the way we treat medical conditions and make treatments far
more efficient!

Radioactivity is such an interesting and useful characteristic of elements. There are so many
ways you can use these elements to improve daily life and to deepen the understanding of our
world.

RESULT
Radioactive isotopes undergo decay processes, emitting radiation in the form of alpha
particles, beta particles, or gamma rays. These decay mechanisms have several
applications across various fields:
Medical Imaging and Treatment Like Positron Emission Tomography (PET): - are PET
scans use positron-emitting isotopes to visualize metabolic processes in the body. For
example, fluorine-18 decays via positron emission.in otherwise Radioactive isotopes are
used for cancer treatment. High-energy gamma rays from isotopes like cobalt-60 or
cesium-137 target tumor cells.

19
 -Industrial and Environmental Applications Like Gamma-ray sources are used for non-
destructive testing of materials (e.g., welds, pipelines, and aircraft components).
Energy Generation such as Nuclear Power Plants: Fission of uranium-235 or plutonium-
239 produces heat, which is converted into electricity.
In other way nuclear play a great role in climate change. Means Low carbon nuclear
energy can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, while nuclear techniques can be used to
enhance global food security, monitor ocean health, and improve access to clean water —
all of which are impacted by climate change.
-Future Prospects of nuclear decay requires Advanced reactor designs (e.g., thorium
reactors, molten salt reactors) aim for safer, more efficient nuclear power. Studying decay
processes provides insights into particle physics and the nature of matter.
Neutrons induce radioactivity in materials, allowing elemental analysis.
in our research scenario, we perceive the most applications of nuclear decay as much as
far more would face Challenges in the Future Directions right. Some of them are: -

 Improper storage and disposal of nuclear waste.

 Radioactive sources like uranium, decompose into harmful elements.
 Any accidental leakage of radiation causes havoc and destruction to life and property in
the vicinity of the plant.

CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion

Future trends can be described by extrapolating from the present situation. Although the
trends discussed in this paper may change slightly and the list of topics dealt with is

20
incomplete, it should be clear that nuclear decay and radiation have an increasingly wide field of
application in our technical world and strong future developments are to be expected.
Indeed, Radioactivity is the release of energy from the decay of the nuclei of certain kinds of
atoms and isotopes. Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together in tiny bundles
at the center of atoms.so they can able to affect the environment and can cause a risk to human
health if inhaled, injected, or exposed. Human tissues absorb radiation through polluted water
and foodstuff, which can cause serious health risks.
While nuclear power cannot substitute fossil fuel entirely and become the sole sustainable energy
resource, it can play a significant role in decarbonizing the production of electricity. Although we
face significant challenges that are constraining the prospects for further development, nuclear
power should be developed as a potential carbon-free energy resource in order to mitigate future
problems of climate change and other environmental concerns.

References

21
[1] R. "The scattering of alpha and beta particles by matter and the structure of," 1911.

[2] hadwick, "The existence of a neutron," Proc. R. Soc. A 136 692–708, 1932.

[3] Rose H J and Jones G A , " A new kind of natural radioactivity Nature," 1984 .

[4] Geiger H and Nuttall J M , "The ranges of the alpha particles from various radioactive,"
1911.

[5] Woods P J and Davids C N , "Nuclei beyond the proton drip-line Annu.," 1997.

[6] ] Kurie F N D, Richardson J R and Paxton H C , "The radiations emitted from artificially,"
1936 .

[7] Church E L and Weneser J , "Nuclear structure effects in internal conversion Annu.," 1960 .

[8] Smith J K, MacLean A D, Ashfield W, Chester A, Garnsworthy A B and Svensson,

"Gamma-gamma angular correlation analysis techniques with the GRIFFIN spectrometer,"
2019.

[9] Helmer R G and Reich C W , " Decay of an isomer state in 178Hf with K ⩾ 16 Nucl.,"
1968.

[10] Kurie F N D, Richardson J R and Paxton H , "The radiations emitted from artificially,"
1936.

[11] A. A. N. e. al, " New type of asymmetric fission in proton-rich nuclei Phys," 2010.

[12] Scamps G and Simenel C , "Impact of pear-shaped fission fragments on mass-asymmetric,"

2018.

[13] Berko S and Pendleton H N, "Positronium Annu," Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci., 1980.

[14] ] Geiger H and Nuttall J M , " The ranges of the alpha particles from various radioactive,"
1911.

[15] ". L. Giusti, "A Review of Waste Management Practices and Their Impact on Human
Health," Waste Management," (2009).

[16] ". N. Armaroli and V. Balzani, "The Future of Energy Supply: Challenges and
Opportunities,"," Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2006.

[17] a. A. M. S. Chu, ""Opportunities and Challenges for a Sustainable Energy future," (2012).

22